first consideration for setting out a drawing, namely the fixing of
salient points, and getting their relative Positions. Fig. Z, on page
87 [Transcribers Note: Diagram IV], will illustrate what is meant. Let
A B C D E be assumed to be points of some importance in an object you
wish to draw. Unaided, the placing of these points would be a matter of
considerable difficulty. But if you assume a vertical line drawn from A,
the positions of B, C, D, and E can be observed in relation to it by
noting the height and length of horizontal lines drawn from them to this
vertical line. This vertical can be drawn by holding a plumb line at
arm's length (closing one eye, of course) and bringing it to a position
where it will cover the point A on your subject. The position of the
other points on either side of this vertical line can then be observed.
Or a knitting-needle can be held vertically before you at arm's length,
giving you a line passing through point A. The advantage of the needle
is that comparative measurements can be taken with it.
[Illustration: Diagram IV.
SHOWING THREE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION USED IN OBSERVING FIG. X,
MASSES; FIG. Y, CURVES; FIG. Z, POSITION OF POINTS]
In measuring comparative distances the needle should always be held at
arm's length and the eye kept in one position during the operation; and,
whether held vertically or horizontally, always kept in a vertical
plane, that is, either straight up and down, or across at right angles
to the line of your vision. If these things are not carefully observed,
your comparisons will not be true. The method employed is to run the
thumb-nail up the needle until the distance from the point so reached to
the top exactly corresponds with the distance on the object you wish to
measure. Having this carefully noted on your needle, without moving the
position of your eye, you can move your outstretched arm and compare it
with other distances on the object. #It is never advisable to compare
other than vertical and horizontal measurements.# In our diagram the
points were drawn at random and do not come in any obvious mathematical
relationship, and this is the usual circumstance in nature. But point C
will be found to be a little above the half, and point D a little less
than a third of the way up the vertical line. How much above the half
and less than the third will have to be observed by eye and a
corresponding amount allowed in setting out your drawing. In the
horizontal distances, B will be found to be one-fourth the distance from
X to the height of C on the right of our vertical line, and C a little
more than this distance to the left, while the distance on the right of
D is a little less than one-fifth of the whole height. The height of B
is so near the top as to be best judged by eye, and its distance to the
right is the same as B. These measurements are never to be taken as
absolutely accurate, but are a great help to beginners in training
the eye, and are at times useful in every artist's work.
[Illustration: Plate XVII.
DEMONSTRATION DRAWING MADE BEFORE THE STUDENTS OF THE GOLDSMITHS COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF ART
Illustrating how different directions of lines can help expression of
form.]
It is useful if one can establish a unit of measurement, some
conspicuous distance that does not vary in the object (if a living model
a great many distances will be constantly varying), and with which all
distances can be compared.
In setting out a drawing, this fixing of certain salient points is the
first thing for the student to do. The drawing reproduced on page 90
[Transcribers Note: Plate XVIII] has been made to illustrate the method
of procedure it is advisable to adopt in training the eye to accurate
observation. It was felt that a vertical line drawn through the pit of
the arm would be the most useful for taking measurements on, and this
was first drawn and its length decided upon. Train yourself to draw
between limits decided upon at the start. This power will be of great
use to you when you wish to place a figure in an exact position in a
picture. The next thing to do is to get the relative heights of
different points marked upon this line. The fold at the pit of the
stomach was found to be exactly in the centre. This was a useful start,
and it is generally advisable to note where the half comes first, and
very useful if it comes in some obvious place. Other measurements were
taken in the same way as our points A B C D E in the diagram on page 87
[Transcribers Note: Diagram IV], and horizontal lines drawn across, and
the transverse distances measured in relation to the heights. I have
left these lines on the drawing, and also different parts of it
unfinished, so as to show the different stages of the work. These guide
lines are done mentally later on, when the student is more advanced, and
with more accuracy than the clumsy knitting-needle. But before the
habit of having constantly in mind a vertical and horizontal line with
which to compare positions is acquired, they should be put in with as
much accuracy as measuring can give.
[Sidenote: Blocking in your Drawing.]
The next thing to do is to block out the spaces corresponding to those
occupied by the model in the field of your vision. The method employed
to do this is somewhat similar to that adopted by a surveyor in drawing
the plan of a field. Assuming he had an irregular shaped one, such as is
drawn in Fig. X, page 87 [Transcribers Note: Diagram IV], he would
proceed to invest it with straight lines, taking advantage of any
straightness in the boundary, noting the length and the angles at which
these straight lines cut each other, and then reproducing them to scale
on his plan. Once having got this scaffolding accurately placed, he can
draw the irregularities of the shape in relation to these lines with
some certainty of getting them right.
You should proceed in very much the same way to block out the spaces
that the forms of your drawing are to occupy. I have produced these
blocking-out lines beyond what was necessary in the accompanying drawing
(page 87 [Transcribers Note: Diagram IV]), in order to show them more
clearly.
[Sidenote: How to observe the Shape of Curves.]
There is yet another method of construction useful in noting accurately
the shape of a curved line, which is illustrated in Fig. Y, page 87
[Transcribers Note: Diagram IV]. First of all, fix the positions of the
extremities of the line by means of the vertical and horizontal. And
also, as this is a double curve, the point at which the curvature
changes from one direction to the other: point C. By drawing lines CA,
CB and noting the distances your curves travel from these straight
lines, and particularly the relative position of the farthest points
reached, their curvature can be accurately observed and copied. In
noting the varying curvature of forms, this construction should always
be in your mind to enable you to observe them accurately. First note the
points at which the curvature begins and ends, and then the distances it
travels from a line joining these two points, holding up a pencil or
knitting-needle against the model if need be.
[Illustration: Plate XVIII.
STUDY ILLUSTRATING METHOD OF DRAWING
Note the different stages. 1st. Centre line and transverse lines for
settling position of salient points. 2nd. Blocking in, as shown in
further leg. 3rd. Drawing in the forms and shading, as shown in front
leg. 4th. Rubbing with fingers (giving a faint middle tone over the
whole), and picking out high lights with bread, as shown on back and
arms.]
[Sidenote: The Drawing proper.]
A drawing being blocked out in such a state as the further leg and foot
of our demonstration drawing (page 90 [Transcribers Note: Plate
XVIII]), it is time to begin the drawing proper. So far you have only
been pegging out the ground it is going to occupy. This initial
scaffolding, so necessary to train the eye, should be done as accurately
as possible, but don't let it interfere with your freedom in expressing
the forms afterwards. The work up to this point has been mechanical, but
it is time to consider the subject with some feeling for form. Here
knowledge of the structure of bones and muscles that underlie the skin
will help you to seize on those things that are significant and express
the form of the figure. And the student cannot do better than study the
excellent book by Sir Alfred D. Fripp on this subject, entitled Human
Anatomy for Art Students. Notice particularly the swing of the action,
such things as the pull occasioned by the arm resting on the farther
thigh, and the prominence given to the forms by the straining of the
skin at the shoulder. Also the firm lines of the bent back and the
crumpled forms of the front of the body. Notice the overlapping of the
contours, and where they are accentuated and where more lost, &c.,
drawing with as much feeling and conviction as you are capable of. You
will have for some time to work tentatively, feeling for the true shapes
that you do not yet rightly see, but as soon as you feel any confidence,
remember it should be your aim to express yourself freely and swiftly.
There is a tendency in some quarters to discourage this blocking in of
the forms in straight lines, and certainly it has been harmful to the
freedom of expression in the work of some students. They not only begin
the drawing with this mechanical blocking in, but continue it in the
same mechanical fashion, cutting up almost all their curves into
flatnesses, and never once breaking free from this scaffolding to
indulge in the enjoyment of free line expression. This, of course, is
bad, and yet the character of a curved line is hardly to be accurately
studied in any other way than by observing its relation to straight
lines. The inclination and length of straight lines can be observed with
certainty. But a curve has not this definiteness, and is a very unstable
thing to set about copying unaided. Who but the highly skilled
draughtsman could attempt to copy our random shape at Fig. X, page 87
[Transcribers Note: Diagram IV], without any guiding straight lines? And
even the highly skilled draughtsman would draw such straight lines
mentally. So that some blocking out of the curved forms, either done
practically or in imagination, must be adopted to rightly observe any
shapes. But do not forget that this is only a scaffolding, and should
always be regarded as such and kicked away as soon as real form
expression with any feeling begins.
But it will be some years before the beginner has got his eye trained
to such accuracy of observation that he can dispense with it.
[Sidenote: In Blocking-in observe Shape of the Background as much as the
Object.]
In the case of foreshortenings, the eye, unaided by this blocking out,
is always apt to be led astray. And here the observation of the shape of
the background against the object will be of great assistance. The
appearance of the foreshortened object is so unlike what you know it to
be as a solid thing, that much as it is as well to concentrate the
attention on the background rather than on the form in this blocking-out
process. And in fact, in blocking out any object, whether foreshortened
or not, the shape of the background should be observed as carefully as
any other shape. But in making the drawing proper, the forms must be
observed in their inner relations. That is to say, the lines bounding
one side of a form must be observed in relation to the lines bounding
the other side; as the true expression of form, which is the object of
drawing, depends on the true relationship of these boundaries. The
drawing of the two sides should be carried on simultaneously, so that
one may constantly compare them.
[Sidenote: Boundaries a series of Overlappings.]
The boundaries of forms with any complexity, such as the human figure,
are not continuous lines. One form overlaps another, like the lines of a
range of hills. And this overlapping should be sought for and carefully
expressed, the outlines being made up of a series of overlappings.
[Sidenote: Shading.]
In Line Drawing shading should only be used to aid the expression of
form. It is not advisable to aim at representing the true tone values.
In direct light it will be observed that a solid object has some
portion of its surface in light, while other portions, those turned away
from the light, are in shadow. Shadows are also cast on the ground and
surrounding objects, called cast shadows. The parts of an object
reflecting the most direct light are called the high lights. If the
object have a shiny surface these lights are clear and distinct; if a
dull surface, soft and diffused. In the case of a very shiny surface,
such as a glazed pot, the light may be reflected so completely that a
picture of the source of light, usually a window, will be seen.
In the diagram on page 95 [Transcribers Note: Diagram V], let A
represent the plan of a cone, B C the opening of a window, and D the eye
of the spectator, and E F G the wall of a room. Light travels in
straight lines from the window, strikes the surface of the cone, and is
reflected to the eye, making the angle of incidence equal to the angle
of reflection, the angle of incidence being that made by the light
striking an object, and the angle of reflection that made by the light
in leaving the surface.
It will be seen that the lines B1D, C2D are the limits of the direct
rays of light that come to the eye from the cone, and that therefore
between points 1 and 2 will be seen the highest light. If the cone have
a perfect reflecting surface, such as a looking-glass has, this would be
all the direct light that would be reflected from the cone to the eye.
But assuming it to have what is called a dull surface, light would be
reflected from other parts also, although not in so great a quantity. If
what is called a dull surface is looked at under a microscope it will be
found to be quite rough, _i.e._ made up of many facets which catch
light at different angles.
[Illustration: Diagram V.
PLAN OF CONE A, LIT BY WINDOW BC; POSITION OF EYE D. ILLUSTRATING
PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT AND SHADE]
Lines B4, C3 represent the extreme limits of light that can be received
by the cone, and therefore at points 3 and 4 the shadow will commence.
The fact that light is reflected to the eye right up to the point 3 does
not upset the theory that it can only be reflected from points where the
angle of incidence can equal the angle of reflection, as it would seem
to do, because the surface being rough presents facets at different
angles, from some of which it can be reflected to the eye right up to
point 3. The number of these facets that can so reflect is naturally
greatest near the high lights, and gets gradually less as the surface
turns more away; until the point is reached where the shadows begin, at
which point the surface positively turns away from the light and the
reflection of direct light ceases altogether. After point 3 there would
be no light coming to the eye from the object, were it not that it
receives reflected light. Now, the greatest amount of reflected light
will come from the direction opposite to that of the direct light, as
all objects in this direction are strongly lit. The surface of the wall
between points E and H, being directly opposite the light, will give
most reflection. And between points 5 and 6 this light will be reflected
by the cone to the eye in its greatest intensity, since at these points
the angles of incidence equal the angles of reflection. The other parts
of the shadow will receive a certain amount of reflected light,
lessening in amount on either side of these points. We have now rays of
light coming to the eye from the cone between the extreme points 7 and
8. From 7 to 3 we have the light, including the half tones. Between 1
and 2 the high light. Between 3 and 8 the shadows, with the greatest
amount of reflected light between 5 and 6.
[Illustration: Plate XIX.
ILLUSTRATING CURVED LINKS SUGGESTING FULLNESS AND FORESHORTENING]
I should not have troubled the reader with this tedious diagram were it
not that certain facts about light and shade can be learned from it. The
first is that the high lights come much more within the edge of the
object than you would have expected. With the light directly opposite
point 7, one might have thought the highest light would have come there,
and that is where many students put it, until the loss of roundness in
the appearance of their work makes them look more carefully for its
position. So remember always to look out for high lights within the
contours of forms, not on the edges.
The next thing to notice is that #the darkest part of the shadow will
come nearest the lights between points 3 and 5#. This is the part turned
most away from the direction of the greatest amount of reflected light,
and therefore receiving least. The lightest part of the shadow will be
in the middle, rather towards the side away from the light, generally
speaking. The shadow cast on the ground will be dark, like the darkest
part of the shadow on the cone, as its surface is also turned away from
the chief source of reflected light.
Although the artist will very seldom be called upon to draw a cone, the
same principles of light and shade that are so clearly seen in such a
simple figure obtain throughout the whole of nature. This is why the
much abused drawing and shading from whitened blocks and pots is so
useful. Nothing so clearly impresses the general laws of light and shade
as this so-called dull study.
This lightening of shadows in the middle by reflected light and
darkening towards their edges is a very important thing to remember, the
heavy, smoky look students' early work is so prone to, being almost
entirely due to their neglect through ignorance of this principle.
Nothing is more awful than shadows darker in the middle and gradually
lighter towards their edges. Of course, where there is a deep hollow in
the shadow parts, as at the armpit and the fold at the navel in the
drawing on page 90 [Transcribers Note: Plate XVIII], you will get a
darker tone. But this does not contradict the principle that generally
shadows are lighter in the middle and darker towards the edges. Note the
luminous quality the observation of this principle gives the shadow on
the body of our demonstration drawing.
This is a crude statement of the general principles of light and shade
on a simple round object. In one with complex surfaces the varieties of
light and shade are infinite. But the same principles hold good. The
surfaces turned more to the source of light receive the greatest amount,
and are the lightest. And from these parts the amount of light lessens
through what are called the half tones as the surface turns more away,
until a point is reached where no more direct light is received, and the
shadows begin. And in the shadows the same law applies: those surfaces
turned most towards the source of reflected light will receive the most,
and the amount received will gradually lessen as the surface turns away,
until at the point immediately before where the half tones begin the
amount of reflected light will be very little, and in consequence the
darkest part of the shadows may be looked for. There may, of course, be
other sources of direct light on the shadow side that will entirely
alter and complicate the effect. Or one may draw in a wide, diffused
light, such as is found in the open air on a grey day; in which case
there will be little or no shadow, the modelling depending entirely on
degrees of light and half tone.
In studying the principles of simple light and shade it is advisable to
draw from objects of one local colour, such as white casts. In
parti-coloured objects the problem is complicated by the different tones
of the local colour. In line drawing it is as well to take as little
notice as possible of these variations which disturb the contemplation
of pure form and do not belong to the particular province of form
expression with which drawing is concerned.
Although one has selected a strong half light and half shade effect to
illustrate the general principles of light and shade, it is not
advisable in making line drawings to select such a position. A point of
view with a fairly wide light at your back is the best. In this position
little shadow will be seen, most of the forms being expressed by the
play of light and half tone. The contours, as they are turned away from
the light, will naturally be darker, and against a light background your
subject has an appearance with dark edges that is easily expressed by a
line drawing. Strong light and shade effects should be left for mass
drawing. You seldom see any shadows in Holbein's drawings; he seems to
have put his sitters near a wide window, close against which he worked.
Select also a background as near the tone of the highest light on the
object to be drawn as possible. This will show up clearly the contour.
In the case of a portrait drawing, a newspaper hung behind the head
answers very well and is always easily obtained. The tone of it can be
varied by the distance at which it is placed from the head, and by the
angle at which it is turned away from or towards the light.
Don't burden a line drawing with heavy half tones and shadows; keep them
light. The beauty that is the particular province of line drawing is the
beauty of contours, and this is marred by heavy light and shade. Great
draughtsmen use only just enough to express the form, but never to
attempt the expression of tone. Think of the half tones as part of the
lights and not as part of the shadows.
There are many different methods of drawing in line, and a student of
any originality will find one that suits his temperament. But I will try
and illustrate one that is at any rate logical, and that may serve as a
fair type of line drawing generally.
The appearance of an object is first considered as a series of contours,
some forming the boundaries of the form against the background, and
others the boundaries of the subordinate forms within these bounding
lines. The light and shade and differences of local colour (like the
lips, eyebrows, and eyes in a head) are considered together as tones of
varying degrees of lightness and darkness, and suggested by means of
lines drawn parallel across the drawing from left to right, and from
below upwards, or vice versa, darker and closer together when depth is
wanted, and fainter and further apart where delicacy is demanded, and
varying in thickness when gradation is needed. This rule of parallel
shading is broken only when strongly marked forms, such as the swing
lines of hair, a prominent bone or straining muscles, &c., demand it.
This parallel shading gives a great beauty of surface and fleshiness
to a drawing. The lines following, as it were, the direction of the
light across the object rather than the form, give a unity that has a
great charm. It is more suited to drawings where extreme delicacy of
form is desired, and is usually used in silver point work, a medium
capable of the utmost refinement.
[Illustration: Plate XX.
STUDY FOR THE FIGURE OF LOVE IN THE PICTURE "LOVE LEAVING PSYCHE"
ILLUSTRATING A METHOD OF DRAWING
The lines of shading following a convenient parallel direction unless
prominent forms demand otherwise.]
In this method the lines of shading not being much varied in direction
or curved at all, a minimum amount of that "form stimulus" is conveyed.
The curving of the lines in shading adds considerably to the force of
the relief, and suggests much stronger modelling. In the case of
foreshortened effects, where the forms are seen at their fullest,
arching one over the other, some curvature in the lines of shading is of
considerable advantage in adding to the foreshortened look.