DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897).--Theological and scientific writer, _b._ at

Stirling, and _ed._ at Edin., he studied for the ministry of the Free

Church. Having a decided scientific bent he gave himself specially to the

study of geology, and made a scientific tour in the Rocky Mountains with

Sir A. Geikie. Some years later he undertook a geological exploration of

Lake Nyassa and the neighbouring country for the African Lakes

Corporation, and brought home a valuable Report. He also _pub._ _Tropical

Africa_, a vivid account of his travels. He became much associated with

the American evangelist, D.L. Moody, and became an extremely effective

speaker on religious subjects, devoting himself specially to young men.

His chief contribution to literature was his _Natural Law in the

Spiritual World_, which had extraordinary popularity. _The Ascent of Man_

was less successful. D. was a man of great personal fascination, and

wrote in an interesting and suggestive manner, but his reasoning in his

scientific works was by no means unassailable.

DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649).--Poet, was descended from a very ancient

family, and through Annabella D., Queen of Robert III., related to the

Royal House. _Ed._ at Edin. Univ., he studied law on the Continent, but

succeeding in 1610 to his paternal estate of Hawthornden, he devoted

himself to poetry. _Tears on the Death of Meliades_ (Prince Henry)

appeared in 1613, and in 1616 _Poems, Amorous, Funerall, Divine, etc._

His finest poem, _Forth Feasting_ (1617), is addressed to James VI. on

his revisiting Scotland. D. was also a prose-writer, and composed a

_History of the Five Jameses, Kings of Scotland from 1423-1524_, and _The

Cypress Grove_, a meditation on death. He was also a mechanical genius,

and patented 16 inventions. D., though a Scotsman, wrote in the classical

English of the day, and was the friend of his principal literary

contemporaries, notably of Ben Jonson, who visited him at Hawthornden, on

which occasion D. preserved notes of his conversations, not always

flattering. For this he has received much blame, but it must be

remembered that he did not _pub._ them. As a poet he belonged to the

school of Spenser. His verse is sweet, flowing, and harmonious. He

excelled as a writer of sonnets, one of which, on _John the Baptist_, has

a suggestion of Milton.

_Life_ by Prof. Masson (1873), _Three Centuries of Scottish Literature_,

Walker, 1893. _Maitland Club_ ed. of _Poems_ (1832).

DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700).--Poet, dramatist, and satirist, was _b._ at

Aldwincle Rectory, Northamptonshire. His _f._, from whom he inherited a

small estate, was Erasmus, 3rd _s._ of Sir Erasmus Driden; his mother was

Mary Pickering, also of good family; both families belonged to the

Puritan side in politics and religion. He was _ed._ at Westminster School

and Trinity Coll., Camb., and thereafter, in 1657, came to London. While

at coll. he had written some not very successful verse. His _Heroic

Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromwell_ (1658) was his first

considerable poem. It was followed, in 1660, by _Astræa Redux_, in honour

of the Restoration. The interval of 18 months had been crowded with

events, and though much has been written against his apparent change of

opinion, it is fair to remember that the whole cast of his mind led him

to be a supporter of _de facto_ authority. In 1663 he _m._ Lady Elizabeth

Howard, _dau._ of the Earl of Berkshire. The Restoration introduced a

revival of the drama in its most debased form, and for many years D. was

a prolific playwright, but though his vigorous powers enabled him to work

effectively in this department, as in every other in which he engaged, it

was not his natural line, and happily his fame does not rest upon his

plays, which are deeply stained with the immorality of the age. His first

effort, _The Wild Gallant_ (1663), was a failure; his next, _The Rival

Ladies_, a tragi-comedy, established his reputation, and among his other

dramas may be mentioned _The Indian Queene_, _Amboyna_ (1673), _Tyrannic

Love_ (1669), _Almanzar and Almahide_ (ridiculed in Buckingham's

_Rehearsal_) (1670), _Arungzebe_ (1675), _All for Love_ (an adaptation of

Shakespeare's _Antony and Cleopatra_) (1678). During the great plague,

1665, D. left London, and lived with his father-in-law at Charleton. On

his return he _pub._ his first poem of real power, _Annus Mirabilis_, of

which the subjects were the great fire, and the Dutch War. In 1668

appeared his _Essay on Dramatic Poetry_ in the form of a dialogue, fine

alike as criticism and as prose. Two years later (1670) he became Poet

Laureate and Historiographer Royal with a pension of £300 a year. D. was

now in prosperous circumstances, having received a portion with his wife,

and besides the salaries of his appointments, and his profits from

literature, holding a valuable share in the King's play-house. In 1671 G.

Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, produced his _Rehearsal_, in ridicule of

the overdone heroics of the prevailing drama, and satirising D. as Mr.

Bayes. To this D. made no immediate reply, but bided his time. The next

years were devoted to the drama. But by this time public affairs were

assuming a critical aspect. A large section of the nation was becoming

alarmed at the prospect of the succession of the Duke of York, and a

restoration of popery, and Shaftesbury was supposed to be promoting the

claims of the Duke of Monmouth. And now D. showed; his full powers. The

first part of _Absalom and Achitophel_ appeared in 1681, in which Charles

figures as "David," Shaftesbury as "Achitophel," Monmouth as "Absalom,"

Buckingham as "Zimri," in the short but crushing delineation of whom the

attack of the _Rehearsal_ was requited in the most ample measure. The

effect; of the poem was tremendous. Nevertheless the indictment against

Shaftesbury for high treason was ignored by the Grand Jury at the Old

Bailey, and in honour of the event a medal was struck, which gave a title

to D.'s next stroke. His _Medal_ was issued in 1682. The success of these

wonderful poems raised a storm round D. Replies were forthcoming in

Elkanah Settle's _Absalom and Achitophel Transposed_, and Pordage's

_Azaria and Hushai_. These compositions, especially Pordage's, were

comparatively moderate. Far otherwise was Shadwell's _Medal of John

Bayes_, one of the most brutal and indecent pieces in the language. D.'s

revenge--and an ample one--was the publication of _MacFlecknoe_, a satire

in which all his opponents, but especially Shadwell, were held up to the

loathing and ridicule of succeeding ages, and others had conferred, upon

them an immortality which, however unenviable, no efforts of their own

could have secured for them. Its immediate effect was to crush and

silence all his assailants. The following year, 1683, saw the publication

of _Religio Laici_ (the religion of a layman). In 1686 D. joined the

Church of Rome, for which he has by some been blamed for time-serving of

the basest kind. On the other hand his consistency and conscientiousness

have by others been as strongly maintained. The change, which was

announced by the publication, in 1687 of _The Hind and the Panther, a

Defence of the Roman Church_, at all events did not bring with it any

worldly advantages. It was parodied by C. Montague and Prior in the _Town

and Country Mouse_. At the Revolution D. was deprived of all his pensions

and appointments, including the Laureateship, in which he was succeeded

by his old enemy Shadwell. His latter years were passed in comparative

poverty, although the Earl of Dorset and other old friends contributed by

their liberality to lighten his cares. In these circumstances he turned

again to the drama, which, however, was no longer what it had been as a

source of income. To this period belong _Don Sebastian_, and his last

play, _Love Triumphant_. A new mine, however, was beginning to be opened

up in the demand for translations which had arisen. This gave D. a new

opportunity, and he produced, in addition to translations from Juvenal

and Perseus, his famous "Virgil" (1697). About the same time appeared

_The Ode for St. Cecilia's Day_, and _Alexander's Feast_, and in 1700,

the year of his death, the _Fables_, largely adaptations from Chaucer and

Boccaccio. In his own line, that of argument, satire, and declamation, D.

is without a rival in our literature: he had little creative imagination

and no pathos. His dramas, which in bulk are the greatest part of his

work, add almost nothing to his fame; in them he was meeting a public

demand, not following the native bent of his genius. In his satires, and

in such poems as _Alexander's Feast_, he rises to the highest point of

his powers in a verse swift and heart-stirring. In prose his style is

clear, strong, and nervous. He seems to have been almost insensible to

the beauty of Nature.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1631, _ed._ Westminster and Camb., became prolific

playwright, _pub._ _Annus Mirabilis_ _c._ 1666, Poet Laureate 1667,

_pub._ _Absalom and Achitophel_ (part 1) 1681, _Medal_ 1682,

_MacFlecknoe_ 1682, _Religio Laici_ 1683, joined Church of Rome 1686,

_pub._ _Hind and Panther_ 1687, deprived of offices and pensions at

Revolution 1688, _pub._ translations including "Virgil" 1697, _St.

Cecilia's Day_ and _Alexander's Feast_ _c._ 1697, and _Fables_ 1700, when

he _d._

Sir W. Scott's ed. with _Life_ 1808, re-edited in 18 vols. by Prof.

Saintsbury (1883-93); Aldine ed. (5 vols., 1892), Johnson's _Lives of the

Poets_, etc.

DUFF, SIR MOUNTSTUART E. GRANT (1829-1906).--Miscellaneous writer, was

M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, and Lieut.-Governor of Madras. He _pub._

_Studies of European Politics_, books on Sir H. Maine, Lord de Tabley,

and Renan, and a series of _Notes from a Diary_, perhaps his most

interesting work.

DUFFERIN, HELEN SELENA (SHERIDAN), COUNTESS OF (1807-1867).--Eldest

_dau._ of Tom S., grand-daughter of Richard Brinsley S. (_q.v._), and

sister of Mrs. Norton (_q.v._). She and her two sisters were known as

"the three Graces," the third being the Duchess of Somerset. She shared

in the family talent, and wrote a good deal of verse, her best known

piece being perhaps _The Lament of the Irish Emigrant_, beginning "I'm

sittin' on the stile, Mary." She also wrote _Lispings from Low Latitudes,

or Extracts from the Journal of the Hon. Impulsia Gushington_, _Finesse,

or a Busy Day at Messina_, etc.

DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN (1816-1903).--Poet, _b._ in Monaghan, early took

to journalism, and became one of the founders of the _Nature_ newspaper,

and one of the leaders of the Young Ireland movement. Thereafter he went

to Australia, where he became a leading politician, and rose to be

Premier of Victoria. His later years were spent chiefly on the Continent.

He did much to stimulate in Ireland a taste for the national history and

literature, started _The Library of Ireland_, and made a collection, _The

Ballad Poetry of Ireland_, which was a great success. He also _pub._ an

autobiography, _My Life in Two Hemispheres_.

DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1686).--Herald and antiquary, was _b._ at

Coleshill, Warwickshire, and _ed._ at Coventry School. From early youth

he showed a strong bent towards heraldic and antiquarian studies, which

led to his appointment, in 1638, as a Pursuivant-extraordinary, from

which he rose to be Garter-King-at-Arms. In 1655, jointly with Roger

Dodsworth, he brought out the first vol. of _Monasticon Anglicanum_ (the

second following in 1661, and the third in 1673), containing the charters

of the ancient monasteries. In 1656 he _pub._ the _Antiquities of

Warwickshire_, which maintains a high place among county histories, and

in 1666 _Origines Judiciales_. His great work, _The Baronage of England_,

appeared in 1675-6. Other works were a _History of Imbanking and

Drayning_, and a _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_. All D.'s writings are

monuments of learning and patient investigation.

DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON (1834-1896).--Artist and

novelist, _b._ and _ed._ in Paris, in 1864 succeeded John Leech on the

staff of _Punch_. His three novels, _Peter Ibbetson_ (1891), _Trilby_

(1894), and _The Martian_ (1896), originally appeared in _Harper's

Magazine_.

DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1465?-1530?).--Poet, is believed to have been _b._ in

Lothian, and _ed._ at St. Andrews, and in his earlier days he was a

Franciscan friar. Thereafter he appears to have been employed by James

IV. in some Court and political matters. His chief poems are _The

Thrissil and the Rois (The Thistle and the Rose_) (1503), _The Dance of

the Seven Deadly Sins_, a powerful satire, _The Golden Targe_, an

allegory, and _The Lament for the Makaris_ (poets) (_c._ 1507). In all

these there is a vein of true poetry. In his allegorical poems he follows

Chaucer in his setting, and is thus more or less imitative and

conventional: in his satirical pieces, and in the _Lament_, he takes a

bolder flight and shows his native power. His comic poems are somewhat

gross. The date and circumstances of his death are uncertain, some

holding that he fell at Flodden, others that he was alive so late as

1530. Other works are _The Merle_ and _The Nightingale_, and the

_Flyting_ (scolding) of Dunbar and Kennedy. Mr. Gosse calls D. "the

largest figure in English literature between Chaucer and Spenser." He has

bright strength, swiftness, humour, and pathos, and his descriptive touch

is vivid and full of colour.

DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN (_c._ 1785-1842).--Historian, _s._ of a Lord Provost

of Glasgow, where and at Edin. he was _ed._, was called to the Bar in

1807, and became Sheriff of Renfrewshire. He wrote a _History of Fiction_

(1814), a _History of Roman Literature to the Augustan Age_ (1823-28),

and _Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II._

(1834). He also made translations from the Latin Anthology.

DUNS, SCOTUS JOHANNES (1265?-1308?).--Schoolman. The dates of his birth

and death and the place of his birth are alike doubtful. He may have been

at Oxf., is said to have been a regent or prof. at Paris, and was a

Franciscan. He was a man of extraordinary learning, and received the

sobriquet of Doctor Subtilis. Among his many works on logic and theology

are a philosophic grammar, and a work on metaphysics, _De Rerum

Principio_ (of the beginning of things). His great opponent was Thomas

Aquinas, and schoolmen of the day were divided into Scotists and

Thomists, or realists and nominalists.

D'URFEY, THOMAS (1653-1723).--Dramatist and song-writer, was a well-known

man-about-town, a companion of Charles II., and lived on to the reign of

George I. His plays are now forgotten, and he is best known in connection

with a collection of songs entitled, _Pills to Purge Melancholy_. Addison

describes him as a "diverting companion," and "a cheerful, honest,

good-natured man." His writings are nevertheless extremely gross. His

plays include _Siege of Memphis_ (1676), _Madame Fickle_ (1677),

_Virtuous Wife_ (1680), and _The Campaigners_ (1698).

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY (1752-1817).--Theologian and poet, _b._ at Northampton,

Mass., was a grandson of Jonathan Edwards, became a Congregationalist

minister, Prof. of Divinity, and latterly Pres. of Yale. His works

include, besides theological treatises and sermons, the following poems,

_America_ (1772), _The Conquest of Canaan_ (1785), and _The Triumph of

Infidelity_, a satire, admired in their day, but now unreadable.

DYCE, ALEXANDER (1798-1869).--Scholar and critic, _s._ of Lieut.-General

Alexander D., was _b._ in Edin., and _ed._ there and at Oxf. He took

orders, and for a short time served in two country curacies. Then,

leaving the Church and settling in London, he betook himself to his

life-work of ed. the English dramatists. His first work, _Specimens of

British Poetesses_, appeared in 1825; and thereafter at various intervals

ed. of Collins's _Poems_, and the dramatic works of _Peele, Middleton,

Beaumont and Fletcher, Marlowe, Greene, Webster_, and others. His great

ed. of _Shakespeare_ in 9 vols. appeared in 1857. He also ed. various

works for the Camden Society, and _pub._ _Table Talk of Samuel Rogers_.

All D.'s work is marked by varied and accurate learning, minute research,

and solid judgment.

DYER, SIR EDWARD (1545?-1607).--Poet, _b._ at Sharpham Park, Somerset,

and _ed._ at Oxf., was introduced to the Court by the Earl of Leicester,

and sent on a mission to Denmark, 1589. He was in 1596 made Chancellor of

the Order of the Garter, and knighted. In his own day he had a reputation

for his elegies among such judges as Sidney and Puttenham. For a long

time there was doubt as to what poems were to be attributed to him, but

about a dozen pieces have now been apparently identified as his. The best

known is that on contentment beginning, "My mind to me a kingdom is."

DYER, JOHN (1700-1758).--Poet, was _b._ in Caermarthenshire. In his early

years he studied painting, but finding that he was not likely to attain a

satisfactory measure of success, entered the Church. He has a definite,

if a modest, place in literature as the author of three poems, _Grongar

Hill_ (1727), _The Ruins of Rome_ (1740), and _The Fleece_ (1757). The

first of these is the best, and the best known, and contains much true

natural description; but all have passages of considerable poetical

merit, delicacy and precision of phrase being their most noticeable

characteristic. Wordsworth had a high opinion of D. as a poet, and

addressed a sonnet to him.

EARLE, JOHN (1601-1665).--Divine and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at York,

and _ed._ at Oxf., where he was a Fellow of Merton. He took orders, was

tutor to Charles II., a member of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster,

1643, Chaplain and Clerk of the Closet to Charles when in exile. On the

Restoration he was made Dean of Westminster, in 1662 Bishop of Worcester,

and the next year Bishop of Salisbury. He was learned and eloquent, witty

and agreeable in society, and was opposed to the "Conventicle" and "Five

Mile" Acts, and to all forms of persecution. He wrote _Hortus

Mertonensis_ (the Garden of Merton) in Latin, but his chief work was

_Microcosmographie, or a Piece of the World discovered in Essays and

Characters_ (1628), the best and most interesting of all the "character"

books.

EASTLAKE, ELIZABETH, LADY (RIGBY) (1809-1893).--_dau._ of Dr. Edward

Rigby of Norwich, a writer on medical and agricultural subjects, spent

her earlier life on the Continent and in Edin. In 1849 she _m._ Sir

Charles L. Eastlake, the famous painter, and Pres. of the Royal Academy.

Her first work was _Letters from the Shores of the Baltic_ (1841). From

1842 she was a frequent contributor to the _Quarterly Review_, in which

she wrote a very bitter criticism of _Jane Eyre_. She also wrote various

books on art, and Lives of her husband, of Mrs. Grote, and of Gibson the

sculptor, and was a leader in society.

ECHARD, LAURENCE (_c._ 1670-1730).--Historian, _b._ at Barsham, Suffolk,

and _ed._ at Camb., took orders and became Archdeacon of Stow. He

translated Terence, part of Plautus, D'Orleans' _History of the

Revolutions in England_, and made numerous compilations on history,

geography, and the classics. His chief work, however, is his _History of

England_ (1707-1720). It covers the period from the Roman occupation to

his own times, and continued to be the standard work on the subject until

it was superseded by translations of Rapin's French _History of England_.

EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849).--Novelist, only child of Richard E., of

Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, was _b._ near Reading. Her _f._, who was

himself a writer on education and mechanics, bestowed much attention on

her education. She showed early promise of distinction, and assisted her

_f._ in his literary labours, especially in _Practical Education_ and

_Essay on Irish Bulls_ (1802). She soon discovered that her strength lay

in fiction, and from 1800, when her first novel, _Castle Rackrent_,

appeared, until 1834, when her last, _Helen_, was _pub._, she continued

to produce a series of novels and tales characterised by ingenuity of

invention, humour, and acute delineation of character. Notwithstanding a

tendency to be didactic, and the presence of a "purpose" in most of her

writings, their genuine talent and interest secured for them a wide

popularity. It was the success of Miss E. in delineating Irish character

that suggested to Sir W. Scott the idea of rendering a similar service to

Scotland. Miss E., who had great practical ability, was able to render

much aid during the Irish famine. In addition to the works above

mentioned, she wrote _Moral Tales_ and _Belinda_ (1801), _Leonora_

(1806), _Tales of Fashionable Life_ (1809 and 1812), and a Memoir of her

_f._

EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1702?-1758).--Theologian, _s._ of a minister, was _b._

at East Windsor, Connecticut, _ed._ at Yale Coll., and licensed as a

preacher in 1722. The following year he was appointed as tutor at Yale, a

position in which he showed exceptional capacity. In 1726 he went to

Northampton, Conn., as minister of a church there, and remained for 24

years, exercising his ministry with unusual earnestness and diligence. At

the end of that time, however, he was in 1750 dismissed by his

congregation, a disagreement having arisen on certain questions of

discipline. Thereafter he acted as a missionary to the Indians of

Massachusetts. While thus engaged he composed his famous treatises, _On

the Freedom of the Will_ (1754), and _On Original Sin_ (1758).

Previously, in 1746, he had produced his treatise, _On the Religious

Affections_. In 1757 he was appointed Pres. of Princeton Coll., New

Jersey, but was almost immediately thereafter stricken with small-pox, of

which he _d._ on March 22, 1757. E. possessed an intellect of

extraordinary strength and clearness, and was capable of sustaining very

lengthened chains of profound argument. He is one of the ablest defenders

of the Calvinistic system of theology, which he developed to its most

extreme positions. He was a man of fervent piety, and of the loftiest and

most disinterested character.

EDWARDS, RICHARD (1523?-1566).--Poet, was at Oxf., and went to Court,

where he was made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and master of the

singing boys. He had a high reputation for his comedies and interludes.

His _Palaman and Arcite_ was acted before Elizabeth at Oxf. in 1566, when

the stage fell and three persons were killed and five hurt, the play

nevertheless proceeding. _Damon and Pythias_ (1577), a comedy, is his

only extant play.

EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849).--Humorist, _b._ in London, he satirised the

Prince Regent in _The Lives of Florizel and Perdita_ (1814), but is best

remembered by _Life in London: or the Day and Night Scenes of Jerry

Hawthorn and his elegant friend, Corinthian Tom_, a collection of

sketches which had great success at the time, and which gives a picture

of the sports and amusements of London in the days of the Regency. It was

illustrated by George Cruikshank.

EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902).--Novelist, _b._ at Vevay, Indiana, was a

Methodist minister. He wrote a number of tales, some of which, specially

the "Hoosier" series, attracted much attention, among which are _The

Hoosier Schoolmaster_, _The Hoosier Schoolboy_, _The End of the World_,

_The Faith Doctor_, _Queer Stories for Boys and Girls_, etc.

"ELIOT, GEORGE," _see_ EVANS.

ELIZABETH, QUEEN (1533-1603).--Was one of the scholar-women of her time,

being versed in Latin, Greek, French, and Italian. Her translation of

Boethius shows her exceptional art and skill. In the classics Roger

Ascham was her tutor. She wrote various short poems, some of which were

called by her contemporaries "sonnets," though not in the true sonnet

form. Her original letters and despatches show an idiomatic force of

expression beyond that of any other English monarch.

ELLIOT, MISS JEAN (1727-1805).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Gilbert Elliot of

Minto, has a small niche in literature as the authoress of the beautiful

ballad, _The Flowers of the Forest_, beginning, "I've heard the lilting

at our yowe-milking." Another ballad with the same title beginning, "I've

seen the smiling of fortune beguiling" was written by Alicia Rutherford,

afterwards Mrs. Cockburn.

ELLIOT, EBENEZER (1781-1849).--Poet, _b._ at Masborough, Yorkshire, in

his youth worked in an iron-foundry, and in 1821 took up the same

business on his own account with success. He is best known by his poems

on behalf of the poor and oppressed, and especially for his denunciations

of the Corn Laws, which gained for him the title of the Corn Law Rhymer.

Though now little read, he had considerable poetic gift. His principal

poems are _Corn Law Rhymes_ (1831), _The Ranter_, and _The Village

Patriarch_ (1829).

ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a West Indian

planter, gained some fame by _Poetical Tales by Sir Gregory Gander_

(1778). He also had a hand in the _Rolliad_, a series of Whig satires

which appeared about 1785. Changing sides he afterwards contributed to

the _Anti-Jacobin_. He accompanied Sir J. Harris on his mission to the

Netherlands, and there _coll._ materials for his _History of the Dutch

Revolution_ (1789). He ed. _Specimens of the Early English Poets_ (1790),

and _Specimens of the Early English Romances_, both works of scholarship.

He was a friend of Scott, who dedicated the fifth canto of _Marmion_ to

him.

ELLWOOD, THOMAS (1639-1713).--A young Quaker who was introduced to Milton

in 1662, and devoted much of his time to reading to him. It is to a

question asked by him that we owe the writing of _Paradise Regained_. He

was a simple, good man, ready to suffer for his religious opinions, and

has left an autobiography of singular interest alike for the details of

Milton's later life, which it gives, and for the light it casts on the

times of the writer. He also wrote _Davideis_ (1712), a sacred poem, and

some controversial works.

ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART (1779-1859).--Fourth _s._ of the 11th Lord E.,

was _ed._ at Edin., and entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1795. He had

a very distinguished career as an Indian statesman, and did much to

establish the present system of government and to extend education. He

was Governor of Bombay (1819-1827), and prepared a code of laws for that

Presidency. In 1829 he was offered, but declined, the position of

Governor-General of India. He wrote a _History of India_ (1841), and _The

Rise of the British Power in the East_, _pub._ in 1887.

ELWIN, WHITWELL (1816-1900).--Critic and editor, _s._ of a country

gentleman of Norfolk, studied at Camb., and took orders. He was an

important contributor to the _Quarterly Review_, of which he became

editor in 1853. He undertook to complete Croker's ed. of Pope, and

brought out 5 vols., when he dropped it, leaving it to be finished by Mr.

Courthope. As an ed. he was extremely autocratic, and on all subjects had

pronounced opinions, and often singular likes and dislikes.

ELYOT, SIR THOMAS (1490-1546).--Diplomatist, physician, and writer, held

many diplomatic appointments. He wrote _The Governor_ (1531), a treatise

on education, in which he advocated gentler treatment of schoolboys, _The

Castle of Health_ (1534), a medical work, and _A Defence of Good Women_

(1545). He also in 1538 _pub._ the first _Latin and English Dictionary_,

and made various translations.

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882).--Philosopher, was _b._ at Boston,

Massachusetts. His _f._ was a minister there, who had become a Unitarian,

and who _d._ in 1811, leaving a widow with six children, of whom Ralph,

then aged 8, was the second. Mrs. E. was, however, a woman of energy, and

by means of taking boarders managed to give all her sons a good

education. E. entered Harvard in 1817 and, after passing through the

usual course there, studied for the ministry, to which he was ordained in

1827, and settled over a congregation in his native city. There he

remained until 1832, when he resigned, ostensibly on a difference of

opinion with his brethren on the permanent nature of the Lord's Supper as

a rite, but really on a radical change of view in regard to religion in

general, expressed in the maxim that "the day of formal religion is

past." About the same time he lost his young wife, and his health, which

had never been robust, showed signs of failing. In search of recovery he

visited Europe, where he met many eminent men and formed a life-long

friendship with Carlyle. On his return in 1834 he settled at Concord, and

took up lecturing. In 1836 he _pub._ _Nature_, a somewhat transcendental

little book which, though containing much fine thought, did not appeal to

a wide circle. _The American Scholar_ followed in 1837. Two years

previously he had entered into a second marriage. His influence as a

thinker rapidly extended, he was regarded as the leader of the

transcendentalists, and was one of the chief contributors to their organ,

_The Dial_. The remainder of his life, though happy, busy, and

influential, was singularly uneventful. In 1847 he paid a second visit to

England, when he spent a week with Carlyle, and delivered a course of

lectures in England and Scotland on "Representative Men," which he

subsequently _pub._ _English Traits_ appeared in 1856. In 1857 _The

Atlantic Monthly_ was started, and to it he became a frequent

contributor. In 1874 he was nominated for the Lord Rectorship of the

Univ. of Glasgow, but was defeated by Disraeli. He, however, regarded his

nomination as the greatest honour of his life. After 1867 he wrote

little. He _d._ on April 27, 1882. His works were _coll._ in 11 vols.,

and in addition to those above mentioned include _Essays_ (two series),

_Conduct of Life_, _Society and Solitude_, _Natural History of

Intellect_, and _Poems_. The intellect of E. was subtle rather than

robust, and suggestive rather than systematic. He wrote down the

intuitions and suggestions of the moment, and was entirely careless as to

whether these harmonised with previous statements. He was an original and

stimulating thinker and writer, and wielded a style of much beauty and

fascination. His religious views approached more nearly to Pantheism than

to any other known system of belief. He was a man of singular elevation

and purity of character.

ERCILDOUN, THOMAS of, or "THOMAS THE RHYMER" (_fl._ 1220-1297).--A

minstrel to whom is ascribed _Sir Tristrem_, a rhyme or story for

recitation. He had a reputation for prophecy, and is reported to have

foretold the death of Alexander III., and various other events.

ERIGENA, or SCOTUS, JOHN (_fl._ 850).--Philosopher, _b._ in Scotland or

Ireland, was employed at the Court of Charles the Bald, King of France.

He was a pantheistic mystic, and made translations from the Alexandrian

philosophers. He was bold in the exposition of his principles, and had

both strength and subtlety of intellect. His chief work is _De Divisione

Naturæ_, a dialogue in which he places reason above authority.

ERSKINE, RALPH (1685-1752).--Scottish Divine and poet, was _b._ near

Cornhill, Northumberland, where his _f._, a man of ancient Scottish

family, was, for the time, a nonconforming minister. He became minister

of Dunfermline, and, with his brother Ebenezer, was involved in the

controversies in the Church of Scotland, which led to the founding of the

Secession Church in 1736. He has a place in literature as the writer of

devotional works, especially for his _Gospel Sonnets_ (of which 25 ed.

had appeared by 1797), and _Scripture Songs_ (1754).

ERSKINE, THOMAS (1788-1870).--Theologian, _s._ of David E., of Linlathen,

to which property he succeeded, his elder brother having _d._ He was

called to the Bar in 1810, but never practised. Having come under

unusually deep religious impressions he devoted himself largely to the

study of theology, and _pub._ various works, including _The Internal

Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion_ (1820), _Unconditional

Freeness of the Gospel_, and _The Spiritual Order_. He was a man of

singular charm of character, and wielded a great influence on the

religious thought of his day. He enjoyed the friendship of men of such

different types as Carlyle, Chalmers, Dean Stanley, and Prévost Paradol.

His _Letters_ were ed. by Dr. W. Hanna (1877-78).

ETHEREGE, SIR GEORGE (1635?-1691).--Dramatist, was at Camb., travelled,

read a little law, became a man-about-town, the companion of Sedley,

Rochester, and their set. He achieved some note as the writer of three

lively comedies, _Love in a Tub_ (1664), _She would if she Could_ (1668),

and _The Man of Mode_ (1676), all characterised by the grossness of the

period. He was sent on a mission to Ratisbon, where he broke his neck

when lighting his guests downstairs after a drinking bout.

EVANS, MARY ANN or MARIAN ("GEORGE ELIOT") (1819-1880).--Novelist, was

_b._ near Nuneaton, Warwickshire, _dau._ of Robert E., land agent, a man

of strong individuality. Her education was completed at a school in

Coventry, and after the death of her mother in 1836, and the marriage of

her elder sister, she kept house for her _f._ until his death in 1849. In

1841 they gave up their house in the country, and went to live in

Coventry. Here she made the acquaintance of Charles Bray, a writer on

phrenology, and his brother-in-law Charles Hennell, a rationalistic

writer on the origin of Christianity, whose influence led her to renounce

the evangelical views in which she had been brought up. In 1846 she

engaged in her first literary work, the completion of a translation begun

by Mrs. Hennell of Strauss's _Life of Jesus_. On her _f.'s_ death she

went abroad with the Brays, and, on her return in 1850, began to write

for the _Westminster Review_, of which from 1851-53 she was

assistant-editor. In this capacity she was much thrown into the society

of Herbert Spencer and George Henry Lewes (_q.v._), with the latter of

whom she in 1854 entered into an irregular connection which lasted until

his death. In the same year she translated Feuerbach's _Essence of

Christianity_, the only one of her writings to which she attached her

real name. It was not until she was nearly 40 that she appears to have

discovered the true nature of her genius; for it was not until 1857 that

_The Sad Fortunes of the Rev. Amos Barton_ appeared in _Blackwood's

Magazine_, and announced that a new writer of singular power had arisen.

It was followed by _Mr. Gilfil's Love Story_ and _Janet's Repentance_,

all three being reprinted as _Scenes from Clerical Life_ (1857); _Adam

Bede_ was _pub._ in 1859, _The Mill on the Floss_, in its earlier

chapters largely autobiographical, in 1860, _Silas Marner_, perhaps the

most artistically constructed of her books, in 1861. In 1860 and 1861 she

visited Florence with the view of preparing herself for her next work,

_Romola_, a tale of the times of Savonarola, which appeared in 1863 in

the _Cornhill Magazine_. _Felix Holt the Radical_ followed in 1866. Miss

E. now for a time abandoned novel-writing and took to poetry, and between

1868 and 1871 produced _The Spanish Gipsy_, _Agatha_, _The Legend of

Jubal_, and _Armgart_. These poems, though containing much fine work, did

not add to her reputation, and in fact in writing them she had departed

from her true vocation. Accordingly, she returned to fiction, and in

_Middlemarch_, which appeared in parts in 1871-72, she was by many

considered to have produced her greatest work. _Daniel Deronda_, which

came out in 1874-76, was greatly inferior, and it was her last novel. In

1878 she _pub._ _The Impressions of Theophrastus Such_, a collection of

miscellaneous essays. In the same year Mr. Lewes _d._, an event which

plunged her into melancholy, which was, however, alleviated by the

kindness of Mr. John Cross, who had been the intimate friend of both L.

and herself, and whom she _m._ in March, 1880. The union was a short one,

being terminated by her death on December 22 in the same year.

George Eliot will probably always retain a high place among writers of

fiction. Her great power lies in the minute painting of character,

chiefly among the lower middle classes, shopkeepers, tradesmen, and

country folk of the Midlands, into whose thoughts and feelings she had an

insight almost like divination, and of whose modes of expression she was

complete mistress. Her general view of life is pessimistic, relieved by a

power of seizing the humorous elements in human stupidity and ill-doing.

There is also, however, much seriousness in her treatment of the phases

of life upon which she touches, and few writers have brought out with

greater power the hardening and degrading effects of continuance in evil

courses, or the inevitable and irretrievable consequences of a wrong act.

Her descriptions of rural scenes have a singular charm.

_Life_, ed. by J.W. Cross (1885-6). Books on her by Oscar Browning, 1890,

and Sir Leslie Stephen (Men of Letters), 1902.

EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706).--Diarist, and miscellaneous writer, was of an

old Surrey family, and was _ed._ at a school at Lewes and at Oxf. He

travelled much on the Continent, seeing all that was best worth seeing in

the way of galleries and collections, both public and private, of which

he has given an interesting account in his _Diary_. He was all his life

a staunch Royalist, and joined the King as a volunteer in 1642, but soon

after repaired again to the Continent. After 1652 he was at home, settled

at Sayes Court, near Deptford, where his gardens were famous. After the

Restoration he was employed in various matters by the Government, but his

lofty and pure character was constantly offended by the manners of the

Court. In addition to his _Diary_, kept up from 1624-1706, and which is

full of interesting details of public and private events, he wrote upon

such subjects as plantations, _Sylva_ (1664), gardening, _Elysium

Britannicum_ (_unpub._), architecture, prevention of smoke in London,

engraving, _Sculptura_ (1662), and he was one of the founders of the

Royal Society, of which he was for a time sec. The dignity and purity of

E'.s character stand forth in strong relief against the laxity of his

times.

EWING, MRS. JULIANA HORATIA (GATTY) (1842-1885).--Writer of children's

stories, _dau._ of Mrs. Alfred Gatty (_q.v._), also a writer for

children. Among her tales, which have hardly been excelled in sympathetic

insight into child-life, and still enjoy undiminished popularity, are: _A

Flat Iron for a Farthing_, _Jackanapes_, _Jan of the Windmill_, _Mrs.

Overtheway's Remembrances_, and _The Story of a Short Life_.

FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863).--Theologian and hymn-writer, was

_b._ at Calverley, Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf., where he came

under the influence of Newman, whom he followed into the Church of Rome.

He wrote various theological treatises, but has a place in literature for

his hymns, which include _The Pilgrims of the Night_, _My God how

wonderful thou art_, and _Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go_.

FABYAN, ROBERT (_d._ 1513).--Chronicler, was _b._ in London, of which he

became an Alderman and Sheriff. He kept a diary of notable events, which

he expanded into a chronicle, which he entitled, _The Concordance of

Histories_. It covers the period from the arrival of Brutus in England to

the death of Henry VII., and deals mainly with the affairs of London. It

was not printed until 1515, when it appeared under the title of _The New

Chronicles of England and France_.

FAIRFAX, EDWARD (1580?-1635).--Translator, natural _s._ of Sir Thomas F.,

lived at Fuystone, near Knaresborough, in peace and prosperity. His

translation of Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_, on which his fame is

founded, is a masterpiece, one of the comparatively few translations

which in themselves are literature. It was highly praised by Dryden and

Waller. The first ed. appeared in 1600, and was dedicated to Queen

Elizabeth. F. also wrote a treatise on _Demonology_, in which he was a

devout believer.

FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-1769).--Poet, _s._ of a barber in Edin., where he

was _b._, became a sailor, and was thus thoroughly competent to describe

the management of the storm-tossed vessel, the career and fate of which

are described in his poem, _The Shipwreck_ (1762), a work of genuine,

though unequal, talent. The efforts which F. made to improve the poem in

the successive ed. which followed the first were not entirely

successful. The work gained for him the patronage of the Duke of York,

through whose influence he obtained the position of purser on various

warships. Strangely enough, his own death occurred by shipwreck. F. wrote

other poems, now forgotten, besides a useful _Nautical Dictionary_.

FANSHAWE, CATHERINE MARIA (1765-1834).--Poetess, _dau._ of a Surrey

squire, wrote clever occasional verse. Her best known production is the

famous _Riddle on the Letter H_, beginning "'Twas whispered in heaven,

'twas muttered in hell" often attributed to Lord Byron.

FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD (1608-1666).--Diplomatist, translator, and poet,

_b._ at Ware Park, Herts, and _ed._ at Camb., travelled on the Continent,

and when the Civil War broke out sided with the King and was sent to

Spain to obtain money for the cause. He acted as Latin Sec. to Charles

II. when in Holland. After the Restoration he held various appointments,

and was Ambassador to Portugal and Spain successively. He translated

Guarini's _Pastor Fido_, _Selected Parts of Horace_, and _The Lusiad_ of

Camoens. His wife, _née_ Anne Harrison, wrote memoirs of her own life.

FARADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867).--Natural philosopher, _s._ of a blacksmith,

was _b._ in London, and apprenticed to a book-binder. He early showed a

taste for chemistry, and attended the lectures of Sir H. Davy (_q.v._),

by whom he was, in 1813, appointed his chemical assistant in the Royal

Institution. He became one of the greatest of British discoverers and

popularisers of science, his discoveries being chiefly in the department

of electro-magnetism. He had an unusual power of making difficult

subjects clearly understood. Among his writings are _History of the

Progress of Electro-Magnetism_ (1821), _The Non-metallic Elements_, _The

Chemical History of a Candle_, and _The Various Forces in Nature_. F. was

a man of remarkable simplicity and benevolence of character, and deeply

religious.

FARMER, RICHARD (1735-1797).--Shakespearian scholar, _b._ at Leicester,

and _ed._ at Camb., where he ultimately became Master of Emanuel Coll. He

wrote an _Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare_ (1767), in which he

maintained that Shakespeare's knowledge of the classics was through

translations, the errors of which he reproduced. It is a production of

great ability. F. was a clergyman, and held a prebend in St. Paul's.

FARQUHAR, GEORGE (1678-1707).--Dramatist, _b._ at Londonderry, _s._ of a

clergyman, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, on leaving which he took

to the stage, but had no great success as an actor. This, together with

an accident in which he wounded a fellow-actor with a sword, led to his

relinquishing it, and giving himself to writing plays instead of acting

them. Thereafter he joined the army. _Love and a Bottle_ (1698) was his

first venture, and others were _The Constant Couple_ (1700), _Sir Harry

Wildair_ (1701), _The Inconstant_ (1703), _The Recruiting Officer_

(1706), and _The Beau's Stratagem_ (1707). F.'s plays are full of wit and

sparkle and, though often coarse, have not the malignant pruriency of

some of his predecessors. He made an unfortunate marriage, and _d._ in

poverty.

FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1903).--Theological writer, _b._ in

Bombay, and _ed._ at London Univ. and Camb., was for some years a master

at Harrow, and from 1871-76 Head Master of Marlborough School. He became

successively Canon of Westminster and Rector of St. Margaret's,

Archdeacon of Westminster and Dean of Canterbury. He was an eloquent

preacher and a voluminous author, his writings including stories of

school life, such as _Eric_ and _St. Winifred's_, a _Life of Christ_,

which had great popularity, a _Life of St. Paul_, and two historical

romances.

FAWCETT, HENRY (1833-1884).--Statesman and economist, _b._ at Salisbury,

and _ed._ at Camb., where he became Fellow of Trinity Hall. In 1858 he

was blinded by a shooting accident, in spite of which he continued to

prosecute his studies, especially in economics, and in 1863 _pub._ his

_Manual of Political Economy_, becoming in the same year Prof. of

Political Economy in Camb. Having strong political views he desired to

enter upon a political career, and after repeated defeats was elected

M.P. for Brighton. He soon attained a recognised position, devoting

himself specially to parliamentary reform and Indian questions, and was

in 1880 appointed Postmaster-General, in which office he approved himself

a capable administrator. His career was, however, cut short by his

premature death, but not before he had made himself a recognised

authority on economics, his works on which include _The Economic Position

of the British Labourer_ (1871), _Labour and Wages_, etc. In 1867 he _m._

Miss Millicent Garrett, a lady highly qualified to share in all his

intellectual interests, and who collaborated with him in some of his

publications. There is a life of him by Sir L. Stephen.

FAWKES, FRANCIS (1721-1777).--Poet and translator, _b._ near Doncaster,

and _ed._ at Camb., after which he took orders. He translated Anacreon,

Sappho, and other classics, modernised parts of the poems of Gavin

Douglas, and was the author of the well-known song, _The Brown Jug_, and

of two poems, _Bramham Park_ and _Partridge Shooting_.

FELTHAM, OWEN (1602?-1668).--Religious writer, author of a book entitled

_Resolves, Divine, Moral, and Political_ (_c._ 1620), containing 146

short essays. It had great popularity in its day. Though sometimes stiff

and affected in style, it contains many sound, if not original or

brilliant, reflections, and occasional felicities of expression. F. was

for a time in the household of the Earl of Thomond as chaplain or sec.,

and _pub._ (1652), _Brief Character of the Low Countries_.

FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730).--Poet and translator, _ed._ at Camb., for a

time acted as sec. to the Earl of Orrery in Flanders, and was then Master

of Sevenoaks Grammar School. In 1707 he _pub._ a book of poems. He is

best known, however, as the assistant of Pope in his translation of the

_Odyssey_, of which he Englished the first, fourth, nineteenth, and

twentieth books, catching the manner of his master so completely that it

is hardly possible to distinguish between their work; while thus engaged

he _pub._ (1723) a successful tragedy, _Marianne_. His latest

contributions to literature were a _Life of Milton_, and an ed. of

_Waller's Poems_ (1729).

FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816).--Philosopher and historian, _s._ of the

parish minister of Logierait, Perthshire, studied at St. Andrews and

Edin. Univ., in the latter of which he was successively Professor of

Mathematics, and Moral Philosophy (1764-1785). As a young man he was

chaplain to the 42nd Regiment, and was present at the Battle of Fontenoy.

In 1757 he was made Keeper of the Advocates' Library. As a Prof. of

Philosophy he was highly successful, his class being attended by many

distinguished men no longer students at the Univ. In 1778-9 he acted as

sec. to a commission sent out by Lord North to endeavour to reach an

accommodation with the American colonists. F.'s principal works are

_Essay on the History of Civil Society_ (1765), _Institutes of Moral

Philosophy_ (1769), _History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman

Republic_ (1782), and _Principles of Moral and Political Science_ (1792),

all of which have been translated into French and German. F. spent his

later years at St. Andrews, where he _d._ in 1816 at the age of 92. He

was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott. The French philosopher Cousin

gave F. a place above all his predecessors in the Scottish school of

philosophy.

FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886).--Poet and antiquary, _b._ at Belfast,

the _s._ of parents of Scottish extraction, he was _ed._ at Trinity

Coll., Dublin, from which he received in 1865 the honorary degree of

LL.D. He practised with success as a barrister, became Q.C. in 1859, and

Deputy Keeper of the Irish Records 1867, an appointment in which he

rendered valuable service, and was knighted in 1878. He was a contributor

to _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which appeared his best known poem, _The

Forging of the Anchor_, and was one of the chief promoters of the Gaelic

revival in Irish literature. His _coll._ poems appeared under the title

of _Lays of the Western Gael_ (1865), _Congal, an epic poem_ (1872), and

his prose tales posthumously (1887), as _Hibernian Nights'

Entertainments_. His principal antiquarian work was _Ogham Inscriptions

in Ireland, Wales, and Scotland_.

FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886).--Writer on architecture, _b._ at Ayr, was

engaged in commercial pursuits in India, where he became interested in

the architecture of the country, and _pub._ his first work, _Picturesque

Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in Hindustan_ (1840), which was

followed by _An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in

Art_ (1849), and _A History of Architecture in all Countries from the

Earliest Times to the Present Day_ (1865-67). He also wrote _Fire and

Serpent Worship_, etc., and a book on the use of earthworks in

fortification.

FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774).--Scottish poet, _s._ of a bank clerk, was

_ed._ at the Univ. of St. Andrews. His _f._ dying, he became a copying

clerk in an Edin. lawyer's office. Early displaying a talent for humorous

descriptive verse, he contributed to _Ruddiman's Weekly Magazine_, then

the principal Scottish receptacle for fugitive poetry. His verses,

however, attracted attention by their merit, and he _pub._ some of them

in a _coll._ form. Unfortunately he fell into dissipated habits, under

which his delicate constitution gave way, and he _d._ insane in his 24th

year. His poems influenced Burns, who greatly admired them.

FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864).--Metaphysician, _b._ in Edin., and

_ed._ there and at Oxf., he was called to the Scottish Bar in 1832, but

devoted himself to literature and philosophy. In 1842 he was appointed

Prof. of History in Edin., and in 1845 translated to the Chair of Moral

Philosophy and Political Economy at St. Andrews. He _pub._ in 1854

_Institutes of Metaphysics_, and ed. the _coll._ works of his

father-in-law, Prof. Wilson ("Christopher North.")

FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTOUNE (1782-1854).--Novelist, _dau._ of James F.,

one of the principal clerks of the Court of Session, in which office he

was the colleague of Sir Walter Scott. Miss F. wrote three excellent

novels, _Marriage_ (1818), _The Inheritance_ (1824), and _Destiny_

(1831), all characterised by racy humour and acute character-painting.

Her cheerful and tactful friendship helped to soothe the last days of Sir

W. Scott.

FIELD, NATHANIEL (1587-1633).--Dramatist and actor, was one of "the

children of the Queen's Revels," who performed in Ben Jonson's _Cynthia's

Revels_ in 1600. He wrote _A Woman's a Weathercock_ (1612), _Amends for

Ladies_ (1618), and (with Massinger) _The Fatal Dowry_ (1632).

FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754).--Novelist, was _b._ at Sharpham Park, near

Glastonbury. His father was General Edmund F., descended from the Earls

of Denbigh and Desmond, and his mother was the _dau._ of Sir Henry Gould

of Sharpham Park. His childhood was spent at East Stour, Dorset, and his

education was received at first from a tutor, after which he was sent to

Eton. Following a love affair with a young heiress at Lyme Regis he was

sent to Leyden to study law, where he remained until his _f._, who had

entered into a second marriage, and who was an extravagant man, ceased to

send his allowance. Thrown upon his own resources, he came to London and

began to write light comedies and farces, of which during the next few

years he threw off nearly a score. The drama, however, was not his true

vein, and none of his pieces in this kind have survived, unless _Tom

Thumb_, a burlesque upon his contemporary playwrights, be excepted. About

1735 he _m._ Miss Charlotte Cradock, a beautiful and amiable girl to

whom, though he gave her sufficient cause for forbearance, he was

devotedly attached. She is the prototype of his "Amelia" and "Sophia."

She brought him £1500, and the young couple retired to East Stour, where

he had a small house inherited from his mother. The little fortune was,

however, soon dissipated; and in a year he was back in London, where he

formed a company of comedians, and managed a small theatre in the

Haymarket. Here he produced successfully _Pasquin, a Dramatic Satire on

the Times_, and _The Historical Register for 1736_, in which Walpole was

satirised. This enterprise was brought to an end by the passing of the

Licensing Act, 1737, making the _imprimatur_ of the Lord Chamberlain

necessary to the production of any play. F. thereupon read law at the

Middle Temple, was called to the Bar in 1740, and went the Western

Circuit. The same year saw the publication of Richardson's _Pamela_,

which inspired F. with the idea of a parody, thus giving rise to his

first novel, _Joseph Andrews_. As, however, the characters, especially

Parson Adams, developed in his hands, the original idea was laid aside,

and the work assumed the form of a regular novel. It was _pub._ in 1742,

and though sharing largely in the same qualities as its great successor,

_Tom Jones_, its reception, though encouraging, was not phenomenally

cordial. Immediately after this a heavy blow fell on F. in the death of

his wife. The next few years were occupied with writing his

_Miscellanies_, which contained, along with some essays and poems, two

important works, _A Journey from this World to the Next_, and _The

History of Jonathan Wild the Great_, a grave satire; and he also

conducted two papers in support of the Government, _The True Patriot_ and

_The Jacobite Journal_, in consideration of which he was appointed

Justice of the Peace for Middlesex and Westminster, and had a pension

conferred upon him. In 1746 he set convention at defiance by marrying

Mary MacDaniel, who had been his first wife's maid, and the nurse of his

children, and who proved a faithful and affectionate companion. F. showed

himself an upright, diligent, and efficient magistrate, and his _Inquiry

into the Increase of Robbers_ (1751), with suggested remedies, led to

beneficial results. By this time, however, the publication of his great

masterpiece, _The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling_ (1749), had given

him a place among the immortals. All critics are agreed that this book

contains passages offensive to delicacy, and some say to morality. This

is often excused on the plea of the coarser manners of the age; but a

much stronger defence is advanced on the ground that, while other

novelists of the time made immorality an incentive to merriment, F.'s

treatment of such subjects, as Lowell has said, "shocks rather than

corrupts," and that in his pages evil is evil. On the other hand, there

is universal agreement as to the permanent interest of the types of

character presented, the profound knowledge of life and insight into

human nature, the genial humour, the wide humanity, the wisdom, and the

noble and masculine English of the book. His only other novel, _Amelia_,

which some, but these a small minority, have regarded as his best, was

_pub._ in 1751. His health was now thoroughly broken, and in 1753, as a

forlorn hope, he went in search of restoration to Lisbon, where he _d._

on October 8, and was buried in the English cemetery. His last work was a

_Journal_ of his voyage. Though with many weaknesses and serious faults,

F. was fundamentally a man of honest and masculine character, and though

improvident and reckless in his habits, especially in earlier life, he

was affectionate in his domestic relations, and faithful and efficient in

the performance of such public duties as he was called to discharge.

Thackeray thus describes his appearance, "His figure was tall and

stalwart, his face handsome, manly, and noble-looking; to the last days

of his life he retained a grandeur of air and, though worn down by

disease, his aspect and presence imposed respect upon people round about

him."

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1707, _ed._ Eton, studied law at Leyden, came to London

and wrote dramas, called to Bar 1740, _pub._ _Joseph Andrews_ 1742,

became journalist, appointed a magistrate for Middlesex, etc., and _pub._

_Inquiry into Increase of Robbers_ 1751, _pub._ _Tom Jones_ 1749,

_Amelia_ 1751, _d._ at Lisbon 1754.

His works are included in Ballantyne's Novelists' Library with a

biography by Scott (1821). An ed. in 10 vols. with a study by L. Stephen

was _pub._ by Smith, Elder and Co. (1882); another in 12 vols. by Prof.

Saintsbury, Dent and Co. (1893), and various others. There are various

Lives by Watson (1807). Lawrence (1855), and A. Dobson (Men of Letters,

1883).

FIELDING, SARAH (1710-1768).--Novelist, was the sister of the above, who

had a high opinion of her talents. She wrote several novels, including

_David Simple_ (1744), _The Governess_, and _The Countess_ of _Dellwyn_.

She also translated Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ and _Apologia_ (1762).

FILMER, SIR ROBERT (_d._ 1653?).--Political writer, _s._ of Sir Edward

F., of East Sutton, Kent, was _ed._ at Camb. He was an enthusiastic

Royalist, was knighted by Charles I. and, in 1671, was imprisoned in

Leeds Castle, Kent. He is notable as the defender, in its most extreme

form, of the doctrine of the divine right of kings, which he expounded in

a succession of works, of which the latest and best known, _Patriarcha_,

appeared in 1679. His theory is founded on the idea that the government

of a family by the father is the original and method of all government.

His doctrines were afterwards attacked by Locke in his _Treatise on

Government_. He was opposed to the persecution of old women for supposed

witchcraft.

FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875).--Historian, of Scottish descent, was _b._ at

Faversham, Kent, where his _f._, an officer in the army, was inspector of

government powder mills. Intended for the law, he was _ed._ at Glasgow,

Göttingen, and Edin., but becoming an enthusiast in the cause of Greece,

he joined Byron in the war of independence, and thereafter bought a

property near Athens, where he settled and busied himself with schemes

for the improvement of the country, which had little success. His

_History of Greece_, produced in sections between 1843 and 1861, did not

at first receive the recognition which its merits deserved, but it has

since been given by students in all countries, and specially in Germany,

a place among works of permanent value, alike for its literary style and

the depth and insight of its historical views. It was re-issued in 1877

as _A History of Greece from the Roman Conquest to the Present Time_ (146

B.C. _to_ 1864).

FISHER, JOHN (_c._ 1469-1535).--Controversialist and scholar, _b._ at

Beverley, and _ed._ at Camb., entered the Church, and became in 1504

Bishop of Rochester. He wrote in Latin against the doctrines of the

Reformation, but was a supporter of the New Learning, and endeavoured to

get Erasmus to teach Greek at Camb. Through his influence the Lady

Margaret Professorship of Divinity were founded at both the Univ. by

Margaret Countess of Richmond, and in 1502 he became first prof. at

Camb., where he was also (1505-8) Head of Queen's Coll. He was also

instrumental in founding Christ's and St. John's Coll. For opposing the

divorce proceedings of Henry VIII. he was burned. Made a cardinal in

1535, he was beatified in 1886.

FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901).--Miscellaneous writer, was _b._ at Hartford,

Connecticut. The family name was Green; but this he dropped, and adopted

that of his mother's family. After being at Harvard he studied for, and

was admitted to, the Bar, but did not practise. He wrote on a variety of

subjects, including mythology, history, and evolution. Among his books on

these subjects are, _Myths and Mythmakers_ (1872), _Cosmic Philosophy_,

_Darwinism_, _The Idea of God_, _Origin of Evil_. He was also the author

of many works on America. These include _Old Virginia_, _New France and

New England_, _The American Revolution_, and _Discovery of America_

(1892).

FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883).--Translator and letter-writer, was _b._

near Woodbridge, Suffolk, _s._ of John Purcell, who took his wife's

surname on the death of her _f._. in 1818. He was _ed._ at Bury St.

Edmunds and Camb. Thereafter he lived in retirement and study with his

parents until 1838, when he took a neighbouring cottage. In 1856 he _m._

a _dau._ of Bernard Barton, the poet, from whom, however, he soon

separated. Afterwards he lived at various places in the East of England,

continuing his studies, with yachting for his chief recreation. By this

time, however, he had become an author, having written a life of his

father-in-law prefixed to his _coll._ poems (1849), _Euphranor_, a

dialogue on youth (1851), and _Polonius, a Collection of Wise Saws and

Modern Instances_ (1852). Becoming interested in Spanish literature, he

_pub._ translations of _Six Dramas of Calderon_. Thereafter turning his

attention to Persian, he produced (1859), anonymously, his famous

translation of the _Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyám_. He also _pub._

translations of the _Agamemnon_ of Æschylus, and the _Oedipus Tyrannus_

and _Oedipus Coloneus_ of Sophocles. In his translations F. aimed not so

much at a mere literal reproduction of the sense of the original, as at

reproducing its effect on the reader, and in this he was extraordinarily

successful. In the department of letter-writing also he attained an

excellence perhaps unequalled in his day.

FITZSTEPHEN, WILLIAM (_d._ 1190).--Was a servant of Thomas à Becket,

witnessed his murder, and wrote his biography, which contains an

interesting account of London in the 12th century.

FLAVEL, JOHN (1627-1691).--Divine, _b._ at Bromsgrove, studied at Oxf.,

was a Presbyterian, and was settled at Dartmouth, but ejected from his

living in 1662, continuing, however, to preach there secretly. He was a

voluminous and popular author. Among his works are _Husbandry

Spiritualised_ and _Navigation Spiritualised_, titles which suggest some

of his characteristics as an expositor.

FLECKNOE, RICHARD (_d._ 1678).--Poet, said to have been an Irish priest.

He wrote several plays, now forgotten, also miscellaneous poems, some of

them sacred, and a book of travels. His name has been preserved in

Dryden's satire, _MacFlecknoe_, as "throughout the realms of nonsense

absolute;" but according to some authorities his slighter pieces were not

wanting in grace and fancy.

FLETCHER, ANDREW (1655-1716).--Scottish statesman and political writer,

_s._ of Sir Robert F. of Saltoun, East Lothian, to which estate he

succeeded at an early age. He was _ed._ under the care of Bishop Burnet,

who was then minister of Saltoun. Being firmly opposed to the arbitrary

measures of the Duke of York, afterwards James II., he went to Holland,

where he joined Monmouth, whom he accompanied on his ill-starred

expedition. Happening to kill, in a quarrel, one Dare, another of the

Duke's followers, he fled to the Continent, travelled in Spain and

Hungary, and fought against the Turks. After the Revolution he returned

to Scotland, and took an active part in political affairs. He opposed the

Union, fearing the loss of Scottish independence, and advocated

federation rather than incorporation. He introduced various improvements

in agriculture. His principal writings are _Discourse of Government_

(1698), _Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ (1698),

_Conversation concerning a right Regulation of Government for the Common

Good of Mankind_ (1703), in which occurs his well-known saying, "Give me

the making of the songs of a nation, and I care not who makes its laws."

FLETCHER, GILES, AND PHINEAS (1588?-1623) (1582-1650).--Poets, were the

sons of Giles F., himself a minor poet, and Envoy to Russia. Phineas, the

elder, was _ed._ at Eton and Camb., and entered the Church, becoming

Rector of Hilgay, Norfolk. He wrote _The Purple Island_ (1633), a poem in

10 books, giving an elaborate allegorical description of the body and

mind of man, which, though tedious and fanciful, contains some fine

passages, recalling the harmonious sweetness of Spenser, whose disciple

the poet was. He was also the author of _Piscatory Dialogues_. GILES, the

younger, was also _ed._ at Camb., and, like his brother, became a country

parson, being Rector of Alderton. His poem, _Christ's Victory and

Triumph_ (1610), which, though it contains passages rising to sublimity,

is now almost unknown except to students of English literature, is said

to have influenced Milton.

Both brothers, but especially Giles, had a genuine poetic gift, but alike

in the allegorical treatment of their subjects and the metre they

adopted, they followed a style which was passing away, and thus missed

popularity. They were cousins of John F., the dramatist.

FLORENCE of WORCESTER (_d._ 1118).--Chronicler, was a monk of Worcester.

His work is founded upon that of Marianus, an Irish chronicler,

supplemented by additions taken from the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, Bede's

_Lives of the Saints_, and Asser's _Life of Alfred_. After his death it

was brought down to 1295.

FLORIO, JOHN (1553?-1625).--Translator, _s._ of an Italian preacher,

exiled for his Protestantism, but who appears to have lost credit owing

to misconduct, _b._ in London, was, about 1576, a private tutor of

languages at Oxf. In 1581 he was admitted a member of Magdalen Coll.,

and teacher of French and Italian. Patronised by various noblemen, he

became in 1603 reader in Italian to Anne of Denmark, Queen of James I. He

_pub._ _First Fruites_ (1578). _Second Fruites_ (1591), consisting of

Italian and English Dialogues, and his great Italian dictionary entitled

_A World of Wonder_, in 1598. His chief contribution to pure literature

is his famous translation of _The Essays of Montaigne_, in stately if

somewhat stiff Elizabethan English.

FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872).--Journalist and political writer,

was of Huguenot descent, the _s._ of a Commissioner in Bankruptcy. He was

bred to the law, but deserted it for journalism, in which he took a high

place. He wrote much for _The Times_, and _Westminster Review_, and

subsequently became ed. and proprietor of the _Examiner_. His best

articles were republished as _England under Seven Administrations_

(1837). He also wrote _How we are Governed_. In 1847 he was appointed

Statistical Sec. to the Board of Trade.

FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ at Truro of a good

family, and _ed._ at Oxf., succeeded by his extravagance and folly in

running through two fortunes. To repair his finances he turned to the

stage, and began with tragedy, in which he failed. He then took to

comedy, and the mimetic representation of living characters, for which

his extraordinary comic powers highly qualified him. He also became a

prolific author of dramatic pieces. He wrote 20 plays, and claimed to

have added 16 original characters to the stage. Several of his pieces,

owing to the offence they gave to persons of importance, were suppressed,

but were usually revived in a slightly modified form. His conversation

was agreeable and entertaining in the highest degree. Among his best

works are _An Auction of Pictures_, _The Liar_, and _The Mayor of

Garratt_ (1763), _The Lame Lover_ (1770), _The Knights_ (1749), _Author_

(suppressed) 1757, _Devil upon Two Sticks_ (1768), _The Nabob_ (1779),

_The Capuchin_ (1776).

FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-1868).--Natural Philosopher, _s._ of Sir

William F., of Pitsligo, was _b._ and _ed._ at Edin. He studied law, and

was called to the Bar, but devoted himself to science, in which he gained

a great reputation both as a discoverer and teacher. He was Prof. of

Natural Philosophy at Edin., 1833-1859, when he succeeded Sir D.

Brewster, as Principal of the United Coll. at St. Andrews. He was one of

the founders of the British Association in 1831. His scientific

investigations and discoveries embraced the subjects of heat, light,

polarisation, and specially glaciers. In connection with the last of

these he wrote _Travels through the Alps_ (1843), _Norway and its

Glaciers_ (1853), _Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa_ (1855), and _Papers

on the Theory of Glaciers_.

FORD, JOHN (_c._ 1586?).--Dramatist, _b._ probably at Ilsington,

Devonshire, was admitted to the Middle Temple in 1602, and appears to

have practised as a lawyer. His chief plays are _The Lover's Melancholy_

(1629), _'Tis Pity_, _The Broken Heart_, and _Love's Sacrifice_ (1633),

_Perkin Warbeck_ (1634), _The Lady's Trial_ (1639), and _Fancies Chaste

and Noble_ (1638). He also collaborated with Dekker and Rowley in _The

Witch of Edmonton_ (1624). F. has a high position as a dramatist, though

rather for general intellectual power and austere beauty of thought than

for strictly dramatic qualities. C. Lamb says, "F. was of the first order

of poets." He had little humour; his plays, though the subjects are

painful, and sometimes horrible, are full of pensive tenderness expressed

in gently flowing verse. The date of his death is uncertain.

FORD, PAUL LEICESTER (1865-1902).--Novelist and biographer, was _b._ in

Brooklyn. He wrote Lives of Washington, Franklin, and others, ed. the

works of Jefferson, and wrote a number of novels, which had considerable

success, including _Peter Sterling_ (1894), _Story of an Untold Love_,

_Janice Meredith_, _Wanted a Matchmaker_, and _Wanted a Chaperone_. He

_d._ by his own hand.

FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858).--Writer on art and travel, _ed._ at Winchester

and Camb., and travelled for several years in Spain, becoming intimately

acquainted with the country and people. He wrote a _Handbook for

Travellers in Spain_ (1845), which is much more than a mere guide-book,

and _Gatherings from Spain_ (1846). An accomplished artist and art

critic, he was the first to make the great Spanish painter, Velasquez,

generally known in England.

FORDUN, JOHN (_d._ 1384?).--Chronicler, said to have been a chantry

priest and Canon of Aberdeen. He began the _Scotichronicon_, for which he

prepared himself, it is said, by travelling on foot through Britain and

Ireland in search of materials. He also compiled _Gesta Annalia_, a

continuation. He brought the history down to 1153, leaving, however,

material to the time of his own death, which was subsequently worked up

by Walter Bower (_q.v._).

FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876).--Historian and biographer, _b._ at Newcastle,

_ed._ at the Grammar School there, and at Univ. Coll., London, became a

barrister of the Inner Temple, but soon relinquished law for literature.

In 1834 he accepted the post of assistant ed. of the _Examiner_, and was

ed. 1847-55. In this position F. exercised a marked influence on public

opinion. He also ed. the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ 1842-3, the _Daily

News_ in 1846, and was Sec. to the Lunacy Commission and a Commissioner

1861-72. His historical writings were chiefly biographies, among which

are _Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England_ (1836-9), _Life of

Goldsmith_ (1854), _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1859), _Sir John

Eliot_ (1864), _Lives of Walter S. Landor_ (1868), and _Charles Dickens_

(1871-4). He also left the first vol. of a Life of Swift. F., who was a

man of great decision and force of character, concealed an unusually

tender heart under a somewhat overbearing manner.

FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (1394?-1476?).--Political writer, was descended from

a Devonshire family. He was an eminent lawyer, and held the office of

Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench (1442). During the Wars of the

Roses he was a staunch Lancastrian. On the triumph of Edward IV. at

Towton he was attainted, and followed the fortunes of the fallen

Lancastrians, accompanying Queen Margaret to Scotland and Flanders. He

fought at Tewkesbury, was captured, but pardoned on condition of writing

in support of the Yorkish claims, which he did, considering that his own

party appeared to be hopelessly ruined. He is said to have been at one

time Lord Chancellor; but it is probable that this was only a titular

appointment given him by the exiled family. His works are various

defences of the Lancastrian title to the crown, and two treatises, _De

Laudibus Legum Angliæ_ (1537) (in praise of the laws of England), and _On

the Governance of the Kingdom of England_, not printed till 1714, the

former for the instruction of Edward, Prince of Wales.

FORSTER, JOHN (1770-1843).--Essayist, was _b._ at Halifax, and _ed._ at

Bristol for the Baptist ministry. Though a man of powerful and original

mind he did not prove popular as a preacher, and devoted himself mainly

to literature, his chief contribution to which is his four Essays (1) _On

a Man's Writing Memoirs of Himself_, (2) _On Decision of Character_, (3)

_On the Epithet "Romantic_," (4) _On Evangelical Religion, etc._, all of

which attracted much attention among the more thoughtful part of the

community, and still hold their place. These Essays were _pub._ in 1805,

and in 1819. F. added another on the _Evils of Popular Ignorance_, in

which he advocated a national system of education.

FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864).--Song-writer, was _b._ in

Pittsburgh. He wrote over 100 songs, many of which had extraordinary

popularity, among which may be mentioned _The Old Folks at Home_, _Nelly

Bly_, _Old Dog Tray_, _Camp Town Races_, _Massa's in de cold, cold

Ground_, and _Come where my Love lies Dreaming_. He composed the music to

his songs.

FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806).--Statesman and historian, _s._ of Henry

F., 1st Lord Holland, was one of the greatest orators who have ever sat

in the House of Commons. His only serious literary work was a fragment of

a proposed _History of the Reign of James the Second_. An introductory

chapter sketching the development of the constitution from the time of

Henry VII., and a few chapters conducting the history up to the execution

of Monmouth are all which he completed.

FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691).--Religious enthusiast, and founder of the

Society of Friends, _b._ at Drayton, Leicestershire, was in youth the

subject of peculiar religious impressions and trances, and adopted a

wandering life. The protests which he conceived himself bound to make

against the prevailing beliefs and manners, and which sometimes took the

form of interrupting Divine service, and the use of uncomplimentary forms

of address to the clergy, involved him in frequent trouble. The clergy,

the magistrates, and the mob alike treated him with harshness amounting

to persecution. None of these things, however, moved him, and friends,

many of them influential, among them Oliver Cromwell, extended favour

towards him. From 1659 onwards he made various missionary journeys in

Scotland, Ireland, America, and Holland. Later he was repeatedly

imprisoned, again visited the Continent, and _d._ in 1691. F.'s literary

works are his _Journal_, _Epistles_, and _Doctrinal Pieces_. He was not a

man of strong intellect, and the defence of his doctrines was undertaken

by the far more competent hand of his follower, Barclay (_q.v._). The

_Journal_, however, is full of interest as a sincere transcript of the

singular experiences, religious and others, of a spiritual enthusiast and

mystic.

The best Life is that by Hodgkin, 1896. _Journal_ (reprint, 1885).

FOXE, JOHN (1516-1587).--Martyrologist, was _b._ at Boston, Lincolnshire,

and _ed._ at Oxf., where he became a Fellow of Magdalen Coll. While there

he gave himself to the study of the theological questions then in debate,

and ended by becoming a Protestant, in consequence of which he in 1545

left his coll. He then became tutor in the family of Sir T. Lucy of

Charlecote, and afterwards to the children of the recently executed Earl

of Surrey. During the reign of Mary he retired to the Continent, and

_pub._, at Strasburg, his _Commentarii_ (the first draft of the _Acts and

Monuments_). Removing to Basel he was employed as a reader for the press

by the famous printer Oporinus, who _pub._ some of his writings. On the

accession of Elizabeth, F. returned to England, was received with

kindness by the Duke of Norfolk, one of his former pupils, and soon

afterwards (1563) _pub._ the work on which his fame rests, the English

version of the _Acts and Monuments_, better known as _The Book Martyrs_.

Received with great favour by the Protestants, it was, and has always

been, charged by the Roman Catholics with gross and wilful perversion of

facts. The truth of the matter appears to be that while Foxe was not, as

in the circumstances he could hardly have been, free from party spirit or

from some degree of error as to facts, he did not intentionally try to

mislead; and comparison of his citations from authorities with the

originals has shown him to have been careful and accurate in that matter.

F., who had been ordained a priest in 1560, became Canon of Salisbury in

1563. He wrote sundry other theological works, and _d._ in 1587. There is

a memoir of him attributed to his _s._, but of doubtful authenticity.

Some of his papers, used by Strype (_q.v._), are now in the British

Museum.

FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (1740-1818).--Reputed author of _The Letters of

Junius_, _s._ of the Rev. Philip F., a scholar of some note, was _b._ in

Dublin. On the recommendation of Lord Holland he received an appointment

in the office of the Sec. of State, and was thereafter private sec. to

Lord Kinnoull in Portugal, and to Pitt in 1761-2. He was then transferred

to the War Office, where he remained from 1762-72, during which period he

contributed to the press under various pseudonyms. His next appointment

was that of a member of Council of Bengal, which he held from 1773-80.

While in India he was in continual conflict with the Governor-General,

Warren Hastings, by whom he was wounded in a duel in 1779. He returned to

England in 1780 with a large fortune, and entered Parliament as a Whig.

In 1787 he was associated with Burke in the impeachment of Hastings,

against whom he showed extraordinary vindictiveness. Later he was a

sympathiser with the French Revolution, and a member of the association

of the Friends of the People. He retired from public life in 1807, and

_d._ in 1818. He was the author of about 20 political pamphlets, but the

great interest attaching to him is his reputed authorship of the _Letters

of Junius_. These letters which, partly on account of the boldness and

implacability of their attacks and the brilliance of their literary

style, and partly because of the mystery in which their author wrapped

himself, created an extraordinary impression, and have ever since

retained their place as masterpieces of condensed sarcasm. They appeared

in _The Public Advertiser_, a paper _pub._ by Woodfall, the first on

January 21, 1769, and the last on the corresponding day of 1772, and were

chiefly directed against the Dukes of Grafton and Bedford, and Lord

Mansfield; but even the king himself did not escape. Not only were the

public actions of those attacked held up to execration, but every

circumstance in their private lives which could excite odium was dragged

into the light. Their authorship was attributed to many distinguished

men, _e.g._ Burke, Lord Shelburne, J. Wilkes, Horne Tooke, and Barré, and

recently to Gibbon; but the evidence appears to point strongly to F.,

and, in the opinion of Macaulay, would "support a verdict in a civil,

nay, in a criminal trial." It rests upon such circumstances as the

similarity of the MS. to what is known to be the disguised writing of F.,

the acquaintance of the writer with the working of the Sec. of State's

Office and the War Office, his denunciation of the promotion of a Mr.

Chamier in the War Office, which was a well-known grievance of F., his

acquaintance with Pitt, and the existence of a strong tie to Lord

Holland, the silence of Junius when F. was absent, and resemblances in

the style and the moral character of the writer to those of F.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790).--American statesman, philosopher, and

writer, was one of a numerous family. His _f._ was a soap-boiler at

Boston, where F. was _b._ He was apprenticed at the age of 13 to his

brother, a printer, who treated him harshly. After various changes,

during which he lived in New York, London, and Philadelphia, he at last

succeeded in founding a successful business as a printer. He also started

a newspaper, _The Gazette_, which was highly popular, _Poor Richard's

Almanac_, and the _Busybody Papers_, in imitation of the _Spectator_.

After holding various minor appointments, he was made deputy

Postmaster-General for the American Colonies. In 1757 he went to London

on some public business in which he was so successful that various

colonies appointed him their English agent. In the midst of his varied

avocations he found time for scientific investigation, especially with

regard to electricity. For these he became known over the civilised

world, and was loaded with honours. In 1762 he returned to America, and

took a prominent part in the controversies which led to the Revolutionary

War and the independence of the Colonies. In 1776 he was U.S. Minister to

France, and in 1782 was a signatory of the treaty which confirmed the

independence of the States. He returned home in 1785, and, after holding

various political offices, retired in 1788, and _d._ in 1790. His

autobiography is his chief contribution to literature, and is of the

highest interest.

Works (10 vols., Bigelow, 1887-9), Autobiography (1868), Lives by

M'Master (1887), and Morse (1889).

FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892).--Historian, _s._ of John F., was

_b._ at Harborne, Staffordshire. He lost both his parents in childhood,

and was brought up by his paternal grandmother. He was _ed._ at private

schools, and as a private pupil of the Rev. R. Gutch, whose _dau._ he

afterwards _m._ In 1841 he was elected to a scholarship at Oxf. He had

inherited an income sufficient to make him independent of a profession,

and a prepossession in favour of the celibacy of the clergy disinclined

him to enter the Church, of which he had at one time thought. He settled

ultimately at Somerleaze, near Wells, where he occupied himself in study,

writing for periodicals, and with the duties of a magistrate. He was a

strong Liberal, and on one occasion stood unsuccessfully as a candidate

for Parliament. He was also twice unsuccessful as an applicant for

professional chairs, but ultimately, in 1884, succeeded Stubbs as Prof.

of Modern History at Oxf. He had always been an enthusiastic traveller,

and it was when on a tour in Spain that he took ill and _d._ on May 16,

1892. F. was a voluminous author, and a keen controversialist. His first

book was a _History of Architecture_ (1849), and among the very numerous

publications which he issued the most important were _History of Federal

Government_ (1863), _The History of the Norman Conquest_ (6 vols.,

1867-79), _The Historical Geography of Europe_ (1881-2), _The Reign of

William Rufus_ (1882), and an unfinished _History of Sicily_. Besides

these he wrote innumerable articles in periodicals, many of which were

separately _pub._ and contain much of his best work. He was laborious and

honest, but the controversial cast of his mind sometimes coloured his

work. His short books, such as his _William I._, and his _General Sketch

of European History_, are marvels of condensation, and show him at his

best. His knowledge of history was singularly wide, and he sometimes

showed a great power of vivid presentation.

FRENEAU, PHILIP (1752-1832).--Poet, _b._ in New York, produced two vols.

of verse (1786-8), the most considerable contribution to poetry made up

to that date in America. He fought in the Revolutionary War, was taken

prisoner, and confined in a British prison-ship, the arrangements of

which he bitterly satirised in _The British Prison Ship_ (1781). He also

wrote vigorous prose, of which _Advice to Authors_ is an example. Amid

much commonplace and doggerel, F. produced a small amount of genuine

poetry in his short pieces, such as _The Indian Burying Ground_, and _The

Wild Honeysuckle_.

FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769-1846).--Diplomatist, translator, and author,

eldest _s._ of John F., a distinguished antiquary, was _b._ in London,

and _ed._ at Eton and Camb. He became a clerk in the Foreign Office, and

subsequently entering Parliament was appointed Under Foreign Sec. In 1800

he was Envoy to Portugal, and was Ambassador to Spain 1802-4, and again

1808-9. In 1818 he retired to Malta, where he _d._ He was a contributor

to the _Anti-Jacobin_, to Ellis's _Specimens of the Early English Poets_

(1801), and to Southey's _Chronicle of the Cid_. He also made some

masterly translations from _Aristophanes_; but his chief original

contribution to literature was a burlesque poem on _Arthur and the Round

Table_, purporting to be by William and Robert Whistlecraft. All F.'s

writings are characterised no less by scholarship than by wit.

FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894).--Historian and essayist, 3rd _s._ of

the Archdeacon of Totnes, Devonshire, near which he was _b._, and

brother of Richard Hurrell. F., one of the leaders of the Tractarian

party, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., where for a short time

he came under the influence of Newman, and contributed to his _Lives of

the English Saints_, and in 1844 he took Deacon's orders. The connection

with Newman was, however, short-lived; and the publication in 1848 of

_The Nemesis of Faith_ showed that in the severe mental and spiritual

conflict through which he had passed, the writer had not only escaped

from all Tractarian influences, but was in revolt against many of the

fundamental doctrines of Christianity. One result of the book was his

resignation of his Fellowship at Oxf.: another was his loss of an

appointment as Head Master of the Grammar School of Hobart Town,

Tasmania. In the same year began his friendship with Carlyle, and about

the same time he became a contributor to the _Westminster Review_ and to

_Fraser's Magazine_, of which he was ed. from 1860-74. These papers were

afterwards _coll._ and _pub._ in the 4 vols. of _Short Studies on Great

Subjects_. In 1856 he _pub._ the first 2 vols. of the great work of his

life, _The History of England from the Fall of Cardinal Wolsey to the

Spanish Armada_, which extended to 12 vols., the last of which appeared

in 1870. As literature this work has a place among the greatest

productions of the century; but in its treatment it is much more

dramatic, ethical, and polemical than historical in the strict sense; and

indeed the inaccuracy in matters of fact to which F. was liable, combined

with his tendency to idealise and to colour with his own prejudices the

characters who figure in his narrative, are serious deductions from the

value of his work considered as history. _The English in Ireland in the

Eighteenth Century_ appeared in 1872-4. On the death of Carlyle in 1881,

F. found himself in the position of his sole literary executor, and in

that capacity _pub._ successively the _Reminiscences_ (1881), _History of

the First Forty Years of Carlyle's Life_ (1882), _Letters and Memorials

of Jane Welsh Carlyle_ (1883), _History of Carlyle's Life in London_

(1884). The opinion is held by many that in the discharge of the duties

entrusted to him by his old friend and master he showed neither

discretion nor loyalty; and his indiscreet revelations and gross

inaccuracies evoked a storm of controversy and protest. F. did not

confine his labours to purely literary effort. In 1874-5 he travelled as

a Government Commissioner in South Africa with the view of fostering a

movement in favour of federating the various colonies there; in 1876 he

served on the Scottish Univ. Commission; in 1884-5 he visited Australia,

and gave the fruit of his observations to the world in _Oceana_ (1886),

and in 1886-7 he was in the West Indies, and _pub._ _The English in the

West Indies_ (1888). The year 1892 saw his appointment as Prof. of Modern

History at Oxf., and his lectures there were _pub._ in his last books,

_Life and Letters of Erasmus_ (1894), _English Seamen in the Sixteenth

Century_ (1895), and _The Council of Trent_ (1896). F. was elected in

1869 Lord Rector of the Univ. of St. Andrews, and received the degree of

LL.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. By his instructions no Biography was to be

written.

FULLER, SARAH MARGARET (1810-1850).--Was _b._ in Massachusetts, _dau._ of

a lawyer, who encouraged her in over-working herself in the acquisition

of knowledge with life-long evil results to her health. On his death she

supported a large family of brothers and sisters by teaching. Her early

studies had made her familiar with the literature not only of England but

of France, Spain, and Italy; she had become imbued with German philosophy

and mysticism, and she co-operated with Theodore Parker in his revolt

against the Puritan theology till then prevalent in New England, and

became the conductor of the Transcendentalist organ, _The Dial_, from

1840-2. She made various translations from the German, and _pub._ _Summer

on the Lakes_ (1844), and _Papers on Literature and Art_ (1846). In the

same year she went to Europe, and at Rome met the Marquis Ossoli, an

Italian patriot, whom she _m._ in 1847. She and her husband were in the

thick of the Revolution of 1848-9, and in the latter year she was in

charge of a hospital at Rome. After the suppression of the Revolution she

escaped with her husband from Italy, and took ship for America. The

voyage proved most disastrous: small-pox broke out on the vessel, and

their infant child _d._, the ship was wrecked on Fire Island, near New

York, and she and her husband were lost. Destitute of personal

attractions, she was possessed of a singular power of conciliating

sympathy. She was the intimate friend of Emerson, Hawthorn, Channing, and

other eminent men.

FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661).--Divine and antiquary, _s._ of a clergyman of

the same name, was _b._ at Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire. Possessed of

exceptional intelligence and a wonderful memory, he became a good

scholar, and distinguished himself at Camb., where he was sent. Entering

the Church, he obtained rapid preferment, including the lectureship at

the Savoy, and a chaplaincy to Charles II. He was a voluminous author,

his works dealing with theology, morals, history, and antiquities. Among

the chief are _History of the Holy War_, _i.e._ the Crusades (1643), _The

Holy State and the Profane State_ (1642), _A Pisgah Sight of Palestine_

(1650), _Church History of Britain_, _History of Cambridge University_

(1655), _Worthies of England_ (1662), and _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_.

The outstanding characteristic of F.'s writings is shrewd observation

conveyed in a style of quaint humour. Lamb says, "His conceits are

oftentimes deeply steeped in human feeling and passion." But in addition

there is much wisdom and a remarkable power of casting his observations

into a compact, aphoristic form. The _Worthies_, though far from being a

systematic work, is full of interesting biographical and antiquarian

matter which, but for the pains of the author, would have been lost.

Coleridge says of him, "He was incomparably the most sensible, the least

prejudiced great man in an age that boasted a galaxy of great men." F.,

who was of a singularly amiable character, was a strong Royalist, and

suffered the loss of his preferments during the Commonwealth. They were,

however, given back to him at the Restoration.

Lives by Russell (1844), J.E. Bailey (1874), and M. Fuller (1886).

FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA (LEVESON-GOWER) (1812-1885).--Novelist, _dau._

of the 1st Earl Granville, and sister of the eminent statesman. She wrote

a number of novels, some of which had considerable success. They include

_Ellen Middleton_ (1844), _Grantley Manor_ (1847), and _Too Strange not

to be True_ (1864). She also _pub._ two vols. of verse. She joined the

Church of Rome in 1846.

GAIMAR, GEOFFREY (_fl._ 1140?).--Chronicler, translated the chronicle of

Geoffrey of Monmouth into French verse for the wife of his patron, Ralph

Fitz-Gilbert, and added a continuation dealing with the Saxon Kings. His

work is entitled _L'Estoire des Engles_.

GALT, JOHN (1779-1839).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of the

captain of a West Indiaman, was _b._ at Irvine, Ayrshire, but while still

a young man he went to London and formed a commercial partnership, which

proved unfortunate, and he then entered Lincoln's Inn to study law. A

little before this he had produced his first book, a poem on the Battle

of Largs, which, however, he soon suppressed. He then went to various

parts of the Continent in connection with certain commercial schemes, and

met Lord Byron, with whom he travelled for some time. Returning home he

_pub._ _Letters from the Levant_, which had a favourable reception, and

some dramas, which were less successful. He soon, however, found his true

vocation in the novel of Scottish country life, and his fame rests upon

the _Ayrshire Legatees_ (1820), _The Annals of the Parish_ (1821), _Sir

Andrew Wylie_ (1822), _The Entail_ (1824), and _The Provost_. He was not

so successful in the domain of historical romance, which he tried in

_Ringan Gilbaize_, _The Spae-wife_, _The Omen_, etc., although these

contain many striking passages. In addition to his novels G. produced

many historical and biographical works, including a _Life of Wolsey_

(1812), _Life and Studies of Benjamin West_ (1816), _Tour of Asia_, _Life

of Byron_ (1830), _Lives of the Players_, and an Autobiography (1834). In

addition to this copious literary output, G. was constantly forming and

carrying out commercial schemes, the most important of which was the

Canada Company, which, like most of his other enterprises, though

conducted with great energy and ability on his part, ended in

disappointment and trouble for himself. In 1834 he returned from Canada

to Greenock, broken in health and spirits, and _d._ there in 1839 of

paralysis. G. was a man of immense talent and energy, but would have held

a higher place in literature had he concentrated these qualities upon

fewer objects. Most of his 60 books are forgotten, but some of his

novels, especially perhaps _The Annals of the Parish_, have deservedly a

secure place. The town of Galt in Canada is named after him.

GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902).--Historian, _b._ at Alresford,

Hants, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf. In 1855 he _m._ Isabella, _dau._

of Edward Irving (_q.v._), the founder of the Catholic Apostolic Church,

which he joined, and in which he ultimately held high office. About the

time of his leaving Oxf. he had planned his great work, _The History of

England from the Accession of James I. to the Restoration_, and the

accomplishment of this task he made the great object of his life for more

than 40 years. The first two vols. appeared in 1863 as _The History of

England from the Accession of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice

Cooke_, and subsequent instalments appeared under the following titles:

_Prince Charles and The Spanish Marriage_ (1867), _England under

Buckingham and Charles I._ (1875), _Personal Government of Charles I._

(1877), _The Fall of the Government of Charles I._ (1881); these were in

1883-4 re-issued in a consolidated form entitled _History of England from

the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_. The second

section of the work, _History of the Great Civil War_, followed in three

vols. _pub._ in 1886, 1889, and 1891 respectively, and three more vols.,

_History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_ in 1894, 1897, and 1901,

brought the story down to 1656, when the health of the indefatigable

writer gave way, and he _d._ in 1902. In addition to this monumental work

G. wrote many school and college historical text-books, and contributed

to the Epochs of Modern History Series, _The Thirty Years' War_ (1874),

and _The First Two Stuarts_ (1876); he also wrote _Outlines of English

History_, three parts (1881-3), and _Students' History of England_, three

parts (1891). From 1871-85 he was Prof. of History at King's Coll.,

London, and lecturer on history for the London Society for the Extension

of Univ. Teaching. He also ed. many of the historical documents which he

unearthed in his investigations, and many of those issued by the

"Camden," "Clarendon," and other societies. He was ed. of _The English

Historical Review_, and contributed largely to the _Dictionary of

National Biography_. The sober and unadorned style of G.'s works did

little to commend them to the general reader, but their eminent learning,

accuracy, impartiality, and the laborious pursuit of truth which they

exhibited earned for him, from the first, the respect and admiration of

scholars and serious students of history; and as his great work advanced

it was recognised as a permanent contribution to historical literature.

In 1882 he received a civil list pension, and was elected to Research

Fellowships, first by All Souls' Coll., and subsequently by Merton. He

held honorary degrees from the Univ. of Oxford, Gottingen, and Edinburgh.

GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906).--Biographer and writer on literature, _s._

of Richard G., an assistant keeper of Printed Books in the British

Museum. _B._ at Lichfield, and _ed._ at a school in, Bloomsbury, he

entered the British Museum in 1851 as an assistant librarian. There he

remained for nearly 50 years, and rose to be Keeper of Printed Books. He

acquired a marvellous knowledge of books, and of everything connected

with pure literature. He made numerous translations from the Greek,

German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, and wrote books of graceful

verse, _The Twilight of the Gods and other Tales_ (1888), various

biographical works on Carlyle, Milton, Blake, and others, _The Age of

Dryden_, a _History of Italian Literature_, and contributed many articles

to encyclopædias, and to the _Dictionary of National Biography_.

GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ at Hereford, but

got most of his education at Lichfield, to which his _f._ belonged. He

was also one of the three pupils who attended Johnson's School at Edial.

With his great preceptor, whom he accompanied to London, he always

remained on friendly terms. He took to the stage, and became the greatest

of English actors. He also wrote various plays, and adaptations, and did

not scruple to undertake "improved" versions of some of Shakespeare's

greatest plays including _Cymbeline_, _The Taming of the Shrew_, and

_The Winter s Tale_, performing the same service for Jonson and

Wycherley, in the last case with much more excuse. Of his original plays

_The Lying Valet_ and _Miss in her Teens_ are perhaps the best.

GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879).--Orator, was _b._ at Newburyport,

Mass. Though chiefly known for his eloquent advocacy of negro

emancipation, he is also remembered for his _Sonnets and other Poems_

(1847).

GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719).--Physician and poet, _b._ at Bolam in the

county of Durham, and _ed._ at Camb., he settled as a physician in

London, where he soon acquired a large practice. He was a zealous Whig,

the friend of Addison and, though of different political views, of Pope,

and he ended his career as physician to George I., by whom he was

knighted in 1714. He is remembered as the author of _The Dispensary_, a

satire, which had great popularity in its day, and of _Claremont_, a

descriptive poem. He also ed. a translation of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, to

which Addison, Pope, and others contributed. Perhaps, however, the

circumstance most honourable to him is his intervention to procure an

honourable burial for Dryden, over whose remains he pronounced a eulogy.

GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (1525 or 1535-1577).--Poet and dramatist, _s._ of Sir

John G., and descended from Sir William G., the famous Chief Justice to

Henry IV., he was _ed._ at Camb., and entered Gray's Inn 1555. While

there he produced two plays, both translations, _The Supposes_ (1566)

from Ariosto, and _Jocasta_ (1566) from Euripides. Disinherited on

account of his prodigality, he _m._ in order to rehabilitate his

finances, a widow, the mother of Nicholas Breton (_q.v._). He had,

nevertheless, to go to Holland to escape from the importunities of his

creditors. While there he saw service under the Prince of Orange, and was

taken prisoner by the Spaniards. Released after a few months, he returned

to England, and found that some of his poems had been surreptitiously

_pub._ He thereupon issued an authoritative ed. under the title of _An

Hundred Sundrie Floures bound up in one Poesie_ (1572). Other works are

_Notes of Instruction_, for making English verse, _The Glasse of

Government_ (1575), and _The Steele Glasse_ (1576), a satire. He also

contributed to the entertainments in honour of Queen Elizabeth at

Kenilworth and appears to have had a share of Court favour. G. was a man

of originality, and did much to popularise the use of blank verse in

England.