THE MEANING OF TERMS
Every term has its _meaning_, or _content_, as some authorities prefer
to call it. The word or words of which the term is composed are merely
vocal sounds, serving as a symbol for the real _meaning_ of the term,
which _meaning_ exists only in the mind of the person understanding it.
To one not understanding the meaning of the term, the latter is but as a
meaningless sound, but to one understanding it the sound awakens mental
associations and representation and thus serves its purpose as a symbol
of thought.
Each concrete general term has two _meanings_, (1) the actual concrete
thing, person or object to which the term is applied; and (2) the
qualities, attributes or properties of those objects, persons or things
in consequence of which the term is applied. For instance, in the case
of the concrete term _book_, the first meaning consists of the general
idea of the thing which we think of as _a book_, and the second meaning
consists of the various qualities which go to make that thing a book, as
the printed pages, the binding, the form, the cover, etc. Not only is
that particular thing _a book_, but every other thing having the same or
similar properties also must be _a book_. And so, whenever I call a
thing _a book_ it must possess the said qualities. And, whenever I
combine the ideas of these qualities in thought, I must think of _a
book_. As Jevons says: "In reality, every ordinary general term has a
double meaning: it means the things to which it is applied, ... it also
means, in a totally different way, the qualities and peculiarities
_implied_ as being in the things. Logicians say that the number of
things to which a term applies is the _extension_ of the term; while the
number of qualities or peculiarities implied is the _intension_."
The extension and intension of terms has been referred to in the
previous chapter. The general classification of the degrees of
_extension_ of a general term is expressed by the two terms, _Genus_ and
_Species_, respectively. The classification of the character of the
_intension_ of a term is expressed by the term, _Difference_,
_Property_ and _Accident_, respectively.
_Genus_ is a term indicating: "a class of objects containing several
species; a class more extensive than a species; a universal which is
predicable of several things of different species."
_Species_ is a term denoting: "a smaller class of objects than a genus,
and of two or more of which a genus is composed; a predicable that
expresses the whole essence of its subject in so far as any common term
can express it."
An authority says: "The names _species_ and _genus_ are merely relative
and the same common term may, in one case, be the species which is
predicated of an individual, and in another case the individual of which
a species is predicated. Thus the individual, George, belongs to the
logical species Man, while Man is an individual of the logical species
Animal." Jevons says: "It is desirable to have names by which to show
that one class is contained in another, and accordingly we call the
class which is divided into two or more smaller ones, the _genus_, and
the smaller ones into which it is divided, the _species_." _Animal_ is
a _genus_ of which _man_ is a _species_; while _man_, in turn, is a
_genus_ of which _Caucasian_ is a _species_; and _Caucasian_, in turn,
becomes a _genus_ of which _Socrates_ becomes a species. The student
must avoid confusing the _logical_ meaning of the terms _genus_ and
_species_ with the use of the same terms in Natural History. _Each class
is a "genus" to the class below it in extension; and each class is a
"species" to the class above it in extension._ At the lowest extreme of
the scale we reach what is called the _infima species_, which cannot be
further subdivided, as for instance "Socrates"--this lowest species must
always be an individual object, person or thing. At the highest extreme
of the scale we reach what is _summum genus_, or highest genus, which is
never a species of anything, for there is no class higher than it, as
for instance, "being, existence, reality, truth, the absolute, the
infinite, the ultimate," etc. Hyslop says: "In reality there is but one
_summum genus_, while there may be an indefinite number of _infimae
species_. All intermediate terms between these extremes are sometimes
called _subalterns_, as being either genera or species, according to
the relation in which they are viewed."
Passing on to the classification of the character of the _intension_ of
terms, we find:
_Difference_, a term denoting: "The mark or marks by which the species
is distinguished from the rest of the genus; the specific
characteristic." Thus the color of the skin is a _difference_ between
the Negro and the Caucasian; the number of feet the _difference_ between
the biped and the quadruped; the form and shape of leaves the
_difference_ between the oak and the elm trees, etc. Hyslop says:
"Whatever distinguishes one object from another can be called the
_differentia_. It is some characteristic in addition to the common
qualities and determines the species or individual under the genus."
_Property_, a term denoting: "A peculiar quality of anything; that which
is inherent in or naturally essential to anything." Thus a _property_ is
a distinguishing mark of a class. Thus black skin is a _property_ of the
Negro race; four feet a _property_ of quadrupeds; a certain form of leaf
a _property_ of the oak tree. Thus a _difference_ between two species
may be a _property_ of one of the species.
_Accident_, a term denoting: "Any quality or circumstance which may or
may not belong to a class, accidentally as it were; or, whatever does
not really constitute an essential part of an object, person or thing."
As, for instance, the redness of a rose, for a rose might part with its
redness and still be a rose--the color is the _accident_ of the rose.
Or, a brick may be white and still be a brick, although the majority of
bricks are red--the redness or whiteness of the brick are its
_accidents_ and not its essential _properties_. Whately says:
"_Accidents_ in Logic are of two kinds--separable and inseparable. If
walking be the _accident_ of a particular man, it is a separable one,
for he would not cease to be that man though he stood still; while, on
the contrary, if Spaniard is the _accident_ connected with him, it is an
inseparable one, since he never can cease to be, ethnologically
considered, what he was born."
Arising from the classification of the meaning or content of terms, we
find the process termed "Definition."
_Definition_ is a term denoting: "An explanation of a word or term." In
Logic the term is used to denote the process of analysis in which the
_properties_ and _differences_ of a term are clearly stated. There are
of course several kinds of definitions. For instance, there is what is
called a _Real Definition_, which Whately defines as: "A definition
which explains the nature of the thing by a particular name." There is
also what is called a _Physical Definition_, which is: "A definition
made by enumerating such parts as are actually separable, such as the
hull, masts, etc., of a ship." Also a _Logical Definition_, which is: "A
definition consisting of the genus and the difference. Thus if a planet
be defined as 'a wandering star,' _star_ is the genus, and _wandering_
points out the difference between a planet and an ordinary star." An
_Accidental Definition_ is: "A definition of the _accidental_ qualities
of a thing." An _Essential Definition_ is: "a definition of the
essential _properties_ and _differences_ of an object, person or thing."
Crabbe discriminates between a Definition and an Explanation, as
follows: "A _definition_ is correct or precise; an _explanation_ is
general or ample. The _definition_ of a word defines or limits the
extent of its signification; it is the rule for the scholar in the use
of any word; the _explanation_ of a word may include both definition and
illustration; the former admits of no more words than will include the
leading features in the meaning of any term; the latter admits of an
unlimited scope for diffuseness on the part of the explainer."
Hyslop gives the following excellent explanation of the _Logical
Definition_, which as he states is the proper meaning of the term in
Logic. He states:
"The rules which regulate Logical Definition are as follows:
1. A definition should state the essential attributes of the species
defined.
2. A definition must not contain the name of word defined. Otherwise the
definition is called _a circulus in definiendo_.
3. The definition must be exactly equivalent to the species defined.
4. A definition should not be expressed in obscure, figurative, or
ambiguous language.
5. A definition must not be negative when it can be affirmative."
A correct definition necessarily requires the manifestation of the two
respective processes of Analysis and Synthesis.
_Analysis_ is a term denoting: "The separation of anything into its
constituent elements, qualities, properties and attributes." It is seen
at once that in order to correctly define an object, person or thing, it
is first necessary to analyze the latter in order to perceive its
essential and accidental properties or differences. Unless the
qualities, properties and attributes are clearly and fully perceived, we
cannot properly define the object itself.
_Synthesis_ is a term denoting: "The act of joining or putting two or
more things together; in Logic: the method by composition, in opposition
to the method of resolution or analysis." In stating a definition we
must necessarily join together the various essential qualities,
properties and attributes, which we have discovered by the process of
analysis; and the synthesized combination, considered as a whole, is the
definition of the object expressed by the term.