their national customs, slightly varied by climate and surrounding
circumstances. India has been a great marriage-market, on account
of the emigration of young enterprising Englishmen, without a
corresponding number of women. Faded belles, and destitute female
orphans, were sure of finding husbands in India. Some persons actually
undertook to import women to the British settlements, in order to
sell them to rich Europeans, or nabobs, who would give a good price
for them. How the importers acquired a right thus to dispose of them
is not mentioned; it is probable that the women themselves, from
extreme poverty, or some other cause, consented to become articles of
speculation upon consideration of receiving a certain remuneration. In
September, 1818, the following advertisement appeared in the Calcutta
Advertiser: “_Females raffled for_. Be it known that six fair pretty
young ladies, with two sweet engaging children, lately imported from
Europe, having the roses of health blooming on their cheeks, and
joy sparkling in their eyes, possessing amiable tempers, and highly
accomplished, whom the most indifferent cannot behold without rapture,
are to be raffled for next door to the British Gallery. Twelve tickets
at twelve rupees each; the highest of the three doubtless takes the
most fascinating.”
The wives of respectable Hindoos are very rarely seen in the street
with their husbands, unless they are going a journey. When they see an
English-woman walk arm-in-arm with her husband, they are exceedingly
shocked, and exclaim, “Oh! ah! do you see this? They take their wives
by the hand and lead them about, showing them to other English. These
people have no shame.”
* * * * *
The inhabitants of Thibet are marked by a Chinese cast of countenance;
small black eyes, with long pointed corners, with eyelashes and
eyebrows extremely thin. Ladies of rank extend the corner of the
eyelids towards the temples as far as possible, by artificial means.
They are fond of ornaments, and wear a profusion of coral and amber
necklaces, to which are suspended images of their gods, forms of
prayer, or sentences from their sacred writings. The most wealthy wear
chaplets of large gems, such as rubies, lapis-lazuli, &c.; and their
black hair is, on state occasions, almost entirely concealed by heaps
of pearl, emeralds, and coral.
Matrimony is rather dishonorable in Thibet. A marriage contract forms
an almost insuperable obstacle to the attainment of political rank or
influence. Hence ambitious parents are desirous of placing their sons
in the monasteries, where no woman is allowed to enter, and where a vow
of perpetual celibacy is taken. Every family consisting of more than
four boys is obliged to devote one of them to this recluse life.
There are likewise in Thibet female devotees, who, like nuns, devote
themselves entirely to celibacy and the duties of religion. They do not
use a rosary to facilitate their prayers; but, instead of this, they
have a painted barrel, with gilt letters on it, placed upright in a
case, which has an opening to admit the hand. It revolves upon an axis,
and as they twirl it round, they repeat certain appointed words.
The Thibetian customs with regard to marriage are very extraordinary.
One woman is the wife of a whole family of brothers, be they ever
so numerous. This custom is not confined to the lower ranks, but
prevails in the most opulent families. The oldest brother has the
right of choice. The courtship is very brief, and the marriage quite
unceremonious. If the parents of the damsel approve his request, they
carry their daughter to his house, where the relations meet and carouse
for three days, with music and dancing. The priests, who are bound to
shun the sight of women, have no share in the scene. Mutual consent is
the only bond of union. The engagement thus formed cannot be dissolved,
unless both the parties consent to a separation; and even where this
is the case, they are never after at liberty to form a new connection.
These women, who are said to be very jealous of their husbands, enjoy
a degree of freedom and consideration unknown to the Hindoos. They are
the acknowledged mistresses of their family, have liberty to go where
they please, and are generally well supported by the joint earnings of
their numerous partners. When captain Turner was at Teshoo Loomboo, he
was acquainted with five brothers, who all lived together in the utmost
harmony and affection, with one wife among them all. The first-born
child belongs to the oldest brother, the second to the next of age, and
so on.
Instances of infidelity are said to be rare. In such cases, a man
is condemned to pay a pecuniary fine; a woman receives corporeal
punishment. Public opinion is said not to be very fastidious concerning
the character of unmarried females.
In Thibet, the exchange of scarfs accompanies almost all the courtesies
of life. When a visit is paid, scarfs are exchanged; and every letter
is accompanied with a scarf, however distant may be its place of
destination. White and red are in use; but the former is considered
more genteel, and is respectful in proportion to its fineness. These
scarfs are soft, thin, glossy, and of dazzling whiteness. They are
woven with damask figures, and usually have some sacred motto near the
fringe at the ends.
Women of the laboring classes are inured to a great deal of toil. They
plant, weed, reap, and thresh grain, and are exposed to the roughest
weather, while their indolent husbands are perhaps living at their ease.
* * * * *
The Birmans in their features resemble the Chinese. The women,
especially those belonging to the northern districts, are fairer than
the Hindoos, but less delicately formed, being generally inclined to
corpulence. Their hair is black, coarse, and long. Both sexes color the
teeth, the eyelashes, and the edges of their eyelids, with black. When
women are in full dress, they stain their nails and the palms of their
hands red, and strew their faces and bosoms with powder of sandal-wood,
or of a bark called _sunneka_.
The hair is usually tied at the top of the head, and the fillet worn
by people of rank is embroidered, and adorned with jewels. A long
piece of silk or cloth is fastened round the waist, and falls to
the feet, sometimes trailing on the ground. The upper part of the
person is covered by a loose jacket, with long tight sleeves; but the
lower garment being open, it is impossible to walk without exposing
the limbs, in a manner that would be regarded as very indelicate by
Europeans. Wealthy women wear shoes, that turn up with a pointed toe;
the peasantry go barefoot. Girls are taught at an early age to invert
their arms, so that the protruding joint of the elbow comes inside, and
gives the arm the appearance of being broken.
The Birmans have less personal cleanliness than the Hindoos, who,
though they seldom wash their garments, consider frequent bathing a
religious duty. Though separated from the Hindoos only by a narrow
range of mountains, they are strikingly unlike them in character. The
Birmans are lively, active, and impatient. Their wives and daughters
are allowed the same degree of freedom in social intercourse with men,
as prevails in European society. Marriage is a purely civil contract,
over which the priesthood have no jurisdiction. The law allows but one
wife; but the wealthy usually keep a number of mistresses, who reside
under the same roof with the wife, and are subject to her control. When
she goes abroad, they attend her, bearing her betel-box, fan, &c.; and
when the husband dies, they become the widow’s property, unless he has
specifically emancipated them.
The formalities of courtship and marriage are similar to those of
India. If the first private proposal be well received by the damsel
and her parents, the relatives meet to agree concerning her dowry; the
bridegroom sends a present of dresses and jewels, according to his
wealth; the parents of the bride give a feast, and written contracts
are signed; the new-married couple eat out of the same dish; the
bridegroom presents the bride with some pickled tea, she returns the
compliment, and thus ends the ceremony.
Divorces may be obtained under peculiar circumstances, but they are
attended with a good deal of expense. The women are generally virtuous;
for their constant occupation leaves little leisure for the mind to
become corrupted. Ladies of the highest rank are busy at the labors of
the loom. When the British envoy made a formal visit to the queen’s
mother, he found her maidens in the gallery of the palace, weaving
with the utmost activity. Nearly all the cotton and silk used in
the Birman empire is woven at home by the women. Indeed, they take
an active share in the general superintendence both of out-door and
in-door transactions. When the governor of Maindu had a large ship on
the stocks, his wife was seen to cross the river every morning in her
husband’s barge, attended by female servants; she took her seat on the
timbers, and superintended the workmen for hours; and she seldom failed
to come again in the evening, to see that the day’s task had been
completed. The Englishmen, who observed her, said her husband never
accompanied her, and she appeared to have no need of his assistance.
But notwithstanding the Birmese ladies enjoy so much more of freedom
and confidence than their neighbors, they share something of the
degradation imposed upon all Asiatic women. Their evidence is not
deemed equal to that of a man, and they are not allowed to ascend the
steps of a court of justice, but are obliged to give their testimony
outside of the building. A man who cannot pay his debts is liable to be
sold, with his wife and children; hence innocent, industrious women not
unfrequently suffer most cruelly for the vices or indolence of their
husbands. Sometimes when criminals are condemned to death, the helpless
wife and children share his punishment. When driven by poverty,
the lower class of Birmans do not hesitate to sell their wives and
daughters to foreign residents. Women are not considered as dishonored
by these circumstances, and seem easily to resign themselves to their
lot. They are generally very faithful to their new owners, and render
themselves useful by keeping accounts, and aiding in the transaction
of business. But foreigners are never allowed to carry these women or
their children out of the country. If a vessel were discovered with a
Birmese female on board, it would never again be allowed to enter any
of their ports.
Orders of monks are established in the Birman empire, and formerly
there were establishments of nuns; but, for political reasons, a law
was passed forbidding any woman to seclude herself from society by a
religious vow.
Female mourners are hired to chant dirges at funerals. Dancing and
singing girls are introduced at entertainments, and some of them are
said to be extremely graceful. In the month of April they celebrate
a merry festival, by throwing as much water as they please upon
whomsoever they meet; but in this, as in all their amusements, the
Birmans are scrupulously decorous toward women. They may throw water
upon any girl who is the first aggressor, but they must not lay hands
upon her; neither are they allowed to molest any female, who does not
choose to join in the merriment of the season.
The women of the Arracan mountains tattoo their faces all over in
segments of circles, which give them a hideous appearance. These half
savage tribes consider a flat forehead the perfection of beauty, and in
order to produce it, they lay a heavy plate of lead upon the brow of
infants. The inhabitants of Pegu are passionately addicted to tattooing.
* * * * *
The inhabitants of Tonquin and Cochin China, though similar to the
Chinese in features, written language, and religious ceremonies, are
very unlike them in character, and in some of their customs. The
Cochin Chinese are lively, talkative, and familiar; and they suffer
their women to be quite as gay and unrestrained as themselves. The
middling and lower classes of women are indeed condemned to laborious
occupations. They stand in the water from morning till night,
transplanting rice; they till the ground; assist in repairing the mud
cottages; manufacture coarse earthen-ware; manage boats; carry produce
to market; gather the cotton, spin, weave, and color it; and then
make it into garments for themselves and families. Their endurance of
hardship is so remarkable, that the Cochin Chinese proverb says: “A
woman has nine lives, and bears a great deal of killing.”
The law makes no restriction as to the number of wives; but the first
espoused takes precedence of the others. If married parties choose
to separate, they break one of their copper coins, or a pair of
chop-sticks, in the presence of witnesses, and the union is dissolved;
but the husband must restore all the property his wife possessed before
marriage.
Men consider their wives as an inferior race, and sell them when they
please. They are shamefully indifferent about their moral character,
if they can obtain money by their vices. Women living thus without
the encouragement or restraint of public opinion, and without the
sweet reward of domestic esteem and confidence, are generally
vicious, wherever there is the least temptation to be so. There are,
however, severe laws, which are enforced when husbands think proper
to appeal to them. Sometimes an unfaithful wife is trampled to death
by elephants, and sometimes both of the offending parties are tied
together and thrown into the river. The women are dark and coarse
featured, with blackened teeth, and small pretensions to beauty; but
there is something pleasing in their perpetual cheerfulness and lively
good-nature. They take great pride in long hair, considering the
reverse as a token of degeneracy, and a mark of vulgarity.
The Cochin Chinese have dramatic performances, in which female actors
are introduced. Their voices, when singing, are said to be shrill and
warbling, and their dancing full of graceful gestures and attitudes.
Men and women of the common class dress nearly alike. Both wear a brown
or blue frock, with black nankeen trowsers, made very wide. They have
neither stockings nor shoes. The women wear their long hair sometimes
twisted on the top of the head, and sometimes hanging in loose flowing
tresses. To shield them from the sun they have broad hats, like an
inverted saucer, woven with the fibres of bamboo, and made impervious
to water by means of a fine varnish. These hats are fastened under the
chin by a slender wooden bow, like the handle of a pail; the rich have
it made of ivory, ebony, silver, or gold. The higher classes dress very
much like the wealthy Chinese. Both ladies and gentlemen, when they go
abroad, have attendants to carry their fans, and a box made of fragrant
wood, often inlaid with gold and silver, to contain their areca, betel,
&c. Garments are seldom changed till they begin to fall in pieces, and
their habits are in general so uncleanly that a near approach to them
is not pleasant.
The Siamese are a tawny people, with short black hair, which both sexes
cut quite short. They have faces broad in the middle, and narrowing
toward the forehead and the chin. Their ears are naturally large; and,
like many other nations in the torrid zone, they weigh them down with
heavy ornaments, so that one might thrust several fingers through the
distended apertures.
Long nails, particularly on the right hand, are considered a mark of
gentility. They often attain a growth of several inches; and when women
wish to be particularly elegant, they wear artificial ones four inches
long.
The Siamese bathe very frequently, and anoint themselves with perfumes.
The interior of their houses is likewise very neat. They seldom wear
any ornament about the head, except ear-rings; and none but the young
wear bracelets. Their common clothing is very slight; consisting merely
of a large piece of calico, tied above the hips, and falling to the
feet.
Women enjoy a considerable degree of freedom. When a young man sends
his female friends to ask a damsel in marriage, her parents consult
their daughter’s inclination; and if they approve the match, magicians
are immediately called to cast nativities and consult the stars for
omens. The lover pays two or three visits to his betrothed, bringing
presents of fruit and betel. At the third visit, the relations sign
contracts, and pay the dowry. A few days after, the priests sprinkle
the young couple with consecrated water, and repeat prayers. The
bride’s parents keep up feasting, dancing, and music for several
days; and sometimes months elapse before the young people commence
house-keeping for themselves.
The Siamese laws allow of several wives, but the wealthy only avail
themselves of this indulgence. Superior privileges are conferred on the
first wife, and upon her children. The children of the others are not
allowed to use the familiar appellation of “father,” but are required
to say, “Mr. father.” The first wife may be divorced, but cannot be
sold, like the others. In case of divorce, she may claim the first,
third, fifth child, and so on, through the odd numbers. The husband has
a right to all the even numbers; of course, the mother sometimes has a
larger share than the father.
All the property left by a husband belongs to the first wife. She
likewise inherits his authority; but she cannot sell the even-number
children, who in case of division would have belonged to their father.
The poorer classes work on the land, and transact business for their
husbands, during the half of each year, which they are obliged to
spend in the service of a despotic prince. They take great care of
their children, especially of their daughters, and are generally very
virtuous and modest. The Siamese, unlike their neighbors of Cochin
China, are very scrupulous concerning the character of their women,
with which they conceive their own honor to be intimately connected.
Their laws are very severe. An unfaithful wife is exposed alive to
tigers, or sold as a slave.
These people have a singular religious ceremony, which reminds one of
the Jewish scape-goat. An infamous woman is carried about on a barrow,
accompanied with trumpets and hautboys. Every one curses her, and
pelts her with dirt. She is then carried out of the town, left among
bushes and thorns, and forbidden ever to return to the city. They have
a superstition that this ceremony will avert all threatened evils from
them to her.
The Siamese priests are not allowed to marry, on pain of being burnt to
death.
There are female convents in Siam, but no woman is allowed to take the
vow before she is fifty years old. When a man is condemned for any
crime, his innocent family suffer with him; and wives and children are
not unfrequently gambled away at games of chance. The women marry very
young. It is a common thing to see wives and mothers of twelve years
old.
Like other nations in the vicinity, they smoke a good deal, and
universally color their teeth black.
* * * * *
The Malays are a proud and revengeful people, excessively jealous of
their women. The lower classes of females are, however, allowed to
go about in public, and transact various kinds of business, with a
hardihood that braves all manner of fatigue and exposure. The women, of
course, imbibe something of the fierce character of the men. No love
can hope to find favor in their eyes, until he can produce a number of
human skulls, which he has severed from the bodies. When attacked by
enemies, they fight by the side of their husbands and brothers, with a
fiery courage amounting to desperation.
Their manner of living is almost as simple and rude as that of
savages. The women are generally well shaped, with tawny complexions,
oval faces, expressive eyes, large mouths with thin lips, and teeth
blackened by chewing betel. They are fond of gallantry, dress, and
jewels. The higher class wear a muslin garment, descending to the feet,
and fastened with a girdle at the waist; and to this they add a short
jacket. They frequently have ear-rings, bracelets, and gold chains, and
fasten their long shining black hair at the top of the head with a gold
pin. The common people of both sexes dress almost exactly alike; their
clothing consisting merely of a cloth wrapped about the waist, fastened
by a belt, in which they carry their daggers.
The children in Malacca, and the neighboring nations, universally go
without clothing.
* * * * *
The Chinese women have broad unmeaning faces; small, lively eyes,
obliquely placed, with eyelids rounding into each other at the corners,
not forming an angle, as in Europeans; their hair is black; lips
rather thick and rosy; and their complexion is a yellowish brown;
excepting some inhabitants of the northern provinces, who are fairer.
They generally paint their faces so as to give a strong carnation
tint to the whole surface. A foot unnaturally small is considered a
great beauty. In order to attain this, the higher classes bind tight
bandages round the feet of female infants, so that none but the great
toe is suffered to retain its natural position. This compression is
continued until the foot ceases to grow. It is then a misshapen little
stump, four or five inches long, with all the smaller toes adhering
firmly to the sole. The growth thus cruelly checked in its proper
place, increases the ankle to such a clumsy size, that it almost
entirely conceals the foot. When the ladies attempt to walk, they seem
to be moving on stumps, and hobble along in the most awkward manner
imaginable. Their little shoes are as fine as tinsel and embroidery
can make them. According to Chinese history, this custom originated
several centuries go, when a numerous body of women combined together
to overthrow the government; and to prevent the recurrence of a similar
event it was ordained that female infants should wear wooden shoes,
so small as to cramp their feet and render them useless. Some writers
have supposed that this singular practice originated in the jealousy
of Chinese husbands, who contrived this method to keep their wives
at home; but this seems very improbable. The Persians, who seclude
their women with much greater rigor than the Chinese, do not think
it necessary to disable their feet; nor would such a precaution be
a safeguard against intrigues. The reason of this, as well as other
customs equally strange, may probably be found in the caprice of
fashion; and while unnaturally small feet are considered by Chinese
men as a charming indication of elegant helplessness, the Chinese women
will no doubt endure any degree of suffering to attain the enviable
distinction.
Chinese hands are exceedingly small. The ladies keep them concealed by
long wide cuffs, and consider it immodest to let them appear, even in
presence of male relations. Both sexes, among the wealthy, suffer the
finger nails to grow to an immense length, to show that they perform no
labor. Sometimes they are said to be from eight to twelve inches long.
In order to preserve them from being broken, they are obliged to keep
them in light bamboo cases. The ladies generally comb their hair back
from the face, and pluck out their eyebrows, so as to leave only a very
thin arch. They wear their robes so long as to conceal the person from
the throat to the toes. The garments of the higher classes are made of
the richest materials, but are clumsy and inelegant. The usual colors
are red, blue, and green. Though the Chinese ladies have no opportunity
to rival each other in the conquest of hearts, they are nevertheless
very fond of ornaments, especially about the head. Bunches of silver or
gilt flowers are always interspersed among their ringlets, in greater
or less profusion; and sometimes they wear the _fong-hoang_ or Chinese
_phœnix_, made of silver gilt, and so arranged as to move with the
slightest motion of the wearer. The spreading tail forms a glittering
aigrette on the middle of the head, and the wings wave over the front.
The Chinese trace the institution of marriage as far back as their
first sovereign, Fo-Hi, supposed to be coeval with Noah. The law
permits but one wife; but though the emperor only can legally keep
several mistresses, custom sanctions the practice, and it generally
prevails among all who can afford it. These women are generally
purchased as slaves, and the wife has control over them and their
children; but the latter have a right to a share of the paternal
inheritance. These female slaves call the lawful wife “mother,” and
at her death are obliged to observe the same ceremonies of mourning
prescribed for a real parent.
The emperor never marries a foreign princess. When he ascends the
throne, people of the highest rank present their youngest and
handsomest daughters to him, that he may choose a wife among them. The
empress, who is called _Hoang-heou_, has peculiar prerogatives; and
her family acquire great credit and influence. Next to the empress in
rank are two queens with their numerous attendants; and the third rank
consists of six queens and their attendants. The children of all these
women are considered a part of the imperial family. The emperor has
arbitrary power to name his successor, either in his family or out of
it; but he generally chooses one of the sons of the empress.