CROSSES.
VARIETIES OF EARLY CROSSES--EXAMPLES AT CLONMACNOISE--HIGH CROSSES--
THE HIGH CROSSES AT MONASTERBOICE--THEIR SCULPTURE AND
DECORATIONS--SEPULCHRAL SLABS--EARLY GRAVES.
Early Christian graves were usually marked by stones nowise differing
from the pagan pillar-stone, except that in some instances they were
sculptured with a cross. These were of the simplest form and rudely
cut, and consisted of an elementary line cross, or one slightly
developed and within a circle. Plain undressed slabs or rude stones
were generally adopted in the first instance, the only use of the
cutter’s instrument being on the incised work. Many of the stones of
this class are found in old Christian graveyards, or within the area of
early monastic establishments.
The richest collection of them is to be seen at Clonmacnoise, numbering
188; and inscribed slabs to the number of 74 have been lost from this
one spot alone. Clonmacnoise was founded by St. Kieran in the middle
of the sixth century; and, in time, it was, as Ware says, ‘above all
others famous for the sepulchres of nobility and bishops.’ Petrie, in
his work on _Christian Inscriptions_, shows, by means of the recorded
names and ‘Annals,’ that for over 600 years, beginning with 628 A.D.,
this class of monument was used for sepulchral purposes. The inscribed
crosses are of great variety--Celtic, Latin, and Greek--many being very
chaste with key-end and other patterns. The most typical form of Celtic
cross is that formed from the plain Latin type enclosed in a ring that
connects the arms, and leaves varied spaces between it and the corners
of their intersection.
[Illustration: Early Crosses on sepulchral slabs at Clonmacnoise.]
This style of memorial appears to have been succeeded by a
rudely-formed cross, the arms of which are little more than indicated,
and which is usually fixed in a socket, cut in a large flat stone. Such
crosses rarely exhibit any kind of ornament; but occasionally, even
in very rude examples, the upper part of the shaft is hewn into the
Celtic form already described, the portions of the stone by which the
circle is indicated being frequently perforated or slightly recessed.
A fine plain cross of this style may be seen on the road adjoining the
graveyard of Tully, Co. Dublin; and there is an early-decorated example
near the church of Finglas, in the same county.
[Illustration: Cross on slab, Clonmacnoise.]
[Illustration: Cross on slab, Clonmacnoise.]
[Illustration: Cross on slab, Clonmacnoise.]
In the process of development of Christian art and architecture we
find an advance in the work on the memorials of the dead. The design
becomes more complicated, ornamentation more profuse; and there is a
change to the minuscule form of the alphabet in the inscriptions. From
the rude pillar-stone, marked with the symbol of our Faith enclosed
within a circle, the emblem of eternity, the finely-proportioned and
elaborately-sculptured crosses of a later period were developed. In
the latter, the circle, instead of being simply cut upon the face of
the stone, is represented by a ring, binding, as it were, the shaft,
arms, and upper portion of the cross together. The top of the shaft
is usually in the form of a roof with sloping sides, resembling the
shrines of the period for holding the relics of saints. The spaces
between the binding ring and the intersecting arms are pierced; and
these are finely relieved by rounded bands across the corners of
intersection, or on the inner surface of the ring. The whole sculpture
thus forms the cross, and is in striking contrast to the Scotch type
of memorial, which has the cross carved in relief upon an upright
slab. The inscribed crosses were sepulchral, and principally used in
covering the grave; but the free standing crosses were erected either
to the memory of some famous ecclesiastic or king, or dedicatory, as in
the case of the SS. Patrick and Columba Cross at Kells, or terminal,
marking the bounds of a sanctuary. Of these ‘high’ crosses forty-five
still remain, many of which are in a fair state of preservation. The
striking feature of these crosses is the ornamental and pictorial work
displayed in the carving. As in the manuscript and metal work, and in
the general ornamentation of the churches, this is of a most elaborate
character. There is a profusion of spiral pattern, Celtic tracery, and
zoomorphic design found on these crosses. The whole body of Christian
doctrine finds its expression in their sculpture, intended, no doubt,
by means of symbolical representation, to be great object-lessons
in the way of faith to every beholder. The central idea on the
face of the cross is usually the Crucifixion, and on the back the
Resurrection, or Christ in Glory; the remaining spaces in the panels
and on the sides being filled with various sacred and other subjects.
These highly-sculptured crosses appear to have been very generally
erected between the tenth and thirteenth centuries; and there are few
examples of a later date remaining, if we except a small number bearing
inscriptions in Latin or English, which generally belong to the close
of the sixteenth or to the seventeenth century, and which can hardly
be looked upon as either Irish or ancient.
* * * * *
_Crosses at Monasterboice._--The beautiful remains of this class at
Monasterboice, near Drogheda, are the finest now remaining in Ireland,
though nearly equalled by some of the many others scattered over the
whole island. In these crosses alone there is evidence sufficient
to satisfy the most sceptical of the skill which the Irish had
attained, in more of the arts than one, during the earlier ages of the
Church. They may be regarded, not only as memorials of the piety and
munificence of the founders, but also as the finest works of sculptured
art of their period now existing.
Two of the crosses at Monasterboice remain in their ancient position,
and are well preserved, though one of them, in particular, bears
distinct evidence of a systematic attempt having been made to destroy
it. A third has been broken to pieces, the people say by Cromwell; but
its head and part of the shaft remaining uninjured, the fragment has
been re-set in its ancient socket. The Great Cross, the largest of the
two more perfect crosses, measures 27 feet in height, and is composed
of three stones. A portion of the base is buried in the soil. The
shaft at its junction with the base is 2 feet in breadth, and 1 foot
3 inches in thickness. It is divided upon the western side by fillets
into seven compartments, each of which contains two or more figures
executed with bold effect, but much worn by the rain and wind of nearly
nine centuries. The sculpture of the first compartment, beginning at
the base, has been destroyed by those who attempted to throw down the
monument. The second contains four figures, of which one, apparently
the most important, is presenting a book to another, who receives it
with both hands, while a large bird seems resting upon his head. The
other figures in this compartment represent females, one of whom holds
a child in her arms.
[Illustration: Great Cross of Monasterboice.]
Compartments 3, 4, 5, and 6 contain three figures each, evidently the
Apostles; and each figure is represented as holding a book. The seventh
division, which runs into the circle forming the head of the cross, is
occupied by two figures; and immediately above them is a representation
of our Saviour crucified, with the usual figures of a soldier upon
each side, one piercing His body with a spear, and the other offering
a sponge. To the right and to the left of the figure of our Saviour
other sculptures appear. The figures upon the right arm of the cross
are represented apparently in the act of adoration. The action of those
upon the left is obscure; and, in consequence of the greater exposure
of the upper portion of the stone to the weather, the sculpture which
it bears is much worn, and almost effaced.
[Illustration: Ornament beneath Arm of the Great Cross, Monasterboice.]
The sides of the shaft are ornamented with figures and scroll-work,
placed alternately in compartments, one above the other. Of the circle
by which the arms and stem are connected, the external edges are
enriched; and as an example, the compartment beneath the left arm is
here engraved. The eastern side is also divided into compartments
occupied by sculptures, which may refer to Scripture history.
[Illustration: Cross of Muiredach, sometimes called the Smaller Cross,
Monasterboice.]
[Illustration: Portion of the Sculpture on the Cross of Muiredach.]
The smaller cross is the finest example of this class of Celtic
sculpture now remaining. The figures and ornaments with which its
various sides are enriched, appear to have been executed with an
unusual degree of care and of artistic skill. It has suffered but
little from the effects of time. The sacrilegious hands which attempted
the ruin of the others appear to have spared this; and it stands
almost as perfect as when, nearly a thousand years ago, this unrivalled
work left the sculptor’s hands. An inscription in Irish upon the lower
part of the west face of the shaft desires ‘A prayer for Muiredach, by
whom was made this cross’; but as Petrie, by whom the inscription has
been published, remarks, there were two of the name mentioned in Irish
‘Annals’ as having been connected with Monasterboice--one an abbot,
who died in the year 844, and the other in the year 924--‘so that it
must be a matter of some uncertainty to which of these the erection of
the cross should be ascribed.’ There is reason, however, to assign it
to the latter, ‘as he was a man of greater distinction, and probably
wealth, than the former, and therefore more likely to have been the
erector of the crosses.’ Its total height is exactly 15 feet, and it is
6 feet in breadth at the arms. The shaft, which at the base measures in
breadth 2½ feet, and in thickness 1 foot 9 inches, diminishes slightly
in its ascent, and is divided upon its various sides by twisted bands
into compartments, each of which contains either sculptured figures or
tracery of very intricate design, or animals, probably symbolical.
The figures and other carvings retain much of their original form and
beauty of execution. The former are of great interest, as affording
an excellent idea of the dress, both ecclesiastical and military, of
the Irish during the ninth and tenth centuries. As an example, the two
lower compartments upon the west side are here given; in the first are
three ecclesiastics holding books, the central one with raised hand in
the act of blessing. The lower panel is supposed to represent Christ
being led away by armed soldiers. Within the circular head of the
cross, upon its eastern face, He is represented sitting in judgment;
in His right hand is a cross, indicating His Passion, and in His left
a sceptre, signifying His victory over death and the grave. A choir
of angels occupy the arm to the right of the figure. Several are
represented with musical instruments, among which the ancient Irish
harp may be seen; it is small and triangular, and rests upon the knees
of David, who is represented sitting; the Holy Spirit, in the form of
a dove, rests upon the harp, inspiring the Psalmist. The space to the
left of the Saviour is crowded with figures, several of which are in
an attitude of despair. They are the damned; and a fiend armed with
a trident is driving them from before the throne. In the compartment
immediately beneath is the Archangel Michael, the guardian of souls,
weighing in a pair of huge scales a soul, the balance seeming to
preponderate in his favour. One who appears to have been weighed, and
found wanting, is lying beneath the scales in an attitude of terror.
The next compartment beneath represents, apparently, the adoration
of the Wise Men. The star above the head of the infant Christ is
distinctly marked. The third compartment contains several figures, but
what they symbolise is not known. The signification of the sculpture of
the next following compartment is also very obscure: a figure seated
upon a throne or chair is blowing a horn, and soldiers with conical
helmets, armed with short broad-bladed swords, and with small circular
shields, appear crowding in. The fifth and lowest division illustrates
the Temptation and the Expulsion of Adam and Eve. The head of the cross
upon this side is sculptured with a Crucifixion, very similar to that
upon the head of the larger cross; but the execution is better. Its
northern arm, to the left of the Crucifixion, underneath bears the
representation of the _Dextera Dei_, or Hand Symbol, used in early
Christian art to represent the First Person of the Trinity. It is also
to be seen on the Cross of Flann, at Clonmacnoise, where it is on the
right of the Crucifixion; in both cases it is surrounded by a nimbus.
Of the broken cross, a boss placed within its circle with spiral
ornamentation is here engraved. It is otherwise plain.
[Illustration: Boss of the third Cross, Monasterboice.]
[Illustration: Inscribed Tombstone, Iniscaltra.]
An early monumental stone remains in the cemetery, a few yards to
the north of the less ancient church. The inscription is in the Irish
language and character, and reads in English, ‘A prayer for Ruarchan.’
A simple flagstone, inscribed with a name, and sculptured with the
sacred symbol of Christianity, such as the early Christians were
accustomed to place over the grave of an eminent man, forms a striking
contrast to the tablets which too often disfigure the walls of our
cathedral and parish churches. Many remains of this class lie scattered
among the ancient and often-neglected graveyards of Ireland; but they
are every day becoming more rare, as the country stone-cutters, by whom
they are regarded with but slight veneration, frequently form out of
their materials modern tombstones, defacing the ancient inscriptions. A
characteristic example of a portion of an inscribed slab is here given;
it is from Iniscaltra, an island in Lough Derg, for many centuries a
celebrated burial-ground.
In several cemeteries found in connection with the earlier monastic
establishments of Ireland, graves frequently occur, formed of flat
stones placed edgeways in an oblong figure and covered with large
flags, after the pagan fashion. Were it not that in several instances
the stones at either end of the enclosure have been sculptured with a
cross, they might be supposed to indicate the site of a pagan cemetery,
which the early Christians, for obvious reasons, had hallowed by the
erection of a _cill_. The direction of the grave is generally east and
west; but in the cemetery adjoining the very early church at Saint
John’s Point, in Co. Down, and at Kilnasaggart, the graves are arranged
in the form of a circle, to the centre of which the feet of the dead
converge.
[Illustration: Plan of Cemetery, Kilnasaggart, near Jonesborough, Co.
Armagh.]
The cemetery at Kilnasaggart consists, as the plan here shows, of two
concentric circles of low flat graves radiating towards the centre,
at which stands a small pillar-stone. The outer circle is 55 feet in
diameter, and at the north edge is the well-known Pillar-stone. This
originally contained an Ogam inscription, which was defaced, probably
when converted to Christian uses. It has a number of incised crosses,
and an Irish inscription to St. Ternoe.[126]
A similar mode of interment, which occurs at Town-y-Chapel, near
Holyhead, in Wales, is referred to in the _Archæological Journal_, vol.
iii.; and it is worthy of remark that the place where the graves are
found appears to have been the scene of a battle, fought about A.D.
450, in which many Irishmen were slain.