circular curves in the arches, combined with straight lines and the use
of square forms in the ornaments--lines possessed of least variety.
All objects with which one associates the look of strength will be found
to have straight lines in their composition. The look of strength in a
strong man is due to the square lines of the contours, so different
from the rounded forms of a fat man. And everyone knows the look of
mental power a square forehead gives to a head and the look of physical
power expressed by a square jaw. The look of power in a rocky landscape
or range of hills is due to the same cause.
[Illustration: Plate XXXII.
When the Almighty was yet with me, when my children were about me.
(_Plate II, Blake's Job_)
With dreams upon my bed Thou scarest me, and affrightest me with
visions. (_Plate XI, Blake's Job_)
Printed the wrong way up in order to show that the look of horror
is not solely dependent on the things represented but belongs to
the rhythm, the pattern of the composition.
And my servant Job shall pray for you. (_Plate XVIII, Blake's Job_)
When the morning-stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted
for joy. (_Plate XIV, Blake's Job_)]
[Sidenote: The Horizontal and the Vertical]
The horizontal and the vertical are two very important lines, the
horizontal being associated with calm and contemplation and the vertical
with a feeling of elevation. As was said above, their relation to the
sides of the composition to which they are parallel in rectangular
pictures is of great importance in uniting the subject to its bounding
lines and giving it a well-knit look, conveying a feeling of great
stability to a picture.
How impressive and suggestive of contemplation is the long line of the
horizon on a calm day at sea, or the long, horizontal line of a desert
plain! The lack of variety, with all the energy and vitality that
accompany it, gives one a sense of peace and rest, a touch of infinity
that no other lines can convey. The horizontal lines which the breeze
makes on still water, and which the sky often assumes at sunset, affect
us from the same harmonic cause.
The stone pine and the cypress are typical instances of the sublime
associated with the vertical in nature. Even a factory chimney rising
above a distant town, in spite of its unpleasant associations, is
impressive, not to speak of the beautiful spires of some of our Gothic
cathedrals, pointing upwards. How well Constable has used the vertical
sublimity of the spire of Salisbury Cathedral can be seen in his
picture, at the Victoria and Albert Museum, where he has contrasted it
with the gay tracery of an arch of elm trees. Gothic cathedrals
generally depend much on this vertical feeling of line for their
impressiveness.
The Romans knew the expressive power of the vertical when they set up a
lonely column as a monument to some great deed or person. And a sense of
this sublimity may be an unconscious explanation of the craze for
putting towers and obelisks on high places that one comes across in
different parts of the country, usually called someone's "folly."
In the accompanying diagrams, A, B, C and D, E, F, pages 152
[Transcribers Note: Diagram X] and 153 [Transcribers Note: Diagram XI],
are examples of the influence to be associated with the horizontal and
vertical lines. A is nothing but six straight lines drawn across a
rectangular shape, and yet I think they convey something of the
contemplative and peaceful sense given by a sunset over the sea on a
calm evening. And this is entirely due to the expressive power straight
lines possess, and the feelings they have the power to call up in the
mind. In B a little more incident and variety has been introduced, and
although there is a certain loss of calm, it is not yet enough to
destroy the impression. The line suggesting a figure is vertical and so
plays up to the same calm feeling as the horizontal lines. The circular
disc of the sun has the same static quality, being the curve most devoid
of variety. It is the lines of the clouds that give some excitement, but
they are only enough to suggest the dying energy of departing day.
Now let us but bend the figure in a slight curve, as at C, and destroy
its vertical direction, partly cover the disc of the sun so as to
destroy the complete circle, and all this is immediately altered, our
calm evening has become a windy one, our lines now being expressive
of some energy.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXIII.
FÊTE CHAMPÊTRE. GIORGIONI (LOUVRE)
Note the straight line introduced in seated female figure with flute to
counteract rich forms.]
To take a similar instance with vertical lines. Let D represent a row of
pine trees in a wide plain. Such lines convey a sense of exaltation and
infinite calm. Now if some foliage is introduced, as at E, giving a
swinging line, and if this swinging line is carried on by a
corresponding one in the sky, we have introduced some life and variety.
If we entirely destroy the vertical feeling and bend our trees, as at F,
the expression of much energy will be the result, and a feeling of the
stress and struggle of the elements introduced where there was perfect
calm.
It is the aloofness of straight lines from all the fuss and flurry of
variety that gives them this calm, infinite expression. And their value
as a steadying influence among the more exuberant forms of a composition
is very great. The Venetians knew this and made great use of straight
lines among the richer forms they so delighted in.
It is interesting to note how Giorgione in his "Fête Champêtre" of the
Louvre (see illustration, page 151 [Transcribers Note: Plate XXXIII]),
went out of his way to get a straight line to steady his picture and
contrast with the curves. Not wanting it in the landscape, he has boldly
made the contour of the seated female conform to a rigid straight line,
accentuated still further by the flute in her hand. If it were not for
this and other straight lines in the picture, and a certain squareness
of drawing in the draperies, the richness of the trees in the
background, the full forms of the flesh and drapery would be too much,
and the effect become sickly, if not positively sweet. Van Dyck, also,
used to go out of his way to introduce a hard straight line near the
head in his portraits for the same reason, often ending abruptly,
without any apparent reason, a dark background in a hard line, and
showing a distant landscape beyond in order to get a light mass to
accentuate the straight line.
[Illustration: Diagram X.
ILLUSTRATING, A, CALM RHYTHMIC INFLUENCE OF HORIZONTAL LINES SUCH AS A
SUNSET OVER THE SEA MIGHT GIVE; B, INTRODUCTION OF LINES CONVEYING SOME
ENERGY; C, SHOWING DESTRUCTION OF REPOSE BY FURTHER CURVING OF LINES.
THE CALM EVENING HAS BECOME A WINDY ONE.]
[Illustration: Diagram XI.
ILLUSTRATING, D, RHYTHMIC INFLUENCE OF VERTICAL LINES; E, THE
INTRODUCTION OF SOME VARIETY; F, THE DESTRUCTION OF THE VERTICAL AND
CONSEQUENT LOSS OF REPOSE.]
The rich modelling and swinging lines of the "Bacchus and Ariadne" of
Titian in the National Gallery, here reproduced, page 154 [Transcribers
Note: Plate XXXIV], would be too gross, were it not for the steadying
influence of the horizontal lines in the sky and the vertical lines of
the tree-trunks.
While speaking of this picture, it might not be out of place to mention
an idea that occurred to me as to the reason for the somewhat aggressive
standing leg of the female figure with the cymbals leading the
procession of revellers. I will not attempt any analysis of this
composition, which is ably gone into in another book of this series. But
the standing leg of this figure, given such prominence in the
composition, has always rather puzzled me. I knew Titian would not have
given it that vigorous stand without a good reason. It certainly does
not help the run of the composition, although it may be useful in
steadying it, and it is not a particularly beautiful thing in itself, as
the position is one better suited to a man's leg than to a woman's. But
if you cover it over with your finger and look at the composition
without it, I think the reason of its prominence becomes plainer. Titian
evidently had some trouble, as well he might have, with the forward leg
of the Bacchus. He wished to give the look of his stepping from the car
lightly treading the air, as gods may be permitted to do. But the wheel
of the car that comes behind the foot made it difficult to evade the
idea that he was stepping on it, which would be the way an ordinary
mortal would alight. I think the duty of the aggressive standing leg
of the leading Bacchante, with its great look of weight, is to give a
look of lightness to this forward leg of Bacchus, by contrast--which it
certainly does. On examining the picture closely in a good light, you
will see that he has had the foot of Bacchus in several positions before
he got it right. Another foot can distinctly be seen about a couple of
inches or so above the present one. The general vertical direction of
this leg is also against its look of lightness and motion, tending
rather to give it a stationary, static look. I could not at first see
why he did not bring the foot further to the right, which would have
aided the lightness of the figure and increased its movement. But you
will observe that this would have hurled the whole weight of the mass of
figures on the right, forward on to the single figure of Ariadne, and
upset the balance; as you can see by covering this leg with your finger
and imagining it swinging to the right. So that Titian, having to retain
the vertical position for Bacchus' forward leg, used the aggressive
standing leg of the cymbal lady to accentuate its spring and lightness.
[Illustration: Plate XXXIV.
BACCHUS AND ARIADNE. TITIAN
_Photo Hanfstaengl_]
A feeling of straight-up-ness in a figure or of the horizontal plane in
anything will produce the same effect as a vertical or horizontal line
without any actual line being visible. Blake's "Morning Stars Singing
Together" is an instance of the vertical chord, although there is no
actual upright line in the figures. But they all have a vigorous
straight-up-ness that gives them the feeling of peace and elevation
coupled with a flame-like line running through them that gives them
their joyous energy.
[Illustration: Diagram XII.
A, B, C]
[Sidenote: The Right Angle]
The combination of the vertical with the horizontal produces one of the
strongest and most arresting chords that you can make, and it will be
found to exist in most pictures and drawings where there is the
expression of dramatic power. The cross is the typical example of this.
It is a combination of lines that instantly rivets the attention, and
has probably a more powerful effect upon the mind--quite apart from
anything symbolised by it--than any other simple combinations that could
have been devised. How powerful is the effect of a vertical figure, or
even a post, seen cutting the long horizontal line of the horizon on the
sea-shore. Or a telegraph post by the side of the road, seen against the
long horizontal line of a hill at sunset. The look of power given by the
vertical lines of a contracted brow is due to the same cause. The
vertical furrows of the brow continuing the lines of the nose, make a
continuous vertical which the horizontal lines of the brow cross (see
Fig. A in the illustration). The same cause gives the profile a powerful
look when the eyebrows make a horizontal line contrasting with the
vertical line of the forehead (Fig. B). Everybody knows the look of
power associated with a square brow: it is not that the square forehead
gives the look of a larger brain capacity, for if the forehead protrudes
in a curved line, as at C, the look of power is lost, although there is
obviously more room for brains.
This power of the right angle is well exemplified in Watts' "Love and
Death," here reproduced, page 158 [Transcribers Note: Plate XXXV]. In
this noble composition, in the writer's opinion one of the most sublime
expressions produced by nineteenth-century art, the irresistible power
and majesty of the slowly advancing figure of Death is largely due to
the right angle felt through the pose. Not getting it in the contour,
Watts has boldly introduced it by means of shading the farther arm and
insisting on the light upper edge of the outstretched arm and hand,
while losing somewhat the, outline of the head beyond. Note also the
look of power the insistence on square forms in the drapery gives this
figure. The expression is still further emphasised by the hard square
forms of the steps, and particularly by the strong horizontal line of
the first step so insisted on, at right angles to the vertical stand of
the figure; and also the upright lines of the doorway above. In contrast
with the awful sublimity of this figure of Death, how touching is the
expression of the little figure of Love, trying vainly to stop the
inevitable advance. And this expression is due to the curved lines on
which the action of the figure is hung, and the soft undulating forms of
its modelling. Whereas the figure of Death is all square lines and flat
crisp planes, the whole hanging on a dramatic right angle; this figure
is all subtle fullness both of contour and modelling melting one into
the other, the whole hung upon a rich full curve starting at the
standing foot of the advancing figure. And whereas the expression of
Death is supported and emphasised by the hard, square forms and texture
of the stone steps, the expression of Love is supported and emphasised
by the rounded forms and soft texture of the clustering roses. On this
contrast of line and form, so in sympathy with the profound sentiment
to which this picture owes its origin, the expressive power of this
composition will be found to depend.
[Illustration: Diagram XIII.
ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE LINES ON WHICH THE RHYTHMIC POWER OF THIS
PICTURE DEPENDS.]
[Illustration: Plate XXXV.
LOVE AND DEATH. BY G.F. WATTS
A noble composition, founded on the power of the right angle in the
figure of Death, in contrast with the curved lines in the figure of
Love. (See diagram opposite.)
_Photo Hollyer_]
In the diagram accompanying the reproduction of this picture I have
tried to indicate in diagrammatical form some of the chief lines of its
anatomy.
In these diagrams of the anatomy of compositions the lines selected are
not always very obvious in the originals and are justly much broken into
by truths of natural appearance. But an emotional significance depending
on some arrangement of abstract lines is to be found underlying the
expression in every good picture, carefully hidden as it is by all great
artists. And although some apology is perhaps necessary for the ugliness
of these diagrams, it is an ugliness that attends all anatomy drawings.
If the student will trace them and put his tracing over the
reproductions of the originals, they will help him to see on what things
in the arrangement the rhythmic force of the picture depends.
Other lines, as important as those selected, may have been overlooked,
but the ones chosen will suffice to show the general character of them
all.
* * * * *
There is one condition in a composition, that is laid down before you
begin, and that is the shape of your panel or canvas. This is usually a
rectangular form, and all the lines of your design will have to be
considered in relation to this shape. Vertical and horizontal lines
being parallel to the boundaries of rectangular pictures, are always
right and immediately set up a relationship, as we have seen.
The arresting power of the right angle exists at each corner of a
rectangular picture, where the vertical sides meet the horizontal base,
and this presents a difficulty, because you do not wish the spectator's
attention drawn to the corners, and this dramatic combination of lines
always attracts the eye. A favourite way of getting rid of this is to
fill them with some dark mass, or with lines swinging round and carrying
the eye past them, so that the attention is continually swung to the
centre of the picture. For lines have a power of directing the
attention, the eye instinctively running with them, and this power is of
the greatest service in directing the spectator to the principal
interest.
It is this trouble with the corners that makes the problem of filling a
square so exacting. In an ordinary rectangular panel you have a certain
amount of free space in the middle, and the difficulty of filling the
corners comfortably does not present itself until this space is arranged
for. But in a square, the moment you leave the centre you are in one or
other of the corners, and the filling of them governs the problem much
more than in the case of other shapes. It is a good exercise for
students to give themselves a square to fill, in order to understand
this difficulty and learn to overcome it.
Other lines that possess a direct relation to a rectangular shape are
the diagonals. Many compositions that do not hang on a vertical or
horizontal basis are built on this line, and are thus related to the
bounding shape.
[Illustration: Plate XXXVI.
THE SURRENDER OF BREDA VELÁZQUEZ (PRADO)
_Photo Anderson_]
When vertical, horizontal, or diagonal lines are referred to, it must
not be assumed that one means in all cases naked lines. There is no pure
vertical line in a stone pine or cypress tree, nor pure horizontal
line in a stretch of country, but the whole swing of their lines is
vertical or horizontal. And in the same way, when one speaks of a
composition being hung upon a diagonal, it is seldom that a naked
diagonal line exists in the composition, but the general swing is across
the panel in harmony with one or other diagonal. And when this is so,
there is a unity set up between the design and its boundaries. A good
instance of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines to unite a picture
is Velázquez's "The Surrender of Breda," here reproduced. Note the
vertical chord in the spears on the left, continued in the leg of the
horse and front leg of the figure receiving the key, and the horizontal
line made by the dark mass of distant city, to be continued by the gun
carried over the shoulder of the figure with the slouch hat behind the
principal group. Velázquez has gone out of his way to get this line, as
it could hardly have been the fashion to carry a gun in this position,
pointing straight at the head of the man behind. Horizontal lines also
occur in the sky and distant landscape, one running right through the
group of spears. The use of the diagonal is another remarkable thing in
the lines of this picture. If you place a ruler on the slanting line of
the flag behind the horse's head to the right, you find it is exactly
parallel to a diagonal drawn from the top right-hand corner to the lower
left-hand corner. Another line practically parallel to this diagonal is
the line of the sword belonging to the figure offering the key, the
feeling of which is continued in the hand and key of this same figure.
It may be noted also that the back right leg of the horse in the front
is parallel to the other diagonal, the under side of it being actually
on the diagonal and thus brought into relation with the bounding lines
of the picture. And all these lines, without the artifice being too
apparent, give that well-knit, dignified look so in harmony with the
nature of the subject.
[Sidenote: Curved Lines]
Curved lines have not the moral integrity of straight lines. Theirs is
not so much to minister to the expression of the sublime as to woo us to
the beauteous joys of the senses. They hold the secrets of charm. But
without the steadying power of straight lines and flatnesses, curves get
out of hand and lose their power. In architecture the rococo style is an
example of this excess. While all expressions of exuberant life and
energy, of charm and grace depend on curved lines for their effect, yet
in their most refined and beautiful expression they err on the side of
the square forms rather than the circle. When the uncontrolled use of
curves approaching the circle and volute are indulged in, unrestrained
by the steadying influence of any straight lines, the effect is gross.
The finest curves are full of restraint, and excessive curvature is a
thing to be avoided in good drawing. We recognise this integrity of
straight lines when we say anybody is "an upright man" or is "quite
straight," wishing to convey the impression of moral worth.
Rubens was a painter who gloried in the unrestrained expression of the
zeal to live and drink deeply of life, and glorious as much of his work
is, and wonderful as it all is, the excessive use of curves and rounded
forms in his later work robs it of much of its power and offends us by
its grossness. His best work is full of squarer drawing and planes.
#Always be on the look out for straightnesses in curved forms and for
planes in your modelling.#
Let us take our simplest form of composition again, a stretch of sea and
sky, and apply curved lines where we formerly had straight lines. You
will see how the lines at A, page 164 [Transcribers Note: Diagram XIV],
although but slightly curved, express some energy, where the straight
lines of our former diagram expressed repose, and then how in B and C
the increasing curvature of the lines increases the energy expressed,
until in D, where the lines sweep round in one vigorous swirl, a perfect
hurricane is expressed. This last, is roughly the rhythmic basis of
Turner's "Hannibal Crossing the Alps" in the Turner Gallery.
One of the simplest and most graceful forms the tying lines of a
composition may take is a continuous flow, one line evolving out of
another in graceful sequence, thus leading the eye on from one part to
another and carrying the attention to the principal interests.
Two good instances of this arrangement are Botticelli's "Birth of Venus"
and the "Rape of Europa," by Paolo Veronese, reproduced on pages 166
[Transcribers Note: Diagram XV, Plate XXXVII] and 168 [Transcribers
Note: Diagram XVI, Plate XXXVIII]. The Venetian picture does not depend
so much on the clarity of its line basis as the Florentine. And it is
interesting to note how much nearer to the curves of the circle the
lines of Europa approach than do those of the Venus picture. Were the
same primitive treatment applied to the later work painted in the oil
medium as has been used by Botticelli in his tempera picture, the
robustness of the curves would have offended and been too gross for the
simple formula; whereas overlaid and hidden under such a rich abundance
of natural truth as it is in this gorgeous picture, we are too much
distracted and entertained by such wealth to have time to dwell on the
purity of the line arrangement at its base. And the rich fullness of
line arrangement, although rather excessive, seen detached, is in
keeping with the sumptuous luxuriance the Venetian loved so well to
express. But for pure line beauty the greater restraint of the curves in
Botticelli's picture is infinitely more satisfying, though here we have
not anything like the same wealth and richness of natural appearance to
engage our attention, and the innocent simplicity of the technique
leaves much more exposed the structure of lines, which in consequence
play a greater part in the effect of the picture.
[Illustration: Diagram XIV.
ILLUSTRATING POWER OF CURVED LINES TO CONVEY ENERGY. A, B, C, D.]
[Illustration: Diagram XV.
ILLUSTRATING THE FLOW OF LINES ON WHICH THE RHYTHMIC UNITY OF THIS
PICTURE DEPENDS.]
[Illustration: Plate XXXVII.
THE BIRTH OF VENUS. BOTTICELLI (FLORENCE)
A beautiful example of Botticelli's refined line rhythm. (See diagram on
opposite page for analysis.)
_Photo Anderson_]
In both cases note the way the lines lead up to the principal subject,
and the steadying power introduced by means of horizontal, vertical, and
other straight lines. Veronese has contented himself with keeping a
certain horizontal feeling in the sky, culminating in the straight lines
of the horizon and of the sea edge. And he has also introduced two
pyramids, giving straight lines in among the trees, the most pronounced
of which leads the eye straight on to the principal head.