THE STONE AGE.
FLINT ARROW-HEADS--STONE CELTS--AXE-HAMMERS.
Primitive man everywhere seems to have used stone, wood, and bone in
the manufacture of weapons before he advanced to a knowledge of the
use of metal. The terms ‘Stone,’ ‘Bronze,’ and ‘Iron,’ adopted first
by Scandinavian archæologists, are now generally used to signify
the successive ‘Ages’ of human development from prehistoric into
historic times. The vast quantity of stone and bronze objects found
in Ireland are conclusive that at certain remote periods they were in
general use. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that stone only
was at one time used, and that bronze, on account of its superiority,
in time superseded the older material. Though each prevailed, and
was characteristic of its own period, yet no hard-and-fast line
can be drawn between them, and the overlapping occurs everywhere.
We have evidence in lake-dwelling remains to show that, after
iron was introduced, stone, bronze, and iron implements were used
simultaneously. Stone weapons were in use down to the Middle Ages, and
stone hammers were used in remote places down to modern times.
The antiquity of man in Ireland has long been a subject of general
archæological interest and discussion. He is considered by some
authorities to have been contemporary with the _cervus giganteus_,
whose remains have been discovered in such large numbers in the
country. These have been found in the crannogs of Cloonfinlough,
Loughrea, and in the caves of Ballynamintra. Professor Leith Adams and
Messrs. Kinahan and Ussher, in the exploration of the latter, found the
bones in connexion with ‘battered and chipped’ hammer-stones, which
they had little doubt was the work of man to extract the marrow.[90]
They were found mixed with the remains of Neolithic fauna, red-deer,
horse, ox, grizzly bear, wolf, badger, fox, dog, etc.
The evidence of the existence of Palæolithic man lies deep in the
drifts or raised banks of ancient rivers, or far below the present
floors of caves. If he ever existed in Ireland, he has left no
conclusive evidence of his presence, so far as our knowledge goes.
The relics of Neolithic man lie near the surface, and evidence of his
existence has been found throughout the length and breadth of the land.
When he started in Ireland, he is supposed to have had a considerable
knowledge in the use of stone weapons and skill in their manufacture.
In fashioning flint implements, in the selection of the hardest and
best kinds of stone, in shaping and polishing these for various uses,
he showed an intelligence and skill of no mean order. Finished flint
articles have been found in the north of Ireland in thousands; and the
refuse of their manufacture exists in large quantities. Few countries
equal Ireland in the number of stone implements which have been
discovered of every kind, or can show greater excellence in their style
and finish.
* * * * *
_Flint Arrow-heads._--Flint as the hardest stone and the readiest to
chip was much sought for; and as Antrim furnished this in nodules in
the Chalk formation, it was there worked in great quantities. Knives,
scrapers, arrow- and spear-heads, chisels and axe-heads were fashioned
in many places, especially on the coast where the flint accumulates
along the undercliffs, or on the raised beaches of Larne, Kilroot, and
Whitepark Bay. In these places hundreds of flakes may be gathered in
a short time--the waste material from the workshops of the makers of
flint implements that once existed on these sites. At Portstewart and
Castlerock, on the coast of Donegal, at Dundrum, Co. Down, and along
the Bann valley, great quantities of worked flints have been found,
indicating a wide area for the manufacture of weapons.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.
Spear- or Javelin-head--full size.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2.
Spear-head--Scale, two-thirds.]
An examination of flint flakes will show certain general
characteristics which, when found existing in a large number of
instances, are conclusive that they are the result of manipulation
and not of natural agency. Hammer-stones and cores are also found in
numbers on these sites. The latter are the lumps from which the flakes
were struck; and the hammer-stones, generally pebbles of any hard
stone, such as quartzite, basalt, or granite, show signs of use in
their chipped ends. Scrapers, so much used in the curing and dressing
of skins, and such like purposes, are also found in great numbers
and variety. The women of the Eskimo and other Arctic tribes, at the
present day, use flint scrapers in dressing the skins of animals and
birds. These rude instruments have been found in quantities in the
hut-sites on the coasts of Down, Antrim, and Donegal, and other places
that marked the wanderings of Neolithic man.
Arrow-heads have been found in such quantities, and of such variety,
that we can here only give a general outline of their classification.
It has been estimated that about ten thousand exist in collections
at the present time, not including those which have been sent out
of the country, which probably amount to as many more. In size
arrow-heads measure from about 1 inch to 4; these latter, indeed, and
those up to about 7 or 8 inches long, must have been used as javelin
or spear-points; but, as there is no hard-and-fast dividing line
between them, all may be included in a general description. Some have
been found under one inch in length, but these are not common. The
spear-head (fig. 2) in the National Museum is 6½ inches long and nearly
2 inches broad at the widest part. It was rubbed smooth after chipping,
and is, perhaps, the most perfect of the class yet found. Owing to
their great variety of form, it is difficult to make a classification
of arrow-heads simple enough to cover all. For general purposes,
however, a three-fold division will suffice: leaf-shaped, triangular,
and stemmed. An examination, however, of any good collection will show
that further sub-division is needed under each head, if a thorough
classification and arrangement are required. The _Leaf-shaped_ arrows
are very varied in shape and size; and to this class belong some of
the largest, many of them showing the most perfect manipulation and
delicacy of touch in regard to the chipping. As the name indicates,
these are in general shaped like a leaf; but this class also includes a
large variety of those of a modified leaf-form. They were the easiest
to make, and were probably the earliest in point of time.
[Illustration: Leaf-shaped Arrow-heads.]
[Illustration: Triangular Arrow-heads--first type.]
[Illustration: Triangular Arrow-heads--second type.]
[Illustration: Various types of Stemmed Arrow-heads.]
_Triangular_ arrow-heads are very numerous, and much more so in Ireland
than in England. Most of the objects of this class have an inward curve
in the base, or are notched, leaving barbs or wings between which the
split-shaft was placed. The _Stemmed_ arrow-heads were probably a
development from the leaf or triangular types, and their advantage
over them is obvious. The head was kept in its place and prevented
from splitting the shaft, while the barbs rendered the weapons more
effective in war or in the chase. These vary with long or short stems:
some are without barbs; others have barbs and stems of equal length;
while varieties may be noticed in the edges being straight, curved
either concave or convex, some having a combined or slightly S-shaped
curve.
[Illustration: Mounted Arrow-head.]
Owing to the perishable nature of the shaft, the discovery of a perfect
arrow is exceedingly rare. There are, we believe, only two recorded
instances in Ireland--one (here figured) in the King’s County, in
Ballykellan bog, and the other near Glenarm, Co. Antrim. The head seems
to have been fastened into the split of the shaft by a kind of cement,
and then tied with sinew.[91] Much superstition has been attached to
arrow-heads in Great Britain and Ireland. They have been regarded as
‘elf-shots’ or ‘elf-stones’ cast by the fairies at men or cattle:
hence they have been often worn as charms, or used as such in curing
bewitched cattle by putting them into their drink, which was supposed
to remove the evil.
Knives of flint are also found; the most finished examples are
triangular in shape and pointed, with straight back, bevelled edge, and
tang for insertion into a handle. Saws are numerous, and the serrated
edges were either originally so chipped, or they became so by use.
These are widely distributed, and have been found in Egypt, Greece, and
through Europe to Denmark and the British Isles.
[Illustration: Flint Knife.]
Flaking tools or ‘fabricators,’ as they are called, were used in
the making of flint instruments, examples of which may be seen in
the National Museum collection. These are narrow pieces of flint 4
or 5 inches long, with blunt ends and a ridge on one or both faces.
A deer’s horn or other pointed bone was also used for flaking; the
finer work was probably usually done with such tools. The method was
by pressure, and the finest flaking can thus be executed. Though this
can be imitated with some practice, yet the best work on the faces of
arrow- and spear-heads baffles imitation, showing the perfection of
workmanship to which primitive man reached. Among other objects are
‘bracers’: these are pieces of stone rubbed down to a smooth surface
and pierced with a hole at each end. They are supposed to have been
worn on the wrist for protection against the bowstring when let home.
* * * * *
_Stone Celts._--There is a general similarity in type among the stone
implements known as celts, or chisels and axes. As no well-defined
line can be drawn between these, as the same object could be used as
an instrument or weapon, Sir John Evans, in his exhaustive work on
_Ancient Stone Implements_, uses the term ‘celt’ to include both,
and classifies them under three heads: (1) chipped and not ground or
polished; (2) chipped, with ground edge only; (3) those ground and
polished completely. The last group is further sub-divided into four
classes, according to shape. Some Irish archæologists consider that
many of our implements present features which make this classification
unsatisfactory; but as they are not yet agreed on any classification
sufficiently clear and comprehensive, we shall retain the threefold
division in our brief description.
The chipped implements are of flint and very rude, thick, and heavy
towards the edge, with a blunt point. They resemble the Palæolithic
type, and are found in the raised beaches of Larne, and are known
as the ‘Larne Implements.’ Of an equally rude kind are those found
in hut-sites round the coast, in the Bann Valley, and elsewhere.
Implements of a similar type are found in the shell-mounds of Denmark,
in Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe. They are named the
‘kitchen-midden’ type, and are considered to be the earliest worked by
Neolithic man.
Of the second class many are of flint: the lower part is polished down,
giving a fine cutting edge, and the upper portion is left with a rough
flaked surface. Many of the larger implements belong to this class, and
were the more readily fastened into the haft. These and the polished
celts are made of basalt, porphyry, felstone, greenstone, shale, and
other rocks; the felstone was much sought for, on account of the fine
cutting edge that could be obtained in sharpening. They vary greatly
in size, the average being 6 to 8 inches in length, and in breadth 2 to
3½ inches. The largest yet found is in the National Museum: it is of
clay slate and about 22 inches long. They vary greatly, too, in shape,
and are ovate--that is, of a somewhat egg-shaped form--or triangular,
according to the general cast of the sides and edge.
[Illustration: Polished Celt of Felstone--scale two-thirds.]
[Illustration: Various Types of Stone Celts--scale one-eighth.]
[Illustration: Mounted Celt.]
In the manufacture of these objects the rough shaping was done with a
suitable hammerstone, examples of which may readily be distinguished
by rough chip-marks at the ends. The general method of grinding and
polishing seems to have been by rubbing the implements longitudinally
on a sandstone slab, and the lines of the faces thus made removed
by cross or oblique rubbing with a handstone. Many of the celts are
as highly polished as they could be at the present day, and it is
uncertain how, or with what material, the perfect finish was given to
them. The smaller specimens were doubtless set in the end of a stick,
and used as chisels in the manufacture of wooden vessels or other
light work. Others, there is reason to believe, were simply held in
the hand, and served the double purpose of cutting instruments and
hammers. By the edge, more or less sharp, animal food or integuments
might be cut, or at least roughly divided, while by aid of the opposite
end, which is invariably blunt or flat, marrow-bearing bones might be
smashed. In all probability, however, the great majority had been the
heads of axes used for every-day purposes, or as weapons of war. They
are very frequently discovered in ancient river fords, the passage
of which had, no doubt, been frequently contested. The larger kind
were sometimes mounted in a wooden handle; but, as in the case of the
perfect arrow, the discovery of a mounted implement is exceedingly
rare. A few, however, have been found; and the accompanying figure
shows an example. The primitive inhabitants in our own day of many
lands--such as New Zealand--used implements and weapons mounted in a
similar manner.
[Illustration: Supposed Champion Stone for Casting.]
It is most likely that some remains of this class were used as
missiles. We read of a missile weapon called the Lia Lamha Laich,
_i.e._ a ‘Champion’s handstone,’ which was carried ready for use in
the hollow of the shield. It is described by early writers in a manner
which shows that it was attached to a line of some kind, and was
recoverable after each throw. O’Curry suggests that missiles of this
kind were simply our stone celts. There can be little doubt of the
correctness of his opinion. In the Academy collection are three stones
of that description, which at their narrow end exhibit perforations
well adapted for the attachment of a string or line. The largest
of these stones is slightly over 3½ inches in length. Each side is
crossed by an array of scorings, admirably suited for the purpose of
affording a firm grip to a champion desirous of hurling the stone
with force. Around the aperture are two engraved circles. The other
perforated celts are sharp and well formed, but plain. Each would prove
a formidable missile when cast by a trained hand.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Perforated Axe-hammers of Stone.]
_Axe-hammers._--The perforated axe-hammers show an advance in the
manufacture of stone implements. Of these there are several varieties;
some, and probably the earliest, are of the celt type; others are blunt
at both ends forming true hammers; but the latter type come near to
the modern axe-head in shape. They are well-designed, highly polished,
and formed of stone selected for its hardness. The spot for the hole
seems to have been first chipped; and the perforation was then made by
rotatory friction with a suitable stone, piece of bone or wood, and the
use of sand and water. The operation was usually done on both sides,
as a section of the stone shows that the hole diminishes towards the
middle. Many specimens show a cylindrical perforation, the drilling
of which could be done with a piece of hollow wood, bone, or metal.
Cores cut out in this way have been found in numbers in the Swiss
lake-dwellings; but, as far as we are aware, no core of this kind has
been found in Ireland. One head with an incomplete perforation may be
seen in the Academy collection; this shows the cores, but broken on
both sides. Many of the true round hammer-shaped heads are cleanly
drilled, and with a metal tool. They are evidently late in date, and
were probably used in the working of the finer metals, gold and
silver. Two of the many fine examples in the Academy collection of the
axe type are here figured. The larger is composed of serpentine; it is
8¼ inches long, and weighs about 6½ pounds. It has a broad hatchet-edge
with a heavy head behind the handle. The other, found in the Shannon
at Athlone, is of hornblendic syenite; it is 5½ inches in length, with
grooves round the perforated sides. These are highly polished, and are
among the finest specimens yet discovered in the British Isles.
[Illustration: Perforated Stone Axe-hammers.]