THE BRONZE AGE.
COPPER CELTS--BRONZE--ITS ANTIQUITY AND SOURCE--BRONZE CELTS--THE
FLAT CELT--THE FLANGED OR WINGED CELT--THE SOCKETED CELT--
CELT MOULDS--SWORDS--RAPIERS--BROAD SCYTHE-SHAPED SWORDS--
SWORD SHEATHS--THE LISNACROGHERA ‘FINDS’--SPEAR-AND
JAVELIN-HEADS--ORNAMENTED SPEARS--CRANNOG SPEARS--SHIELDS--BRIDLE
BITS--CALDRONS--TRUMPETS--ORNAMENTS, BRONZE AND GOLD--
TORQUES--LUNULÆ--TIARAS--FIBULÆ--THE BROIGHTER GOLD ‘FIND.’
The Early Irish traditions--so insisted on by many writers--of the
successive invasions of Ireland by various races may contain a kernel
at least of the truth of successive waves of the men of the Stone Age,
overcome in time by a race stronger and better equipped with metal
weapons.
The discovery of metal for the manufacture of implements marked a new
epoch in the history of man. Copper was evidently known long before
the discovery was made of using it with an alloy; but, owing to its
softness, it could not supersede the use of stone. The question of
whether there was, generally speaking, a Copper Age is still a matter
of archæological controversy. The number of copper implements found is
small, compared to the vast quantities of bronze of great variety that
have been discovered. Flat copper celts have been found in Cyprus, the
chief source of supply of the mineral to the Aegæan, in Hissarlik,
in Hungary, Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, and in Central India; but
these latter are thought to be of late date, having been associated
with objects of silver.
The National Museum, Dublin, contains 84 copper celts, the collection
having much increased since the compilation of Wilde’s _Catalogue_,
when the number stood at 30. The number found in Ireland up to the
present time is about 150; and specimens have been discovered in about
half the counties and in all the provinces. The copper celts are of a
primitive type, and were evidently modelled after those of stone. The
smallness of the number may be due either to the probability of their
being recast in the manufacture of tools and weapons on the discovery
of bronze; or, that the metal proving soft, it was not largely used,
being inferior in consistency to stone. Bronze celts have been found
of a primitive character similar to the copper, so that they may have
belonged to the same period of time. From this and other considerations
it has been urged that a Copper Age did not exist in Western Europe,
though such, no doubt, prevailed in the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, especially in Egypt. The latter country was in the
Neolithic Age under the ‘New Race’; and copper came into use at the end
of this Pre-dynastic Period.
In all copper celts hitherto analysed in Ireland, a very small quantity
of tin has been found, varying from about one per cent. to a mere
trace. Whether the presence of tin in the copper is intentional or
accidental is not definitely known; but it seems likely to have
existed in the ore with other impurities.[92] Copper seems to have
been in general use in Ireland; for, among other objects of this
metal, awls, a halbert, and blades of knives have been discovered. The
existence of native ore renders it likely that it was worked as soon as
its properties were known; and this is supported by the fact that the
word _umha_, the Irish name for copper, is pure Celtic. Tin exists in
small quantities in Ireland, especially in the sand and gravel deposits
of the Wicklow streams; but as to the method and means of mining,
and how far it was carried on in those early days, we know nothing
definite. Copper workings have been discovered, of a primitive type, in
Cork and Kerry, containing stone implements among the refuse.
The discovery of bronze marked an important epoch in the progress of
human development; and it would be difficult to estimate its full
value as an element in the economic and social conditions of primitive
man and early civilizations. In Ireland as elsewhere, owing to its
advantages, bronze in time came into general use in the manufacture of
weapons, domestic implements, and articles of personal adornment. These
passed through various stages of development; and the use of bronze,
as the general material for all such articles, became in time very
widespread. The percentage of tin in bronze varies, and the proportion
does not appear to be absolutely fixed. About 10 per cent. seems to
have been the average for the best bronze. Some Irish bronze implements
yielded, on analysis, 13·88 per cent.; the Mycenæan bronze which
Schliemann had examined gave 13 per cent. of tin; and some bronze from
Hissarlik gave 4 to 6 per cent. The number of moulds discovered for
various weapons shows that smelting was practised in Ireland; but, like
the mining, it is difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain the exact
method of working, and the extent to which it was carried on.[93]
Archæological opinion is divided as to the origin of bronze. It has
been variously attributed to the high table-land of Central Asia,
to India, to Siberia, and to the original inhabitants of the lower
Euphrates valley, while some writers claim for it an Etruscan origin.
Its antiquity is, however, great; Dr. Flinders Petrie found celts
in the tombs of Medum in Egypt, structures which he considers lead
back to the Third Dynasty; in the Fourth Dynasty, bronze came into
general use.[94] It was characteristic of the whole of the Mycenæan
civilization, and prevailed throughout the Homeric period, though iron
was then known. Bronze spread to Europe from south to north along the
established trade routes; and the theory, once held, that a Bronze Age
developed independently among the rude races of Northern Europe is no
longer accepted. The discovery of well-wrought weapons in early graves
shows that the inhabitants of the British Isles first knew bronze, in
its best form, as a foreign introduction, before they manufactured the
metal for themselves. Bronze was, in time, superseded by iron; but not
until the discovery was made of tempering or hardening it by plunging
the hot metal into cold water. Iron was used by the Egyptians in the
period from 3800 B.C. to 3000 B.C.; in depicting weapons or tools, it
was the custom to paint iron blue or black--the colour by which it was
known--and this is seen in the paintings which have been discovered of
the time. ‘Iron,’ says Dr. Budge, ‘was certainly known to the Egyptians
as early as the Fifth Dynasty; and, from the fact that iron plays a
great part in ancient Egyptian myths, it is probable that it was known
by them at a far earlier period.’[95] Metal tools of the best kind
were known in Egypt at an early date. Dr. Petrie shows that drilling,
sawing, and lathe-work were done by the pyramid-builders on the hardest
stone with fine cutting points. He considers modern drill-cores far
inferior to those discovered in Egypt. ‘By the side of the ancient
work,’ he says, ‘they look wretchedly scraped and irregular; ... the
fine work shows the marks of just such tools as we have only now
re-invented.’[96]
* * * * *
_Bronze Celts._--The most common weapons or implements of bronze found
in Ireland are _celts_, which have been generally classified as flat,
flanged, winged, and socketed. The ordinary bronze celt is rarely more
than seven inches in length, and some have been found which scarcely
measure an inch and a half.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Flat Bronze Celt--scale one-half.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Celt with lunette-shaped edge and re-curved
points.]
_The Flat Celt._--The earliest type is flat and wedge-shaped, and, like
the stone weapon, appears to have been fixed by the smaller end into a
wooden handle. The accompanying figure (1) shows a long, narrow celt
of gold-coloured bronze, ornamented on side and edges; fig. 2 is an
ornamented celt with lunette-shaped edge and re-curved points.
* * * * *
_The Flanged or Winged Celt_ was a simple development of the latter,
resulting from the necessity of affording a better hold to the weapon
when fastened to a cleft handle. The flanges were produced either
by hammering the edges or by original casting. It will be noted, in
figures 3 and 4, that a stop-ridge runs across the handle portion of
the weapon, to prevent the celt being pressed into the haft when used
with force. The position and shape of the ridge vary in the gradual
development of the implement, until, merged in the flanges, we have
a socket. The flanges vary much in size, and the term ‘winged’ is
sometimes confined to celts with wide or more projecting flanges.
[Illustration: Figs. 3 and 4. Flat and Flanged Celts with Stop-ridge.]
Fig. 5 has lozenge-shaped flanges or wings 1¾ inches wide; ‘the stops
are but slightly developed, and must have been bedded into the sides of
the handle, which appears to have passed below them’; this will be seen
by the groove projecting into the cutting half of the implement. The
external knob was probably intended for holding the tying in its place.
Fig. 6 is a broad-winged and stop-ridged celt with sides and faces
ornamented. To the flanged type of celt the name ‘Palstave,’ a word of
Scandinavian origin, is generally applied.
[Illustration: Figs. 5 and 6. Winged or Flanged Celts.]
The implements were mounted by inserting the handle between the
flanges, and secured by a ligature of some kind tightly coiled round
the butt. To secure the head from flying off the handle a loop was,
in time, added to the inside edge of the celt by which it was firmly
braced to the haft. The loop is almost invariably single; double-looped
celts (see fig. 7) are very rare, and but a few specimens have been
found in Ireland. The discovery of a mounted celt is also very rare,
as the wooden handles, to which they seem generally to have been
attached, decayed in the lapse of time. A very interesting example is
shown in fig. 8. This celt was found in the bed of the River Boyne near
Edenderry. The handle is about 14 inches long, and the head possessed
a loop which was worn through--probably, as Wilde thinks, by a metal
brace which secured it.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. Double-looped Flanged Celt with Stop-ridge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Looped Celt with Original Handle.]
* * * * *
_The Socketed Celt._--In tracing the development of these celts, with
specimens, it will be noted that the flanges grow bolder and more
projecting, and in time curve inwards, and that the stop becomes
more prominent. By merging it, as we have said, into the wings, and
gradually removing the decreasing shank, the socket was formed. There
was a marked advance here in casting, as provision had to be made for
a core to form the socket. ‘The lip of the socket,’ says Wilde, ‘is
generally ornamented, and very frequently by one or more raised bands
or fillets; sometimes by a very well-cast roped ornament, evidently
made to represent a cord of twisted gut. A special description of cast
ornament, consisting of longitudinal raised bars, generally ending in
annular or button-like projections, sometimes occupies the side of this
implement; ... but in no case is the ornamentation produced either by
the hammer, punch, or graver, as in the flat simple celt.’[97] There
are several varieties of the socketed celt, as the illustrations show.
Figures 9 and 10 are 4 inches and 4¼ inches in length respectively,
and are characteristic of the plain class of Irish socketed celt,
though differing materially from each other in particulars of shape,
breadth, position of the loop, and ornament. Of the same variety are
figures 11 and 12, drawn one-fourth the actual size. Fig. 13 represents
a small and well-decorated celt, and is drawn one-half the size of
the object. Fig. 14 represents a flat celt 4½ inches long, with oval
socket internally, and a small raised linear ornament. Fig. 15 shows
a type of celt rare in Ireland. It is a good example of the axe-shaped
implement; it is 3¾ inches long, and about the same across the cutting
edge. Fig. 16 is a fine specimen of the long narrow quadrangular celt:
it is 5⅜ inches in length and 1⅜ inches in breadth. It is very rare in
Ireland, and but a few specimens have been found in the country. Some
of these socketed celts are so diminutive that they could not have
served for chopping of any kind. Fixed at the end of a wooden handle,
they might, no doubt, well answer the purpose of chisels. The process
of development here indicated must, as Sir John Evans points out, have
taken a considerable period of time.[98]
[Illustration:
Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16.
Varieties of Looped, Socketed Celts.]
* * * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 1.
Celt Mould, Co. Leitrim.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2.
Celt Mould, Co. Down.]
_Celt Moulds._--That Irish bronze weapons are of home manufacture,
no one who has given the subject any consideration can doubt. Though
bearing a general resemblance to remains of a similar class found
in Britain, and on the Continent of Europe, the nationality of the
majority of such relics found in the bogs, beds of rivers, and newly
broken land of Ireland, is sufficiently indicated by certain minute
peculiarities which, to a skilled observer, are almost invariably
perceptible. Besides, the stone moulds in which many of the objects
were cast have, from time to time, been turned up by the plough, or
otherwise brought to light in various districts of the country.
The moulds are of two kinds: the first single, containing a cutting
on the surface into which the metal was poured; this was used chiefly
for the flat, axe-shaped type of celt. The second was a double mould
consisting of two parts fitted together, and was chiefly used for
casting the winged or flanged variety of celt. Fig. 1 represents
a mould found in Lough Scur Crannoge, Co. Leitrim; and fig. 2 was
discovered at Ballynahinch, Co. Down.
* * * * *
_Bronze Swords._--Ireland is particularly rich in bronze swords; and a
greater number have been found in it than in England or Scotland. The
colour of the metal in the swords is usually lighter than that in the
celt, as it seems to have suffered less from oxidation. Bronze swords
are usually divided into (1) the leaf-shaped, (2) the rapier, and (3)
the broad scythe-shaped varieties. On page 214 are given examples of
the _Leaf-shaped Swords_ found in Ireland. Of these, No. 1 is the
longest blade preserved in the Royal Irish Academy’s collection in the
National Museum. It measures 29⅝ inches in length; and as it has been
drawn to about one-sixth scale, the proportion of its parts can be
relatively ascertained. The covering or mounting of the handle has been
lost; but six bronze rivets, by which it was secured to the tang, still
remain. In the ends of each of these are small circular depressions
which were probably intended for the reception of some coloured
enamel.
[Illustration: Varieties of Bronze Swords found in Ireland.]
Blade No. 2, though somewhat smaller, is in style very like that just
noticed. It is finely cast, and has, like the first, a bevel-edge. Its
tang exhibits five plain bronze rivets, and three apertures for the
reception of others which no longer remain; its length is 28½ inches.
No. 3 is 26 inches long, and retains ten handle-rivets, and provision
for the reception of two more which have been lost. It has a narrow
grooved feather-edge, but no midrib.
No. 4 is a very beautiful leaf-shaped sword richly moulded, and
presenting a broad and finely graduated central rib, by which great
strength is added to the blade, rendering it equally fit for thrusting
or striking. The tang appears to have originally possessed ten rivets,
of which only two remain; the length is 23½ inches.
No. 5. This blade is remarkable for the shortness of its tang, which
is pierced for four rivets only. It is not bevelled at the edges, but
shows a sharp central ridge of unusual thickness.
No. 6 is 18½ inches long; it ‘has a thick flat midrib and grooved side
bevels, or feather-edges, with hilt notches in the base of the blade.
The handle-plate, which is slightly defective, has four rivet-holes,
and has been welded by an over-lap.’ (Wilde.)
The precise manner in which the swords were hafted remained until
lately a matter of conjecture. It has been shown, however, by existing
examples, that the mounting probably generally consisted of bone;
wood also may have been largely used. While in the northern and other
parts of the Continent of Europe, bronze swords are commonly found with
handles of the same metal, we cannot point to a single Irish specimen
so furnished. Rapiers and dagger-knives of bronze, the blades and
handles of which are of the same material, have frequently been found
in Ireland. The handle-plates of swords are often found broken; and in
some cases the break has been welded, which shows that this was the
weakest part of the weapon. Bronze swords everywhere seem to have been
used more for thrusting in close combat than for striking; and although
the weapon ultimately developed into possessing a massive bronze
handle, it was not until iron came into general use that the warrior
was armed with a weapon strong enough at the hilt to deliver a downward
stroke without snapping the blade.
[Illustration: Dagger hafted with Bronze.]
* * * * *
The _Rapier_ partakes very much of the character of the leaf-shaped
sword, having the broad triangular and the long narrow types, and
are probably from the same school of manufacture. Except in the
circumstance of being usually very long and narrow in the blade, they,
as a rule, differ little from the swords and daggers with which they
are sometimes found. Instead of a handle-plate, the butt of the blade
of the rapier widens out for the reception of the haft, to which it
was fastened by two or more rivets. In some cases the blade was only
notched instead of pierced for the rivets; while in others it was both
perforated and notched. Like the daggers, the handles were occasionally
of bronze; but there is reason to believe that their mounting was more
usually of bone. Moulds of stone used for the purpose of casting this
class of weapon are rare; but a couple of specimens may be seen in the
National Museum.
* * * * *
_Broad Scythe-shaped Swords._--These are usually thick, heavy,
round-pointed weapons, from about 8 to 16 inches in length and several
inches broad at the butt, where they were attached to the haft by two
or more heavy rivets, the heads of which are sometimes an inch across.
About one-half of those in the National Museum are of the peculiar
curved or scythe-shaped kind, and the greater proportion have thick
central midribs. These, according to Wilde, seem to have been fastened
at right angles to the hafts ‘like modern halberds.’ This view is
generally accepted; but their great antiquity among metal weapons is
probably not so great as Wilde seemed to think.
The swords discovered in Irish lake-dwellings are very varied; but
they are all strikingly Celtic in character. A few have been formed
of bronze, and differ in no respect from the greater number of those
discovered in districts where, apparently, crannogs did not exist.
The great majority of the crannog swords are, however, of iron, and
are remarkable, as a rule, for their comparatively small size--their
handles in particular. From this it has been inferred that the race
or races by whom they were used must have been diminutive people. But
the same remark may be applied to nearly all the swords of antiquity
of which we know anything. The bronze swords discovered by Schliemann
in the shaft-graves of Mycenæ are about 3 feet long--small weapons
compared to the long, heavy, two-handed sword of the Middle Ages.
In shape the crannog swords may be described, generally, as of two
kinds: the one increasing in breadth from the handle to the end,
which terminates in the form of a triangle; the other shorter, with a
broad blade, quite in the Roman fashion. Both are double-edged, and
are usually strengthened by a central ridge, while some rare examples
are fluted. Their handles were for the most part composed of bone or
horn, though sometimes wood was used; they were, as a rule, finished
by a pommel, or knob of a semicircular or triangular form, secured and
strengthened on the inner side by a plate of bronze, curving backwards.
There is no hilt or guard, properly speaking, though the haft or handle
usually somewhat overlaps the sides and edges of the blade, presenting
a crescent-like figure, the curve of which tends in a direction
opposite to that of the pommel. Bronze mountings frequently occur.
* * * * *
[Illustration: No. 1. Upper and Lower Portions of Sword-sheath of
Bronze, from Lisnacroghera. Now in the Grainger Collection.]
[Illustration: No. 2. Upper and Lower Portions of Sword-sheath of
Bronze from Lisnacroghera. Now in the British Museum.]
[Illustration: No. 3. Upper and Lower Portions of Sword-sheath of
Bronze from Lisnacroghera. Now in the Grainger Collection.]
_Bronze Sword-sheaths._--Through the kindness of the Council of the
Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, illustrations are here
reproduced, from their _Journal_ (1883, 1889), of several bronze
sheaths which were found at Lisnacroghera, near Broughshane, Co.
Antrim, in connection with at least three swords of the crannog class.
Very few remains of the kind have been discovered in Ireland; and
no specimen had been found when Wilde compiled his _Catalogue_. He,
however, notices some small, undecorated objects, composed of bronze,
little larger than a lady’s scissors-case, which, in all probability,
were the sheaths of small knives or skeans. At Lisnacroghera crannog,
four fine and nearly perfect examples of bronze sword-sheaths, which
had contained iron blades, have, in recent years, been brought to
light; some portions of at least four others also occurred in the same
place. In Kemble’s _Horœ Ferales_ several short swords or daggers are
illustrated identical in type with that so clearly shown in Ireland,
for the first time, by the Lisnacroghera ‘finds.’ The illustrations
in that work[99] show both sides of a sword and sheath, and their
likeness to the Ulster examples is very striking: the haft of the
sword is of a similar character, and the ends of the bronze sheaths
identical. This relic was discovered in the river Witham, in England.
The bed of the Thames has, from time to time, presented examples of
equal interest.
The Lisnacroghera remains are, in some respects, the most remarkable
that have been discovered in recent years in Ireland. The special
importance of the ‘finds’ lies in the interesting series of iron swords
with bronze mountings and ornamental bronze sheaths, already referred
to, and iron spears, the wooden handles of which had bronze knobs at
the end. One of the sheaths is perfect but unornamented; of the others
which are here illustrated only one side of each remains. These are
very finely ornamented by sharp and clear incised lines. The pattern
was evidently intended for the reception of enamel, which was probably
black, and of which some faint traces seemed to remain. If this was so,
the contrast, when finished, between the black enamel and the burnished
golden-hued bronze must have been very striking and effective.
The advanced stage of art reached in the ornamentation of these objects
has been styled ‘Late Celtic’ by Sir A. W. Franks, in editing Kemble’s
_Horæ Ferales_. The objects on which the early craftsmen lavished this
decoration, and in which the metal-workers of the British Islands were
in no way behind those of Central Europe, consist of shields, swords,
sheaths, horse-trappings, fibulæ, armlets, &c. These were of both
bronze and iron, the latter prevailing in the La Tène period, and
they were often embellished with enamel. Sir A. W. Franks, on a very
careful examination of many of these objects, attributes them to Celtic
sources, and not to Roman, Saxon, or Danish. He is inclined to fix the
date of their production at about 100 B.C.; and as a discussion of
the evidence involved in these questions is outside our limits, it is
sufficient here to state that the early Iron Age was fully developed
among the Celtic races of Central Europe long before the new metal was
generally adopted by the inhabitants of the British Islands and the
North of Europe. It is now generally admitted that the art and industry
represented in the objects under consideration had their origin in
the influences emanating from the civilization of Hallstatt and La
Tène. Commencing about 800 B.C., these influences extended; and the
results may be traced from the British Isles, throughout Europe, to the
plains beyond the Alpine barriers, until we reach the shores of the
Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas.
* * * * *
_Bronze Spear- and Javelin-heads._--These have been found in large
quantities in Ireland; and the number in the National Museum is about
320. The classification given by Wilde is that usually adopted: (1)
the leaf-shaped, either long and narrow, or broad, with holes in the
sockets for the purpose of riveting into the shaft. (2) The looped,
with eyes on the sockets below the blade and on the same plane with it.
(3) Spear-heads with the loops formed at the junction of the blade
with the socket. (4) Those with the loops in the body of the blade, on
either side of the midrib or main line of the weapon. These spaces are
sometimes crescent-shaped, and are considered to lighten the weight of
the spear. This division seems more or less arbitrary, depending on
accentuated points of difference. A more satisfactory classification
has been attempted by Mr. George Coffey, showing their probable type
development.[100]
[Illustration: Varieties of Spear-heads of Bronze.]
The looped spear-head is a distinct type; and, according to Sir John
Evans, it is hardly known outside the British Isles. It is more
numerous in Ireland than in England or Scotland. Of the spear-heads in
the Academy Collection here figured, No. 1 is, with a single exception,
the largest known to have been discovered in Ireland. It is 27 inches
in length, and composed of fine gold-coloured metal, run very light and
thin; it is furnished near the socket with two loops, and has a broad
concave bevel round the edge. This weapon was found near Maghera, Co.
Londonderry.
No. 2, which measures 13½ inches in length, is composed, like No. 1, of
bright gold-coloured bronze. It is remarkable for the breadth of its
blade, and for the position of its loops as shown in the illustration.
No. 3 is 15 inches long, and presents a very unusual form, being
concave on its curved sides. Here, as usual, we find loops upon the
socket; they, however, present a somewhat rare feature, being connected
with the base of the blade by narrow lateral fillets. It will be seen
that the end of the socket is richly engraved with lines and chevrons,
like those which are found in great variety upon many objects of the
Bronze Age.
No. 4 is an excellent and typical example of the leaf-shaped spear-head
so often found in Ireland. It is 13½ inches in length, and has no side
loops, but the socket is pierced for the reception of a rivet, which
was probably of wood, by which the head was secured to the shaft or
handle. It may be observed that the sockets of this class of spear-head
are almost invariably of abnormal diameter, and that the metal of the
head is usually of a duller or more copper-like colour than that of the
ordinary bronze of the period.
No. 5 is a curious specimen composed of pure bronze, and unique in the
collection. It is 13⅞ inches in length; and its peculiarity is in the
position of the side loops--one appearing near the end of the socket,
while the other is considerably above it, and very close to the side
of the blade. The loops, too, are of unusual character, being almost
semicircular in form, while features of their kind are, as a general
rule, of a quadrangular shape; the socket is quite plain.
* * * * *
[Illustration:
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Ornaments on Spear-heads.]
_Ornamented Spears._--The spear-head indicated by fig. 1 in the
accompanying illustration measures 7½ inches in length. It is a
beautiful example in every respect, and when first lifted from the bed
of the Shannon, was as bright as gold. It has no patina, and is now of
a dull yellow colour. Fig. 2 is drawn upon a larger scale than that
adopted in the general view of the spear-head, in order to illustrate
the design with greater clearness. The work is very similar to some
that appears on gold lunettes and other relics of the Bronze Age to
be seen in the Academy collection. Fig. 3 illustrates the socket of a
spear-head boldly and richly decorated in the same style. Fig. 4 is a
full-sized engraving of the smallest bronze spear, or javelin-head,
preserved in the collection. Like Fig. 4 of the group of spear-heads
already given, it is composed of dark-coloured bronze, and exhibits,
for the size of the object, a most disproportionate diameter in the
socket.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Butt mounting of Crannog Spear-shaft. From the Grainger
Collection.]
_Crannog Spears._--Very few spear-heads of bronze have been found
in Irish lake-dwellings, while arms of that class, javelins and
arrow-heads, composed of iron, are very numerous. As may be judged
from examples found at Lisnacroghera, the spear-shaft was usually
about 8 feet in length; but one complete specimen, now in the Grainger
collection, Belfast, has, so far as we are aware, been preserved: it is
of ash. Objects of antique bronze, similar in form to that of a modern
door-handle, may be seen in most of the important collections of Irish
antiquities. Up to a recent period they were a puzzle to archæologists.
That they were mountings for the butts of spear-shafts is now certain.
Indeed, at Lisnacroghera a couple were found still retaining within
them portions of the handle-ends. The mode in which they had been
attached to the shaft is thus described by Canon Greenwell, who had
secured at least five specimens from that crannog: ‘The end of the
shaft is split, and into the split is inserted a wedge of wood, so
that, when driven home, the wedge expanded the end of the shaft, and
kept it firm in the butt.’ Iron spear-heads are often very elegant in
form; and in some instances their sockets are ornamented with chevron
and other tasteful patterns. They were secured to the handle by bronze
ferules, or by rivets of the same metal, or of iron, which sometimes
projected beyond the sides of the shaft, as we see depicted in the
drawings in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. The ferules occasionally exhibit
depressions, or scorings, which would seem to have been intended for
the reception of enamel. In no instance have the side loops, so common
in bronze examples, been found on spear-heads of iron.
Arrow-heads of copper or bronze are rare; the metals were too valuable
to be used in any general sense in such weapons. Javelin-heads,
generally differing from the spears in size only, have been found in
our principal crannogs; but no trace of a bow, so far as we are aware,
has been recognized amongst the numerous relics formed of wood which
usually accompany the metallic remains. Many of the smaller heads in
the National Museum were probably used as bolts for cross-bow purposes.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Bronze Shield from Lough Gur.]
_Shields._--There can be little doubt that the lake-dwellers in
Ireland--such of them at least as were able to bear arms--were in the
possession of shields, some of which were formed of bronze. Not far
from Lough Gur--a sheet of water with crannogs--in the County Limerick,
a very fine shield composed of bronze was accidentally brought to
light. This occurred during drainage operations some fifty years ago,
when a large number of bronze arms and implements were discovered.
This is known as the ‘Lenihan’ shield; it is circular in plan, the
diameter being 28 inches, and slightly convex; the centre rises about
1¼ inches above the rim; and the _umbo_, which is 6 inches wide at the
base, rises in conical form 1¾ inches above the shield. ‘The hollow of
the _umbo_ internally is crossed by a stout handle, firmly riveted to
the shield, of sheet bronze bent into a round. The metal of the shield
is formed at the edge into a round hollow rim by being most skilfully
turned inwards into a roll ¼ inch wide; between it and the _umbo_ are
six beaten-up circular ribs, and six rows of small studs. In the circle
next the rim there are seventy-three studs, and in that next the _umbo_
twenty-two. The bronze, which is of a fine golden colour, is about the
thickness of a worn shilling next the rim, and of a sixpence near the
centre.’ The metal is much too thin to have been of any service by
itself, so that it probably was the outer and ornamental covering of
a ‘tough bull-hide.’ Plates of this kind, examples of which have been
found in Great Britain, seem to belong to the close of the Bronze Age.
Sculptured upon one of the crosses at Kells, Co. Meath, are armoured
figures with round shields, showing that these defences were used in
the early Christian period at least.
Many pieces of hammered sheet-iron, which appear to have belonged to
shields, have from time to time been found in crannogs. It is probable,
however, that shields were, as a general rule, formed of wicker-work,
or wood, covered with a piece of animal hide. It was not until man, as
Sir John Evans points out, had made considerable advance in the use of
bronze that he could have prepared plates, like that of the Lough Gur
type, wherewith to cover a shield.
* * * * *
_Bridle-bits._--Amongst the rarer remains of a period when bronze was
very largely used in the production of arms, implements, and objects
of various descriptions, bridle-bits, remarkable for their beauty
of design and excellence of workmanship, are, in some respects, of
the highest interest. Some examples were evidently intended for the
reception of enamel as portion of their decoration; and, in at least
one instance, the cheek-pieces, or rings to which reins had been
attached, are richly embossed with coloured material, in every way
resembling the enamel found on some of the finest remains of the Late
Celtic period.
On several ancient crosses will be seen sculptures of chariots, showing
that these were in use among the chiefs or other high personages at an
early date. The vehicles are represented as furnished with large-sized,
spoked wheels, and drawn by pairs of high-stepping, evidently
mettlesome, horses. The body of the machine is of elegant design; and
we have records that it was at times artistically embellished with
_findruine_, a white metal more precious amongst the ancient Irish than
silver. At Tara was a space known as the ‘Slope of the Chariots,’ where
it is supposed, as its name implies, chariot races were held.
The three bronze bridle-bits here figured, and showing different
varieties, are in the National Museum, where a large number, complete
and fragmentary, may be seen. Fig. 2 was found in the valley between
the hills of Screen and Tara. Fig. 3, which was found near Navan,
County Meath, accompanied with gilt bronze trappings, and the skull and
other remains of a horse, is most likely of a later period than the
others. Almost immediately with it were about a dozen human skeletons,
and traces of fire. In general form and in its details, this bit
closely resembles some specimens formed of iron which were dug out
from the crannogs of Lagore and Ardakillin.[101] The bridle-bits here
illustrated are practically identical with examples of the Hallstatt
and La Tène periods, found both in bronze and iron.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Bronze Bridle-bits.]
In connection with bronze-bits of the earlier kind, spur-shaped
objects, usually, but vaguely, described as ‘headstalls,’ have
frequently been discovered. There is some evidence that they were
attached to the cheek-pieces, or rings, and hung with their knobs
downward. They may, however, have stood above the head and had plumes
or some such things fixed in them. The central figure in Fig. 4 is
given to show the style of ornamentation that appears upon the external
side of the terminal loops. The lines, which are deeply cut, were
probably enamelled. In Fig. 5 the cross-like figures are very curious,
but they need not be supposed to have any connection with Christian
symbolism.
[Illustration:
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Trappings of Bronze, called ‘Head-stalls,’ found with Bronze
Bridle-bits.]
Yokes, formed of wood, by which horses, oxen, or other animals of
draught were coupled, have often been found in our peat bogs. Some
examples exhibit much taste in their style of decoration. There is a
valuable collection of these and other wooden objects in the National
Museum.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Bronze Caldron, Academy Collection.]
_Caldrons._--Caldrons--in Irish _coire_--formed of thin plates of
beaten bronze curiously riveted together, were important articles of
domestic use in Ireland at an early date, being mentioned among the
special property of kings; and many fine specimens have been found
in Ireland from time to time. Tradition tells that among the great
treasures brought to this country by Tuatha De Danaan was the Coire
an Daghdha or ‘Magic Caldron.’ Caldrons are usually of very graceful
form, and were furnished with two rings, or handles, placed opposite to
each other at or near the rim of the vessel, and held by straps, which
were fastened by stays either to the inside or outside of the vessel.
Most of the known specimens must have been long in use, as they are
generally more or less patched and mended in places where the metal
had given way. The added pieces are of the same material as the body of
the utensil, and are kept in position by rivets, never by soldering.
One vessel of this class was found nearly full of celts, palstaves,
daggers, crotals,[102] and other objects of bronze. This discovery was
made at Dowris, near Birr, in the King’s County, in 1830. The bronze
of which the objects were made is of a bright golden hue, which it is
supposed was due to a mixture of lead in its composition; this type
of metal is known in consequence as ‘Dowris bronze.’ Bronze caldrons
similar to the Irish, both of the round and elongated forms, have been
found among the Hallstatt remains.
Caldrons are constantly mentioned in ancient Irish manuscripts. In the
_Book of Rights_ the following passages occur, showing that the caldron
formed part of the tribute paid to a king:--
‘A caldron is giving to the King of Caiseal
By the King of Teamhair, the mighty chief,
To be presented in due form,
And to be brought to Teamhair Luachra....
Entitled is the King of Saithne to this,
To a steed and to two score of cows,
For his rising out is not less,
Neither is his caldron nor his vat.’[103]
Caldrons formed of iron, similar in shape and style of workmanship to
those of bronze, have recently been found in Ireland. The Grainger
collection, Belfast, contains two important examples from the
Lisnacroghera crannog. A third, from Lough Erne, has been presented to
the Royal Irish Academy collection by Mr. Seaton Milligan.
Among other bronze objects of domestic use discovered are small dishes,
an interesting example of which is here illustrated. It is 7¾ inches
wide, and is hammered out of a single piece of metal, and ornamented on
the inside with a series of curved-line patterns.
[Illustration: Bronze Dish from Cloonfinlough Crannog, Co. Roscommon.]
* * * * *
_Bronze Trumpets._--A large number of war-trumpets have been found in
Ireland during the past two centuries; and an interesting series of
these in the Academy collection is to be seen in the National Museum.
These instruments are usually classified into (1) those blown in
the ordinary way from the end; and (2) those having the end closed,
and sounded from an opening some distance from it in the body of
the instrument. Among the examples found, some are cast, and others
riveted; many are ornamented, and some have highly decorated discs
of the Late Celtic period round the mouth. When not in use they were
probably slung from the shoulder, some of the instruments exhibiting
loops to which straps could be attached.
[Illustration: Bronze Trumpets, Academy Collection, National Museum.]
An interesting group of trumpets from the Academy collection is here
represented. The trumpet to the left of the lower central figure is
of cast bronze and is 24 inches in length along the convex side. ‘It
requires,’ says Wilde, ‘a great exertion to produce even a dull sound
with this instrument.’ The central figure, and that immediately above
it to the right, are also cast, and have holes on the inner sides.
It has been thought that this type of instrument was used more for
speaking than blowing; and Latin writers notice the clamour and noise
of trumpets made by the Celts on the battle-field. The fourth trumpet
is of two portions, and the combined length is about 6 feet. It is
not cast, but made of thin sheet bronze; the edges are not soldered,
but are held together by thin stripes of metal running along the seam
internally and externally, and riveted to each side by alternate studs
of bronze. The disc at the end is about 3 inches wide, and has a fine
design of Late Celtic pattern punched on the metal. The fifth figure
in the illustration represents an exceptionally fine trumpet, and one
of the most remarkable yet discovered in Europe for its size. It is 8
feet 5 inches in length, and is in two portions, formed, like the last,
of sheet bronze, the edges being held together by an internal strip
of metal riveted to the side. This, as Wilde well says, is the most
perfect thing of its kind yet discovered; and if the instrument was
originally of one piece, exceptional skill and ingenuity were shown in
the riveting.[104]
* * * * *
_Bronze Ornaments._--Pins of wood or bone seem to have been the
material used in the earliest articles for fastening the dress. Bone
pins have been found in considerable numbers in early burial sites, and
in crannog remains; many are ornamented and they were very probably
used long after the introduction of bronze. On the discovery of this
metal the beauty of the colour naturally led to its immediate adoption
for objects of personal use and decoration. The number of these objects
that have been found in Ireland is very great, and they consist of
pins, fibulæ, brooches, rings, bracelets, &c. The bronze pin, which was
derived from the ring-brooch, shows a regular development; first in
the solid head, which is very varied; later the head was pierced for a
ring, or a ring was riveted to it. The ring in time became the special
object of development, similar to the process of the parent ring-brooch
which ended in the production of those splendid examples of metal
work--the Celtic brooches.
[Illustration:
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Disc and Penannular Types of Ring Pins.]
The accompanying figures illustrate varieties of ring-pins not uncommon
in Irish collections. Fig. 1 has a ring of the disc type with a plaited
design, which plays freely in the loop of the pin-head. Fig. 2 has
the penannular type of ring with coin-shaped ends. Spring brooches or
fibulæ of the kind shown in fig. 3 are rarely found in Ireland. This is
a beautiful example of the ‘serpent’ type, and ‘is curiously frosted
with a raised irregular pattern all over the surface; but whether
produced in casting, or caused by sudden cooling of the metal, is
uncertain.’ Fig. 4 represents a beautiful example of the hinge-brooch
and one of the finest ever discovered. It was found in Ardakillin
Crannog, near Strokestown. The ends show Late Celtic design; and the
ornament was produced by punching from the back. The curved body of the
brooch has a raised plaited design of the usual type; and this piece
appears to have been cast.
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Bronze Fibula.]
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Bronze Hinge-Brooch, drawn full size.]
Penannular rings, more common in gold than in bronze, have frequently
been found, the larger size having been used as bracelets or armlets.
Two of the latter are figured on next page. One is a massive ornament
consisting of a double rope-like band joined to a small ring. The
second consists of ‘a double circlet of thin bronze, with free ends,
one of which is perforated for looping on a stud placed behind the
central enlargement; the other extremity, as well as the central space,
is decorated with an embossed bird-head pattern.’ (Wilde.)
[Illustration: Figs. 5 and 6. Bronze Armlets, one-half real size.]
* * * * *
_Gold Ornaments._--By far the largest number of important objects for
personal decoration of the Bronze Age found in Ireland are of gold.
The quantity that has been discovered is very large; and Ireland has
perhaps the richest collection in Europe of prehistoric gold ornaments.
There are many references to gold in the Irish ‘Annals’; and, judging
from them, its antiquity in Ireland is great. We are told, under date
3872 A.M.: ‘It was Muineamhon that first caused chains of gold (to be
worn) on the necks of kings and chieftains in Ireland.’ In the _Book
of Rights_, numerous allusions are made to rings, chains, brooches,
and other objects of gold and silver as tribute paid by petty kings and
chiefs to the reigning monarch.
The _Annals of the Four Masters_, at A.M. 3656, state: ‘It was
by Tighearnmas also that gold was first melted in Ireland, in
Foithre-Airthir-Liffe. (It was) Uchadan, an artificer of the
Feara-Cualann, smelted it. It was by him that goblets and brooches
were first covered with gold and silver in Ireland.’ A similar entry
occurs in the _Annals of Clonmacnoise_.[105] The district referred to
includes parts of the counties of Wicklow and Dublin. It is interesting
to note that even to this day gold is found in several of the mountain
streams of Wicklow. In the National Museum may be seen the model of a
Wicklow nugget found in 1796 which weighed 22 ounces; in a few weeks
subsequently, 800 ounces were sold for £3000. One has been found of
nine and another of eight ounces. It has been computed that in the
early part of the last century the jewellers of Dublin paid annually
an average sum of £2000 for nuggets from the Wicklow streams, secretly
sold to them by the finders. Much has been written, and various
theories advanced, to show that the sources from which the ancient
Irish derived gold were foreign, and not native. It has been attributed
to the Levant, Gaul, Spain, and Scandinavia; while one writer labours
to prove that Roman coinage was melted down to supply the material for
the manufacture of ornaments. The instances here given--of Wicklow
furnishing considerable quantities of the precious metal in modern
times--supplies strong presumptive evidence that the main source from
which the ore was derived was Ireland itself.
The recorded instances of the discovery of gold ornaments and other
objects in Ireland are very numerous, and date back for several
centuries.[106] The collection of the Royal Irish Academy is one of
exceptional interest and value, and numbers over 350 specimens. These
have been classified by Wilde as follows: ‘Diadems, tiaras, lunulæ,
hair-plates, and ear-rings; those used for the neck--as, for example,
gorgets, small torques, flattened beads, globular balls, and necklaces;
for the breast--as circular plates, fibulæ, and brooches; for the
limbs--as armillæ, bracelets, and finger-rings; and for the chest and
waist, in the form of large torques: besides several minor trinkets
and miscellaneous articles, such as bullæ, small circular boxes,
penannular-shaped articles--supposed to represent money--bracteate
medals, and some other objects of undetermined use.’[107]
Notwithstanding the great number of gold objects found in Ireland, and
preserved in public museums or private collections, the majority of
those discovered found their way to the melting-pot; some jewellers,
according to Wilde, estimated that they had purchased as much as
£10,000 worth. This is a matter much to be regretted, for the loss
to archæology is great; and it cannot be too widely known that the
Council of the Academy and the Trustees of the National Museum are
prepared to pay, not only the full bullion value of any object found,
but its estimated antiquarian value, which depends on its condition,
rarity, ornamentation, and the very special circumstances under which
it has been discovered. As examples of the losses in question, we may
mention that in 1860 a letter appeared in the _Athenæum_ from Mr.
Clibborn, the then Curator of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,
stating ‘that a considerable gold find had been made near Athlone to
the value of £27,000, which had been entirely lost to the antiquarian
world.’ Again, in 1854, during the construction of the Limerick and
Ennis Railway, certain labourers found under a rude cairn an immense
treasure of the precious metal. So great was this find that four days
after the discovery four men departed to America with about £6000 each.
Large numbers of the objects were immediately melted down in Limerick
and neighbouring towns; a few only seem to have been saved from the
crucible.
* * * * *
_Torques._--The term ‘Torque’ is applied to the various kinds of
collars generally worn round the neck, by the Celtic tribes of the
Continent and the British Isles. Those of the largest kind were worn
round the waist, or across the breast, and the smallest on the arm or
wrist. The torque, familiar to all readers of Roman history, and worn
round the neck, was a twisted rope-like ornament with bulbous ends at
the front. Frequent mention is made of the torque in Irish records, and
their use ranged over a long period of time. Considerable numbers, and
of great variety, have been discovered in Ireland; and some are among
the largest yet found in Europe. ‘The simplest form,’ say Wilde, ‘is
that of a square bar of gold, twisted so as to present a funicular, or
rope-like figure. In the more complete forms, two or more flat stripes
of metal, joined at their inner edges, are twisted spirally.’
[Illustration: Gold Torques, Royal Irish Academy Collection.]
The subject of the above illustration is a group of four torques of
types usually found. The two outer examples were dug out of a bank
of earth on the Hill of Tara. This was in 1810--a time when little
was known about Irish antiquities; and the torques were hawked about
the streets of Navan for sale as old brass, but nobody would purchase
them. They were found in the immediate vicinity of the monuments
identified by Petrie as Mael Bloc and Bluicni, two magical stones of
the pillar class. Wilde states that these ornaments were purchased by
the Duke of Sussex, from whom they passed to the firm of West; and in
1839 they were purchased by subscription, and presented to the Royal
Irish Academy. The outer figure represents as far as we are aware,
the largest ever recorded to have been found anywhere. It is 5 feet 7
inches long, weighs 27 ounces and 7 pennyweights, and is formed of four
flat bars, united at their edges when straight, and then twisted.
The next in size measures 5 feet 6 inches in length, and is twisted
closer; its weight is 12 ounces, 7 pennyweights, and 13 grains. These
large torques were seemingly intended to be worn over the shoulder and
across the breast; the smaller examples were evidently for the neck.
* * * * *
_Lunulœ or Lunettes._--A number of these interesting objects, which
there is good reason to believe belonged to royal persons, may be seen
in the same collection. In Irish they are called ‘Min’ or ‘Mind,’
and consist of ‘a thin crescentic or moon-shaped plate, with the
extremities formed into small, flat, circular discs at right angles
with the plane of the article.’ They are remarkable for the elaborate
ornamentation worked upon them, the pattern being filled with closely
engraved lines single and cross-hatched; the design is of the type
found on bronze weapons and sepulchral urns. These ornaments are
considered to have been worn upright on the head, and held in position
by the terminal plates set behind the ears. They are similar in form
to the ‘nimbi’ in pictures of saints; and in those on panels, the
‘glories’ were often represented by silver-gilt plates of metal.
[Illustration: Gold Lunette, or Min, Royal Irish Academy Collection.]
The above figure represents a beautiful and finely decorated example of
lunette; it is 7 inches high, and about the same broad, and weighs 18
dwts. 2 grs. The terminal plates are of oblong shape and not circular.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Gold Tiara or Diadem, Royal Irish Academy Collection.]
_The Diadem or Tiara_ is another and not uncommon type of the ‘Min.’
They are made of thin plates of gold; and the illustration here shows a
semi-oval-shaped object, wide at the top and narrowing at the ends, and
elaborately decorated. The ends are fixed in double plate-discs; and
when worn, these terminals are supposed to have been in front of, and
partially covering, the ears. This object is a magnificent specimen,
and perhaps the finest of the kind yet discovered. It weighs 16 oz.
10 dwts. and 13 grs., and measures in height, internally, 11 inches by
the same in breadth. It consists of three rolls or ridges, the hollows
being occupied with fine rope-shaped bands. It is richly ornamented
with rows of conical studs; and the discs are also decorated with rows
of small studs round a central umbo.
Many penannular rings have been found in Ireland; and from these were
developed a remarkable series of ornaments usually called _Fibulæ_,
and which are typical of Irish collections. A slight enlargement
at the ends of the ring gave rise to a cup-like expansion, which
in time developed into such a size that the connecting ring became
quite a minor feature in the ornament. The terminals are either flat,
or cup-shaped; the former are usually plain, and the latter highly
ornamented.
[Illustration: Gold Fibula, Trinity College, Dublin.]
The fibula here represented is a massive ornament weighing 33 oz., and
is the heaviest of its kind yet discovered. It is 8⅜ inches long, and
stands 3½ inches high. The external surface of the cups is ornamented
with a concentric circle pattern; while the inside edges and the
junction of the handle and cups are decorated with a triangular design
similar to that on the lunette.
The great interest aroused in the recent discovery of gold ornaments,
the possession of which has formed the subject of debate in and out
of Parliament, renders a brief reference to them necessary. They were
discovered at Broighter, near Limavady Junction, on the Derry and
Coleraine Railway line, in a ploughed field not far from the shores of
Lough Foyle. This great ‘find’ consists of:--(1) A boat of beaten gold,
7¼ inches long by 3 inches wide, weighing 3 oz. 5 dwts.; it has eight
seats, and 15 oars, with other fittings. (2) A bowl also of beaten
gold, 3½ inches in diameter, with 4 small rings for suspension, and
weighing 1 oz. 5 dwts. 12 grs. (3) Two chains of delicate workmanship,
one 14¼ inches long, weighing 2 oz. 7 dwts.; and another 16½ inches,
weighing 6 dwts. 12 grs. (4) A small torque, 5 inches diameter,
weighing 3 oz. 7 dwts. 9 grs.; and a portion of another weighing 1½ oz.
(5) A collar of very remarkable workmanship, and one of the first of
the kind ever discovered. A small portion is missing; but when closed,
it forms a circle 7½ inches diameter. It consists of a highly decorated
hollow tube, 1⅛ inches diameter, formed by two plates soldered
together. It is fastened at the ends by a T-shaped projection and slot.
The ornament is in _repoussé_ work, in the trumpet pattern of the Late
Celtic period, the spaces between being filled with finely engraved
lines like the back of a modern watch.
Mr. A. J. Evans had little doubt that the hoard was a thank-offering
dedicated by some ancient Irish sea-king, who had escaped from the
perils of the waves, to a marine divinity.’ Mr. Robert Cochrane,
however, in a scholarly paper, suggests, with more reason for
acceptance, that the offering might have been made to one of the
neighbouring churches by Aedan, King of the Albanian Scots, who
accompanied St. Columba to the Convention of Drum Ceat.[108]