TERMS
In logic the words _concept_ and _term_ are practically identical, but
in the popular usage of the terms there is a distinct difference. This
difference is warranted, if we depart from the theoretical phase of
logic, for the word _concept_ really denotes an _idea_ in the mind,
while the word _term_ really denotes a _word_ or name of an idea or
concept--the symbol of the latter. In a previous chapter we have seen
that Denomination, or "the act of naming or designating by a name" is
the final step or stage in forming a concept. And it is a fact that the
majority of the words in the languages of civilized people denote
general ideas or concepts. As Brooks says: "To give each individual or
particular idea a name peculiar to itself would be impracticable and
indeed impossible; the mind would soon become overwhelmed with its
burden of names. Nearly all the ordinary words of our language are
general rather than particular. The individuals distinguished by
particular names, excepting persons and places, are comparatively few.
Most objects are named only by common nouns; nearly all of our verbs
express general actions; our adjectives denote common qualities, and our
adverbs designate classes of actions and qualities. There are very few
words in the language, besides the names of persons and places, that do
not express general ideas."
In logic the word _term_ is employed to denote _any word or words which
constitute a concept_. The word _concept_ is employed strictly in the
sense of _a subject of thought_, without reference to the words
symbolizing it. The _concept_, or subject of thought, is the important
element or fact and the _term_ denoting it is merely a convenient symbol
of expression. It must be remembered that a _term_ does not necessarily
consists of but a single word, for often many words are employed to
denote the concept, sometimes even an entire clause or phrase being
found necessary for the current _term_. For the purpose of the
consideration of the subjects to be treated upon in this book, we may
agree that: _A term is the outward symbol of a concept_; and that: _The
concept is the idea expressed by the term_.
There are three general parts or phases of Deductive Logic, namely:
Terms, Propositions and Syllogisms. Therefore, in considering Terms we
are entering into a consideration of the first phase of Deductive Logic.
Unless we have a correct understanding of Terms, we cannot expect to
understand the succeeding stages of Deductive Reasoning. As Jevons says:
"When we join terms together we make a Proposition; when we join
Propositions together, we make an argument or piece of reasoning.... We
should generally get nothing but nonsense if we were to put together any
terms and any propositions and to suppose that we were reasoning. To
produce a good argument we must be careful to obey certain rules, which
it is the purpose of Logic to make known. But, in order to understand
the matter perfectly, _we ought first to learn exactly what a term is,
and how many kinds of terms there may be_; we have next to learn the
nature of a proposition and the different kinds of propositions.
Afterwards we shall learn how one proposition may by reasoning be drawn
from other propositions in the kind of argument called the syllogism."
Now, having seen that terms are the outward symbols or expression of
concepts, and are the names of things which we join together in a
proposition, let us proceed to consider the different kinds of terms,
following the classifications adopted by the authorities.
A _term_ may contain any number of nouns, substantive or adjective or it
may contain but a single noun. Thus in, "Tigers are ferocious," the
first term is the single substantive "tigers;" the second term is the
single adjective "ferocious." And in the proposition, "The King of
England is the Emperor of India," there are two terms, each composed of
two nouns, "King of England" being the first term and "Emperor of India"
being the second term. The proposition, "The library of the British
Museum is the greatest collection of books in the world," contains
fifteen words but _only two terms_; the first term being "The library of
the British Museum," in which are two substantives, one adjective, two
definite articles and one preposition; the second term being, "the
greatest collection of books in the world," which contains three
substantives, one adjective, two articles, and two prepositions. The
above illustration is supplied by Jevons, who adds: "A logical term,
then, may consist of any number of nouns, substantive or adjective, with
the articles, prepositions and conjunctions required to join them
together; still _it is only one term if it points out, or makes us think
of a single object, or collection, or class of objects_." (A
substantive, is: "the part of speech which expresses something that
exists, either material or immaterial.")
The first classification of terms divides them into two general classes,
_viz._, (1) Singular Terms; and (2) General Terms.
A _Singular Term_ is a term denoting a single object, person or thing.
Although denoting only a single object, person or thing, it may be
composed of several words; or it may be composed of but one word as in
the case of a proper name, etc. The following are Singular Terms,
because they are terms denoting but a single object, person or thing:
"Europe; Minnesota; Socrates; Shakespeare; the first man; the highest
good; the first cause; the King of England; the British Museum; the
Commissioner of Public Works; the main street of the City of New York."
It will be noted that in all of the examples given, the Singular Term
denotes a particular something, a specific thing, a something of which
there is but one, and that one possesses particularity and
individuality. As Hyslop says: "_Oneness of kind_ is not the only or
distinctive feature of Singular Terms, but _individuality_, or
singularity, as representing a concrete individual whole."
A _General Term_ is a term which applies, in the same sense, to each and
every individual object, person or thing in a number of objects, persons
or things of the same kind, or to the entire class composed of such
objects persons or things of the same kind. For instance, "horse; man;
biped; mammal; trees; figures; grain of sand; matter," etc. Hyslop says,
regarding General Terms: "In these instances the terms denote more than
one object, and apply to all of the same kind. Their meaning is
important in the interpretation of what are called universal
propositions."
Another general classification of Terms divides them into two
respective classes, as follows: (1) Collective Terms; and (2)
Distributive Terms. Hyslop says of this classification: "This division
is based upon the distinction between aggregate wholes of the same kind
and class terms. It partly coincides with the division into Singular and
General Terms, the latter always being distributive."
A _Collective Term_ is one which denotes an aggregate or collected whole
of objects, persons or things of the same or similar kind, _which
collective whole is considered as an individual_, although composed of a
totality of separate individual objects, persons or things. Thus the
following terms: "regiment; congregation; army; family; crowd; nation;
company; battalion; class; congress; parliament; convention;" etc. are
Collective Terms, because they denote collective, aggregate or composite
wholes, considered as an individual.
A _Distributive Term_ is a term which denotes _each and every individual
object, person or thing in a given class_. For example, are the terms:
"man; quadruped; biped; mammal; book; diamond; tree." As Hyslop says:
"General terms are always distributive." Also: "It is important also to
keep clear the distinction between _class_ wholes and _collective_
wholes.... They are often confused so as to call a term denoting a
_class_ a Collective Term."
Another general classification of Terms divides them into the following
two respective classes; (1) Concrete Terms; and (2) Abstract Terms.
A _Concrete Term_ is a term denoting either a definite object, person or
thing which is subject to perception and experience, and may be
considered as actually existent concretely, as for instance: horse; man;
mountain; dollar; knife; table; etc., or else an attribute thought of
and used solely as an attribute, as for instance: "beautiful, wise,
noble, virtuous, good," etc.
An _Abstract Term_ is a term denoting the attribute, quality or property
_considered as apart from the object, person or thing_ and as having an
abstract existence, as for instance: "beauty; wisdom; nobility;
goodness; virtue," etc. As we have seen elsewhere, these qualities have
no real existence _in themselves_, but are known and thought of only in
connection with concrete objects, persons and things. Thus we cannot
know "Beauty," but may know _beautiful things_; we cannot know "Virtue,"
but we may know virtuous people, etc.
An _attribute or quality_ is _concrete_ when expressed as an
_adjective_; and _abstract_ when expressed as a _noun_; as for instance,
"beautiful" and "beauty," respectively, or "virtuous" and "virtue,"
respectively. The distinction may be summed up as follows: A Concrete
Term is _the name of a thing or of a quality of a thing expressed as an
adjective and as merely a quality_; while an Abstract Term is the name
of a quality of a thing, _expressed as a noun and as a "thing" in
itself_.
Certain terms may be used as either Concrete Terms or as Abstract Terms,
and certain authorities have seen fit to classify them as _Mixed Terms_,
as for instance the terms: "government; religion; philosophy;" etc.
Another general classification of Terms divides them into two respective
classes as follows: (1) _Positive Terms_; and (2) _Negative Terms_.
A _Positive Term_ is a term which denotes its own qualities, as for
instance: "good, human, large, square, black, strong," etc. These terms
indicate the presence of the quality denoted by the term itself.
A _Negative Term_ is a term denoting the absence of a quality, as for
instance: "inhuman, inorganic, unwell, unpleasant, non-conducive," etc.
These terms _deny_ the presence of certain qualities, rather than
_asserting_ the presence of an opposite quality. They are essentially
negative in nature and in form. Jevons says: "We may usually know a
Negative Term by its beginning with one of the little syllables un-,
in-, a-, an-, non-, or by its ending with -less." Hyslop says: "The
usual symbols of Negative Terms are _in_, _un_, _less_, _dis_, _a_, or
_an_, _anti_, _mis_, and sometimes _de_, and _non_ and _not_." Jevons
adds: "If the English language were a perfect one, every term ought to
have a Negative Term exactly corresponding to it, so that all adjectives
and nouns would be in pairs. Just as _convenient_ has its negative
_inconvenient_; metallic, non-metallic; logical, illogical; and so on;
so blue should have its negative, non-blue; literary, non-literary;
paper, non-paper. But many of these Negative Terms would be seldom or
never used, and if we happen to want them, we can make them for the
occasion by putting not-, or non-, before the Positive Term.
Accordingly, we find in the dictionary only those Negative Terms which
are much employed."
The last named authority also says: "Sometimes the same word may seem to
have two or even more distinct negatives. There is much difference
between _undressed_ and _not-dressed_, that is 'not in evening dress.'
Both seem to be negatives of 'dressed,' but this is because the word has
two distinct meanings."
Some authorities insist upon closer and further classification, as for
instance, in the case of what they call a _Privative Term_, denoting the
absence of qualities once possessed by the object, person or thing, as:
"deaf, dead, blind, dark," etc. Hyslop says that these terms "are
Positive in form and Negative in matter or meaning." Also in the case of
what they call a _Nego-positive Term_, denoting "the presence of a
positive quality expressed in a negative manner," as: disagreeable,
inhuman, invaluable, etc. These last mentioned classes however are
regarded by some as the result of "carrying too far" the tendency
toward classification, and the two general classes, Positive and
Negative, are thought sufficient for the purpose of the general student.
The same objection applies to a classification occasionally made _i.e._,
that which is called an _Infinitated Term_, denoting a term the intent
of which is to place in a distinct category every object, person or
thing other than that expressed in the corresponding Positive Term. The
intent of the term is to place the positive idea in one class, and all
else into a separate one. Examples of this class of terms are found in:
"not-I, not-animal, not-tree, unmoral," etc. Hyslop says of these terms:
"They are not always, if ever, recognized as rhetorically elegant, but
are valuable often to make clear the really negative, or infinitatively
negative nature of the idea in mind."
Another general classification of Terms divides them into two respective
classes, as follows: (1) Absolute Terms; and (2) Relative Terms.
An _Absolute Term_ is a term denoting the presence of qualities
intrinsic to the object, and not depending upon any relation to any
other object, as for instance: "man; book; horse; gun;" etc. These
terms _may be_ related to many other terms, but are _not necessarily_
related to any other.
A _Relative Term_ is a term denoting certain _necessary_ relations to
other terms, as for instance: "father; son; mother; daughter; teacher;
pupil; master; servant;" etc. Thus it is impossible to think of "child"
except in relation to "parent," or _vice versa_. The one term implies
the existence of its related term.
Hyslop says of the above classification: "Relative Terms suggest the
thought of other individuals with the relation involved as a part of the
term's meaning, while Absolute Terms suggest only the qualities in the
subject without a relation to others being necessarily involved."
Some authorities also classify terms as _higher and lower_; also as
_broad and narrow_. This classification is meant to indicate the content
and extent of the term. For instance, when we classify, we begin with
the individuals which we then group into a small class. These classes we
then group into a larger class, according to their resemblances. These
larger classes then go to form a part of still larger classes, and so
on. As these classes advance they form _broader_ terms; and as we
retreat from the general class into the less general and more
particular, the term becomes _narrower_. By some, the _broader_ term
which includes the narrower is called the _higher term_, and the
narrower are called the _lower terms_. Thus _animal_ would be a higher
and broader term than dog, cat or tiger because it includes the latter.
Brooks says: "Since a concept is formed by the union of the common
attributes of individuals, it thus embraces both attributes and
individuals. The attributes of a concept constitute what is called its
_content_; the individuals it embraces constitute its _extent_."
Accordingly, the feature of including objects in a concept or term is
called its _extension_; while the feature of including attributes or
qualities is called its intension. It follows as a natural consequence
that the greater the _extension_ of a term, the less its _intension_;
the greater its _intension_, the less its _extension_. We will
understand this more clearly when we consider that the more individuals
contained in a term, the fewer _common_ properties or qualities it can
contain; and the more common properties, the fewer individuals. As
Brooks says: "The concept _man_ has more _extension_ than _poet_,
_orator_ or _statesman_, since it embraces more individuals; and less
_intension_, since we must lay aside the distinctive attributes of poet,
orator and statesman in order to unite them in a common class _man_." In
the same way the general term _animal_ is quite extended for it includes
a large number of individual varieties of very different and varied
characteristics and qualities; as for instance, the lion, camel, dog,
oyster, elephant, snail, worm, snake, etc. Accordingly its intension
must be small for it can include only the qualities common to all
animals, which are very few indeed. The definition of the term shows how
small is its _intension_, as: "_Animal._ An organic being, rising above
a vegetable in various respects, especially in possessing sensibility,
will and the power of voluntary motion." Another narrows the intension
still further when he defines _animal_ as: "a creature which possesses,
or has possessed, life." Halleck says: "_Animal_ is very narrow in
intension, very broad in extension. There are few qualities common to
all animals, but there is a vast number of animals. To give the full
meaning of the term in _extension_, we should have to name every animal,
from the microscopic infusoria to the tiger, from the angleworm to the
whale. When we decrease the extension to one species of animal, _horse_,
the individuals are fewer, the qualities more numerous."
The importance of forming clear and distinct concepts and of grouping,
classifying and generalizing these into larger and broader concepts and
terms is recognized by all authorities and is generally regarded as
forming the real basis of all constructive thought. As Brooks says:
"Generalization lies at the basis of language: only as man can form
general conceptions is it possible for him to form a language.... Nearly
all the ordinary words in our language are general rather than
particular.... This power of generalization lies also at the basis of
science. Had we no power of forming general ideas, each particular
object would be a study by itself, and we should thus never pass beyond
the very alphabet of knowledge. Judgments, except in the simplest form,
would be impossible; and it is difficult to see how even the simplest
form of the syllogism could be constructed. No general conclusion could
be drawn from particulars, nor particular conclusions from generals; and
thus neither inductive nor deductive reasoning would be possible. The
classifications of science could not be made; and knowledge would end at
the very threshold of science."