DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.--THE ALGONKIN
STOCK.--THE IROQUOIS.--THE SIOUX.--ASSINEBOINS.--THE ESKIMO.--THE
KOLÚCH.--THE NEHANNI.--DIGOTHI.--THE ATSINA.--INDIANS OF BRITISH
OREGON, QUADRA'S AND VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.--HAIDAH.--CHIMSHEYAN.--
BILLICHULA.--HAILTSA.--NUTKA.--ATNA.--KITUNAHA INDIANS.--PARTICULAR
ALGONKIN TRIBES.--THE NASCOPI.--THE BETHUCK.--NUMERALS FROM
FITZ-HUGH SOUND.--THE MOSKITO INDIANS.--SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF
BRITISH GUIANA.--CARIBS.--WAROWS.--WAPISIANAS.--TARUMAS.--CARIBS OF
ST. VINCENT.--TRINIDAD.
_The Athabaskans._--The best starting-point for the ethnology of the
British dependencies in America is the water-system of the largest of
the rivers which empty themselves into the Polar Sea, a system which
comprises the Rivers Peel, Dahodinni, and the Rivière aux Liards,
tributaries to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear Lake, the Great
Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska; a vast tract, and one which is _almost_
wholly occupied by a population belonging to one and the same class; a
class sometimes known under the name _Chepewyan_, or _Chepeyan_,
sometimes under that of _Athabaskan_.
The water-system in question forms the centre of the great Athabaskan
area--the centre, but not the whole. _Eastward_, there are Athabaskan
tribes as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards as far as the
immediate neighbourhood of the Pacific; and southwards as far as the
head-waters of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths of the
Athabaskan population, in respect to its political relations, is
British; all that is not British being either Russian or American. To
this we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory rather than
Canada to which the British Athabaskans belong.
The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans are as follows:--
1. The _Sí-ísaw-dinni_ (_See-eesaw-dinneh_), or
_rising-sun-men_.--These, generally called either _Chipewyans_, or
_Northern Indians_, are the most eastern members of the family, and
extend from the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska. I
imagine that the _Brushwood_, _Birchrind_, and _Sheep_ Indians are
particular divisions of this branch.
2. _The Beaver Indians._--From the Lake Athabaska to the Rocky Mountain,
_i.e._, the valley of the Peace River.
3. The _Daho-dinni_.--On the head-waters of the Rivière aux Liards.
Called also _Mauvais Monde_.
4. The _Strong-Bows_.--Mountaineers of the upper part of the Rocky
Mountains.
5. The _Kancho_.--Called also _Hare_ and _Slave_ Indians. Starved and
miserable occupants of the parts along the River McKenzie between the
Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional cannibalism, justified
by the pressure of famine. Due east of these come--
6. The _Dog-ribs_, and
7. The _Yellow-knives_, on the _Copper River_; these last being also
called the Copper Indians.
8, 9. The _Slaous-cud-dinni_[71] of the McKenzie River is, probably, a
division of some of the other groups rather than a separate substantive
class.
10. The _Takulli_.[72]--These fall into eleven minor tribes or clans.
_a._ The _Taú-tin_; probably the same as the _Naote-tains_.
_b._ The _Tshilko-tin_.
_c._ The _Nasko-tin_.
_d._ The _Thetlio-tin_.
_e._ The _Tsatsno-tin_.
_f._ The _Nulaáu-tin_.
_g._ The _Ntsaáu-tin_.
_h._ The _Natliáu-tin_.
_i._ The _Nikozliáu-tin_.
_j._ The _Tatshiáu-tin_.
_k._ The _Babine_ Indians.
11. The _Susi_ (_Sussees_).--On the head-waters of the Saskatchewan.
New Caledonia is the chief area of the _Takulli_.
Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky Mountains, lie--
12. The _Tsikani_ (_Sicunnies_).
The Athabaskan is the _first_ class in our list; and, if we look only at
the area which its population occupies, it is a great one. All the
Athabaskan languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.
_The Algonkins._--The _second_ class is the Algonkin. It is greater in
every way than the Athabaskan--greater in respect to the number of its
divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to the ground it covers,
and greater in respect to the range of difference which it embraces. All
the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.
Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is nearly equally divided
between the United States and Great Britain.
Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided between the Canadas and our
other possessions and the Hudson's Bay territory.
The whole of the Canadas, with one small but important exception, the
whole of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's
Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland are chiefly Algonkin.
To this stock belonged and belong the extinct and extant Indians of New
England, part of New York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even Kentucky and
Tennessee; a point of American rather than of British ethnology, but a
point necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating the
magnitude of this stock.
Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans, the Narragansetts, the
Massachuset, the Montaug, the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks, the
Ottogamis, the Kikkapús, the Potawhotamis, the Illinois, the Miami, the
Piankeshaws, the Shawnos, &c. belong to this stock--all within the
United States.
The British Algonkins are as follows:--
1. The _Crees_; of which the _Skoffi_ and _Sheshatapúsh_ of Labrador are
branches.
2. The _Ojibways_;[73] falling into--
_a._ The _Ojibways Proper_, of which the _Sauteurs_ are a section.
_b._ The _Ottawas_ of the River Ottawa.
_c._ The original Indians of Lake _Nipissing_; important because it is
believed that the form of speech called _Algonkin_, a term since
extended to the whole class, was their particular dialect. They are now
either extinct or amalgamated with other tribes.
_d._ The _Messisaugis_, to the north of Lake Ontario.
3. The _Micmacs_ of New Brunswick, Gaspé, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and
part of Newfoundland; closely allied to the--
4. _Abnaki_ of Mayne, and the British frontier; represented at present
by the _St. John's Indians_.
5. The _Bethuck_--the aborigines of Newfoundland.
6. The _Blackfoots_, consisting of the--
_a._ _Satsikaa_, or _Blackfoots Proper_.
_b._ The _Kena_, or _Blood Indians_.
_c._ The _Piegan_.
To these must be added numerous extinct tribes.
_The Iroquois._--The single and important exception to the Algonkin
population of the Canadas is made by the existence of certain members of
the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier; a class falling into
two divisions. The _northern_ Iroquois belong to New York and
Pennsylvania, the _southern_ to the Carolinas.
The former of these two falls into two great confederations, and into
several unconfederate tribes.
The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the now extinct _Mynkasar_ and
_Cochnowagoes_--extinct, unless either or both be represented by a small
remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his great work on the Indian
tribes, now in the course of publication, under the sanction of
Congress, as the _St. Regis Indians_.
Of the second confederation the leading members were the _Wyandots_, or
_Hurons_, of the parts between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.
The first was that of the famous and formidable _Mohawks_. To these add
the _Senekas_, the _Onondagos_, the _Cayugas_, and the _Oneidas_, and
you have the _Five_ Nations. Then add, as a later accession, from the
southern Iroquois, the _Tuskaroras_, and the _Six_ Nations are formed.
Between these two there was war _even to the knife_; the greater portion
of the Wyandot league belonging to the Algonkin class.
Nevertheless, a few representatives of the whole seven tribes[74] still
remain extant, their present locality--a reserve--being the triangular
peninsula which was the original Huron area.
Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier occupants were the
_Hochelaga_; an Iroquois tribe also.
_The Sioux._--In tracing the Nelson River from its embouchure in
Hudson's Bay, towards its source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake
Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement--the Red River rising within the
boundary of the United States, flowing from south to north, and
receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the Valley of the Assineboin
is an interesting ethnological locality.
Either the river takes its name from the population, or the population
from the river; the division to which it belongs being a new one.
Different from the Algonkins on the east, different from the Athabaskans
on the north, and (in the present state of our knowledge) different from
the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins have all their affinities
southwards. In that direction the family to which they belong extends as
far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom nine-tenths of the Valley
of Missouri originally belonged--the Indians of the great Sioux class;
Indians whose original hunting-grounds included the vast prairie-country
from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi, and who again appear as an
isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These isolated Sioux are the
Winebagoes; the others being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the
Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri, the Osage, the Konzas,
the Ottos, the Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the Quappas,--all
American, _i.e._, belonging to the United States.
None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with the sea. None of them
belong to the great _forest_ districts of America. Most of them hunt
over the country of the buffalo. This makes them warlike, migratory
hunters; with fewer approaches to agricultural or industrial
civilization than any Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.
Of this class the Assineboins are the British representatives. They are
the chief _Red River_ aborigines.
It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members of the Algonkin
stock, upon which the current and popular notions of the American
Indian, the _Red Man_, as he is called--
The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &c.,
have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the other hand, have not
contributed much to our notions on this point. In the first place, they
are less known; in the next, they are less typical.
But this raises their value in the eyes of the ethnologist; and the very
fact of their possessing certain characteristics, in a comparatively
slight degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating the phenomena
of _transition_.
Previous, however, to this, we must get our other _extreme_. This is to
be found in the ethnology of--
_The Eskimo._--It is a very easy matter for an artistic ethnologist to
make some fine light-and-shade contrasts between two populations, where
he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an Eskimo of Labrador at
the other. An oblique eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow,
with a crescentic fold overshadowing the _caruncula lacrymalis_,
surmounted by a low forehead and black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of
such inordinate development as to make the face as broad as it is long,
are elements of ugliness which catch the imagination, and produce a
caricature, where we want a picture. And they are elements of ugliness
which can be accumulated. We may add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks
so fleshy, as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the former
untouched. We may then notice the state of the teeth, from the
mastication of injurious substances; and having thus exhausted nature,
we may revert to the deformities of art. We may observe that wherever
there is a fleshy portion of the face that can be perforated by a stone
knife, or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing and incisions;
and that wherever there are incisions, bones, nails, feathers, and such
like ornaments will be inserted. All this is the case. What European
ladies do with their ears, the Eskimo does with the cartilage of his
nose, the lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks. More than
this--in the lower lip, parallel to the mouth, and taking the guise of a
mouth additional, a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough to
allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion of the tongue. The
insertion of a shell or bone, cut into the shape of teeth, completes the
adornment.
Then comes the question of colour. The Indian has a tinge of red; a
tinge which enables us to compare his skin to _copper_. The Eskimo is
simply brown, swarthy, or tawny.
Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales are scarce in the south,
and wood in the north of Greenland; and in consequence of this, there
are regular meetings for the business of barter. This gives us the
elements of commercial industry; elements which must themselves be taken
in conjunction with the maritime habits of the people. What stronger
contrast can we find to all this than the gloomy isolation of the
hunters of the prairie-countries, whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?
Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual capacity, to give the
Eskimo credit for ingenuity and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type
which we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently indocile and
inflexible.
Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable of great
qualification--qualification which we find necessary, whether we look to
the extent to which the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian the
Eskimo--each receding from its own more extreme representative.
The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly common amongst the Red
Indian tribes; and rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither universal
in the one, nor non-existent in the other. Oval features, a mixture of
red in the complexion, an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst
the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and women.
In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less remarkable for
inferiority than is generally supposed. His bulky, baggy dress makes him
look square and short. Measurements, however, correct this impression.
Men of the height of five feet ten inches have been noticed as
particular specimens--better grown individuals than their fellows. And
men under five feet have also been noticed for the contrary reasons.
Numerous measurements, however, give about five feet as the height of an
Eskimo woman, and five feet six inches as that of a man. This is more
than so good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the Malays; whose
person is squat, and whose average stature does not exceed five feet
three or four inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk gives the
Guiana Indians, as may be seen from the following table:--
+---------------+-------+-------------+
| | Aged. | ft. in. |
+---------------+-------+-------------+
| _Wapisianas._ | 12 | 4 8-5/10 |
| | 15 | 4 6 |
| | 16 | 5 1-1/10 |
+---------------+-------+-------------+
| _Tarumas._ | 14 | 4 11-3/10 |
+---------------+-------+-------------+
| _Mawackas._ | 15 | 4 10 |
| | 16} | 4 9-5/10 |
| | 17} | |
+---------------+-------+-------------+
| _Atorais._ | 35 | 5 1-5/10 |
| | 15 | 5 1 |
+---------------+-------+-------------+
| _Macusis._ | 14} | 4 8 |
| | 15} | |
| | 14 | 5 0 |
+---------------+-------+-------------+
It is more than the average of several other populations.
Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different from the American. It
is, probably, larger in its dimensions; so that its cavity contains more
cubic inches. The measurements, however, which suggest this view, are
but few. On the other hand, the relations between the _width_ and the
_depth_ of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.
By _width_ is meant the number of inches from side to side, from one
parietal bone to the other; in other words, the _parietal diameter_.
_Depth_ signifies the length of the _occipito-frontal_ diameter, or the
number of inches from the forehead to the back of the skull.
Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo crania examined by Dr. Morton, the
parietal diameter so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal as for the
skull in question to be as much as 5·4 inches in width, and as little as
5·7 in depth; a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain almost as
broad as it is long. _Valeat quantum._ It is an extreme specimen. The
remainder are as 5·5 to 7·3; as 5·1 to 7·5; and as 5 to 6·7, proportions
by no means exclusively Eskimo, and proportions which occur in very many
of the undeniably American stocks.
Likeness there is; and variety there is;--likeness in physical feature,
likeness in language, and likeness in the general moral and intellectual
characteristics. And then there is variety--variety in all the details
of their arts; variety in their bows, their canoes, their dwellings,
their fashions in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their
fashions in the dressing of their hair.
This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo at present. It is,
however, preparatory to the general statement that _all the remaining_
Indians of British North America recede from the Sioux and Iroquois
type, and approach that of the family in question. Such, indeed, has
been the case, though (perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the
classes already considered--the Athabaskan.
_The Kolúch._--The extreme west of the British possessions beyond the
Rocky Mountains, _north_ of latitude 55° is but imperfectly known.
Indeed, for scientific, and, perhaps, for political purposes as well,
the country is unfortunately divided. The Russians have the long but
narrow strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations to
its bays and archipelagoes. The British, on the contrary, though they
possess the interior, have no great interest in the parts about the
Russian boundary. In the way of trade, they are not sufficiently on the
sea for the sea-otter, nor near enough the mountains for other
fur-bearing animals.
Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian, the head-waters British.
Beyond these, we have the water-system of the McKenzie--for that river,
although falling into the Arctic Sea, has a western fork, which breaks
through the barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in direction
from west and south-west to north. Lake Simpson, Lake Dease, and the
River Turnagain belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie being
a range of highlands, if not of mountains.
This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous on the south with that
of the Takulli, and on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni. How
far, however, it extends towards the Russian boundary and in the
north-west direction I cannot say.
The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British representatives of the
class called Kolúch.[75] Assuming this--although from the want of a
special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence is wanting--I
begin with the notice of the _Nehannis_, as known to the Hudson's Bay
Company, and afterwards superadd a sketch of the _Sitkans_, as known to
the Russians of New Archangel; the two notices together giving us the
special description of a family, and the general view of the class to
which that family belongs.
That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent, is no more than is
expected. We are far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo. That
they are ruled by a woman should surprise us. Such, however, is the
case. A female rules them--and rules them, too, with a rod of iron.
Respect for sex has here attained its height. It had begun to be
recognized amongst the Athabaskans.
The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but they are also civilized
enough to barter; buying of the inland tribes, and selling to the
Russians--a practice which seems to divert the furs of British territory
to the markets of Muscovy. But this is no business of the ethnologist's.
They are slavers and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond of
music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body; bold and treacherous in
temper; and with the common Kolúch physiognomy and habits.
_These_ we must collect from the descriptions of the Russian
Kolúches--the locality where they have been best studied being Sitka
Sound, or New Archangel. We must do it, however, _mutatis mutandis_,
_i.e._, remembering that the Sitkans are Kolúch of an Archipelago, the
Nehanni Kolúch of a continent.
The Kolúch complexion is light; the hair long and lank; the eyes black;
and the lip and chin often bearded.
The _Konægi_ are the natives of the island Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from
whom the chief details of the Sitkan Kolúch are taken, especially states
that, with few exceptions, their manners and customs are those of these
same Konægi; one of the minor points of difference being the greater
liveliness of the Sitkans, and one of the more important ones, their
treatment of the dead. They _burn_ the bodies (as do the Takulli
Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in wooden boxes placed upon pillars,
painted or carved, more or less elaborately, according to the wealth of
the deceased.
On the death of a _toyon_, or chief, one of his slaves is killed and
burned with him. If, however, the deceased be of inferior rank the
victim is _buried_. If the death be in battle, the head, instead of
being burned, is kept in a wooden box of its own. But it is not with the
shaman as with the warrior. The shaman is merely interred; since he is
supposed to be too full of the evil spirit to be consumed by fire. The
reason why burning is preferred to burying is because the possession of
a piece of flesh is supposed to enable its owner to do what mischief he
pleases.
_Now the Konægi are admitted Eskimo._
Notwithstanding the similarity between the Sitkans and Konægi there is
no want of true American customs amongst them. Cruelty to prisoners,
indifference to pain when inflicted on themselves, and the habit of
scalping are common to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and
those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On the other hand, they
share the skill in painting and carving with the Chenúks and the
aborigines of the Oregon.
_The Digothi._--The Dahodinni are Athabaskan rather than Kolúch; the
Nehanni Kolúch rather than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni
country is partially encircled by Kolúch populations, and that a fresh
branch of this stock re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the Lower
McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River, and at the termination of the
great Rocky Range on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the _Digothi_
or _Loucheux_; the only family not belonging to the Eskimo class, which
comes in contact with the ocean; and, consequently, the only
unequivocally Indian population which interrupts the continuity of the
Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic. Perhaps the alluvium of
a great river like the McKenzie, has determined this displacement. Such
an occupancy would be as naturally coveted by an inland population, as
undervalued by a maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have the
appearance of being an encroaching tenantry; indeed, few Indians have
had their physical appearance described in terms equally favourable.
Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine sparkling eyes, and
regular teeth, they approach the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass
them in stature. The same authority which expressly states that the
Nehanni are not generally tall, speaks to the athletic proportions and
tall stature of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances are
handsome and expressive.
Whence came they? From the south-east, from Russian America. Their
points of contrast to the Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast
to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points of similarity to the
Kolúch do more. The Loucheux possessive pronoun is the same as the
Kenay. Thus--
ENGLISH. LOUCHEUX. KENAY.
_My_-son _se_-jay _ssi_-ja.
_My_-daughter _se_-zay _ssa_-za.
Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux and Nehanni are
required before we can decidedly pronounce them to be Kolúch; indeed,
so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter amongst the
Athabaskans.
_The Fall Indians._--In a MS. communicated by Mr. Gallatin to Dr.
Prichard, and, by the latter kindly lent to myself, and examined by me
some years back, was a vocabulary of the language of the Indians of the
Falls of the Saskatchewan. In this their native name was written
_Ahnenin_. Mr. Hale, however, calls them _Atsina_. Which is correct is
difficult to say.
_Gros ventres_ is another of their designations; _Minetari of the
Prairie_ another. This last is inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since
the true _Minetari_ are a Sioux tribe, different in language, manners,
and descent.
_Arrapaho_ is a third synonym; and this is important, since there are
other _Arrapahoes_ as far south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.
The identity of name is _primâ facie_ evidence of two tribes so distant
as those of Arkansas and the Saskatchewan being either offsets from one
another, or else from some common stock; but it is not more. Nothing can
be less conclusive. This has just been shown to be in the case of the
term _Minetari_.
The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar; though the confederacy to
which the Indians who speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.
Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary; neither do we know
whether the name be native or not.
* * * * *
A tract still stands over for notice. As we have no exact northern
limits for the Nehanni, no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no
exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts due east of the Russian
boundary are undescribed.
I can only _contribute_ to the ethnology here.
_The Ugalentses._--Round Mount St. Elias we have a population of
_Ugalentses_ or Ugalyakhmutsi. Though said to consist of less than forty
families,[76] as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable that
some of them are British.
_The Tshugatsi_.--In contact with the Ugalents, who are transitional
between the true Eskimo and the true Kolúch, the Tshugatsi are
unequivocally Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's Sound are their
locality.
_The Haidah._--Queen Charlotte's, and the southern extremity of the
Prince of Wales' Archipelago, are the parts to which the Indians
speaking the Haidah language have been referred. In case, however, any
members of their family extend into the British territory, they are
mentioned here.
Three Haidah tribes are more particularly named--
_a._ The _Skittegat_.
_b._ The _Cumshahas_--a name remarkably like that of the _Chimsheyan_,
hereafter to be noticed.
_c._ The _Kygani_.
_The Tungaas._--This is the name of the language of the most Northern
Indians, with which the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It is
Kolúch; and more Russian than British.
The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole of his valuable remarks
upon the North-western Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion
already made as to the extent which we have formed our ideas of the
Aboriginal American upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively; and his
facts are a correction to our inferences. In what way do the moral and
intellectual characters of the Western Indians differ from those of the
Eastern? I shall give the answer in Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are
less inflexible in character. Their range of ideas is greater. They are
imitative and docile. They are comparatively humane.[77] No scalping. No
excessive torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.
Now--whether negative or positive--there is not one of those
characteristics wherein the Western American differs from the Eastern,
in which he does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo. In the
absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk, the council fire, the
wampum-belt, the hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the Eskimo
differs from the Ojibway, the Huron, and the Mohawk. True. But the
Haidah and the Chimsheyan do the same.
The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is Shamanistic; like the Negro
of Africa they attribute to some material object mysterious powers. As
far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism. But, then, like the
Finn, and the Samoeid of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or
reverence in others, the excitement of fasting, charms, and dreams. As
far as the term has been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our notions
as to the religion of the Indians be rendered unduly favourable through
the ideas of pure theism, called up by the missionary term _Great
Spirit_, we must simply remember, in the first place, that the term is
_ours_, not _theirs_; and that those who, by looking to facts rather
than words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion that the
creed of the Indians of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi is neither
better nor worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia. Both are
alike, Shamanistic. And so is the Eskimo.
The names in detail of the Indians of British Oregon, over and above
those of the Athabaskan family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr.
Scouler still being the authority, and, along with him, Mr. Tolmie and
Mr. Hale.
1. The _Chimsheyan_, or _Chimmesyan_, on the sea-coast and islands about
55° North lat. Their tribes are the _Naaskok_, the _Chimsheyan Proper_,
the _Kitshatlah_, and the _Kethumish_.
2. The _Billichula_, on the mouth of the Salmon River.
3. The _Hailtsa_, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury Island to
Broughton's Archipelago, and (perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and
Vancouver's Island. Their tribes are the _Hyshalla_, the _Hyhysh_, the
_Esleytuk_, the _Weekenoch_, the _Nalatsenoch_, the _Quagheuil_, the
_Ttatla-shequilla_, and the _Lequeeltoch_. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh
Sound will be noticed in the sequel.
4. _The Nutka Sound Indians_ occupy the greater part of Quadra's and
Vancouver's Island, speak the _Wakash_ language, and fall into the
following tribes--
_a._ _The Naspatl._
_b._ _The Nutkans Proper._
_c._ _The Tlaoquatsh._
_d._ _The Nittenat._
5. _The Shushwah_, or _Atna_, are bounded on the north by the Takulli,
belong to the interior rather than the coast, are members of a large
family, called the _Tsihaili-Selish_, extending far into the United
States. According to Mr. Hale, they present the remarkable phenomenon
of an aboriginal stock having increased from about four hundred to
twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.
6. _The Kitunaha_, _Cutanies_, or _Flat-bows_, hardy, brave and shrewd
hunters on the Kitunaha, or Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the
Blackfoots, are the Oregon Indians whose habits most closely approach
those of the Indians to the east of the Rocky Mountains.
* * * * *
To some of these I now return, since three points of Algonkin ethnology
require special notice.
_a._ _The Nascopi_ or _Skoffi_.--This is a frontier tribe. Much as we
connect the ideas of cold and cheerless sterility with the inclement
climate and naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we connect the
Eskimo as a population with a similarly inhospitable country, it is only
the coast of that vast region which is thus tenanted. On Hudson's
Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits of Belleisle there are Eskimo;
along the intervening coast there are Eskimo, and as far south as
Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior there are no Eskimo.
Instead of them we find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatapúsh--subsections
(as stated before) of the same section of the great Algonkin stock. In
them we have a measure of the effect of external conditions upon
different members of the same class. Between the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay
and the Pamticos of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25° of latitude
combined with a difference of other physical conditions which more than
equals the difference between north and south. Yet the contrast between
the Algonkin and other inhabitants of Labrador is as evident (though
not, perhaps, so great) as that between the Greenlander and the
Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable from the
Laplander so is the Skoffi from Eskimo.
Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins, the Nascopi hunts and
fishes for his livelihood exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal
migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that, upon his net. This he
sets under the ice, during the earlier months of the winter. After
December, however, he would set them in vain; the fish being, then, all
in the deep water. Woman, generally a drudge in North America, is
pre-eminently so with the Nascopis. All that the man does, is the
_killing_ of the game. The woman brings it home. The woman also drags
the loaded sledges from squatting to squatting, clears the ground, and
collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and smokes. Of such domestic
slaves more than one is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi
recognizes marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this sense the
contracting parties are respectively the parents of the couple--the
bride and bridegroom being the last parties consulted. When all has been
arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's tent, remains there
a year, and then departs as an independent member of the community.
Cousins are addressed as brothers or sisters; marriage between near
relations is allowed; and so is the marriage of more than one sister
successively.
The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the other Cree tribes; their
Christianity still more partial and still more nominal. Sometimes
rolling in abundance, sometimes starving, they are attached to the
Whites by but few artificial wants; the few fur-bearing animals of their
country being highly prized, and, consequently, going a long way as
elements of barter. Their dress is almost wholly of reindeer skin; their
travelling gear a leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In this
bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his knees up to his chin, and
defies both wind and snow.
This account has been condensed from M'Lean's "Five and Twenty Years'
Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder in his
own words: "The horrid practice still obtains among the Nascopis of
destroying their parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates them
for further exertion. I must, however, do them the justice to say, that
the parent himself expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural
deed would probably never be committed, for they, in general, treat
their old people with much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest
relative, performs the office of executioner--the self-devoted victim
being disposed of by strangulation."
_b._ _The Aborigines of Newfoundland._--Sebastian Cabot brought three
Newfoundlanders to England. They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate
raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic of the Eskimo; and,
thus far, the evidence is in favour of the savages in question belonging
to that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by what follows; since
Purchas states that two years after he saw two of them, dressed like
Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not discover from Englishmen,
till I learned what they were."
Now as the Bethuck--the aborigines in question--have either been cruelly
exterminated, or exist in such small numbers as not to have been seen
for many years, it has been a matter of doubt whether they were Eskimo
or Micmacs, the present occupants of the island. Reasons against either
of these views are supplied by a hitherto unpublished Bethuck
vocabulary, with which I have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr.
King, of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a _separate section_
of the Algonkins. Such I believe them to have been, and have placed them
accordingly.
_c._ _The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals._--These are nearly the same as the
Hailtsa. On the other hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in
-_scum_.
Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really to connect the Blackfoot
with the Hailtsa, it brings the Algonkin class of languages across the
whole breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores of the Pacific.
* * * * *
The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England, any more than the
Tahitians are of France, or the Sandwich Islanders of America, France,
and England conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate: and the
Moskito Indians are the subjects of a native king.
The present reigning monarch was educated under English auspices at
Jamaica, and, upon attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town. I
believe that his name is that of the grandfather of our late gracious
majesty. King George, then, king of the Moskitos, has a territory
extending from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower part of the
River San Juan; a territory whereof, inconveniently for Great Britain,
the United States, and the commerce of the world at large, the limits
and definition are far from being universally recognized. Nicaragua has
claims, and the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.
The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor of the Brazil, are the
only resident sovereigns of the New World.
The subjects of the former are, really, the aborigines of the whole line
of coast between Nicaragua and Honduras--there being no Indians
remaining in the former republic, and but few in the latter. Of these,
too--the Nicaraguans--we have no definite ethnological information. Mr.
Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands of the lakes of the
interior. Colonel Galindo also mentions them; but I infer, from his
account, that their original language is lost, and that Spanish is their
present tongue; just as it is said to be that of the aborigines of St.
Salvador and Costa Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And the
difficulty is increased when we resort to history, tradition, and
archæology. History makes them Mexicans--Asteks from the kingdom of
Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just as the Ph[oe]nicians
were of Carthage. Archæology goes the same way. A detailed description
of Mr. Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology which is
anxiously expected. At any rate, stone ruins and carved decorations have
been found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written about Yucatan and
Guatemala, may be repeated in the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The
difficulty will be but increased; since whatever facts makes Nicaragua
Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They are now in contact with Spaniards
and Englishmen--populations whose civilization differs from their own;
and populations who are evidently intrusive and of recent origin.
Precisely the same would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made
Mexican. The civilization would be of another sort; the population which
introduced it would be equally intrusive; and the only difference would
be a difference of stage and degree--a little earlier in the way of
time, and a little less contrast in the way of skill and industry.
But the evidence in favour of the Mexican origin of the Nicaraguans, is
doubtful; and so is the fact of their having wholly lost their native
tongue; and until one of these two opinions be proved, it will be well
to suspend our judgment as to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed,
either of them be true, their ethnological position will be a difficult
question. With nothing in Honduras to compare them with--with nothing
tangible, or with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua--with
only very general miscellaneous affinities in Guatemala--their
ethnological affinities are as peculiar as their political
constitution. Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has
undoubted _general affinities with those of America at large_; and this
is all that it is safe to say at present. But it is safe to say _this_.
We have plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of Mr.
Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.
The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is that they were never
subject to the Spaniards. Each continent affords a specimen of this
isolated freedom--the independence of some exceptional and impracticable
tribes, as compared with the universal empire of some encroaching
European power. The Circassians in Caucasus, the Tshuktshi Koriaks in
North-eastern Asia, and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their
relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of an amicable
description. So they were with the Negroes--maroon and imported. And
this, perhaps, has determined their _differentiæ_. They are
intertropical American aborigines, who have become partially European,
without becoming Spanish.
Their physical conformation is that of the South rather than the North
American; and, here it must be remembered, that we are passing from one
moiety of the new hemisphere to the other. With a skin which is
olive-coloured rather than red, they have small limbs and undersized
frames; whilst their habits are, _mutatis mutandis_, those of the
intertropical African. This means, that the exuberance of soil, and the
heat of the climate, makes them agriculturists rather than shepherds,
and idlers rather than agriculturists; since the least possible amount
of exertion gives them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants
which are compatible with indolence that they care to satisfy. They
presume rather than improve upon the warmth of their suns, and the
fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they get drunk; when they
work hardest, they cut mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the
native industry. _Wulasha_ is the name of their Evil Spirit, and
_Liwaia_ that of a water-god.
I cannot but think that there is much intermixture amongst them. At the
same time, the _data_ for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their
greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the Negro; their next
greatest with the Englishman. Of the population of the interior, we know
next to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.
They are frontagers to the river San Juan. This gives them their value
in politics.
They are the only well-known extant Indians between Guatemala and
Veragua. This gives them their value in ethnology.
The populations to which they were most immediately allied, have
disappeared from history. This isolates them; so that there is no class
to which they can be subordinated. At the same time, they are quite as
like the nearest known tribes as the _American_ ethnologist is prepared
to expect.
What they were in their truly natural state, when, unmodified by either
Englishman or Spaniard, Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous
civilization (such as it was) of their coast, is uncertain.
* * * * *
That the difference between the North and South American aborigines has
been over-rated, is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do so,
decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk, who is at once minute in
taking notice, and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to that
of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge upon the extent to which the
Indians of the New World in general look "like children of one family."
On the other hand, however, there are writers like D'Orbigny. These
expatiate upon the difference between members of the same class, so as
to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or Peruvians from
Athabaskans, but Peruvians from Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.
Now it is no paradox to assert that these two views, instead of
contradicting, support each other. A writer exhibits clear and
undeniable differences between two American tribes in geographical
juxtaposition to one another. But does this prove a difference of
origin, stock, or race? Not necessarily. Such differences may be, and
often are, partial. More than this--they may be more than neutralized by
undeniable marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they prove is the
extent to which really allied populations may be contrasted in respect
to certain particular characters.
Stature is the chief point in which the North American has the advantage
of the Southern, _e.g._, the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R.
Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general rule. Yet a vast number of
the Indians of the Oregon, are shorter than the South American
Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large as compared with the
trunk, and the trunk with the limbs; the hands small; the foot large;
the skin soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.
_Indians of British Guiana._--These are distributed amongst four
divisions, of very unequal magnitude and importance.--1. The Carib. 2.
The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The Taruma.
The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R. Schomburgk was eighteen.
1. The great _Carib_ group falls into three divisions:--
_a._ The Caribs Proper.
_b._ The Tamanaks.
_c._ The Arawaks.
Of these, it is only members of the first and last that occupy British
Guiana.
_The Arawaks._--The Arawaks are our nearest neighbours, and,
consequently, the most Europeanized. Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they
and the Warows amount to about three thousand, and from Bernau we infer,
that this number is nearly equally divided between the two; since he
reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred. Each family has its
distinctive tattoo, and these families are twenty-seven in number.
The children may marry into their father's family, but not into that of
their mother. Now as the caste is derived from their mother, this is an
analogue of the North American _totem_. Polygamy is chiefly the
privilege of the chiefs. The _Pe-i-man_ is the Arawak _Shaman_. He it is
who names the children--_for a consideration_. Failing this, the progeny
goes nameless; and to go nameless is to be obnoxious to all sorts of
misfortunes.
Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son of a conjuror enters his
twentieth year, his right ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring,
and he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.
In imitating what they see, and remembering what they hear, the Arawak
has, at least, an average capacity. Neither is he destitute of
ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration is of the rudest
kind.
Aba-da-kabo = once my hand = _five_.
Biama-da-kabo = twice my hand = _ten_.
Aba-olake = one man = _twenty_.
Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and some neatness in the
dressing of their hair is perceptible. It is tied up on the crown of the
head.
The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the lightest coloured families
being as fair as Spaniards. This is on the evidence of Bernau, who adds,
that, as children grow in knowledge and receive instruction, the
forehead rises, and the physiognomy improves.
The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are Carib at all, are Caribs
Proper, rather than Arawaks. Of these, the chief are--
_The Accaways_,--occupants of the rivers Mazaruni and Putara, with about
six hundred fighting men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel; firm
friends and bitter enemies. When resisted, they kill; when unopposed,
enslave.
The law of revenge predominates in this tribe; for--like certain
Australians--they attribute all deaths to contrivances of an enemy.
Workers in poison themselves, they suspect it with others.
Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but then their nudity is more
complete; inasmuch as, instead of clothing, they paint themselves;
arnotto being their red, lana their blue pigment. They pierce the
_septum_ of the nose, and wear wood in the holes, like the Eskimo,
Loucheux, and others. They paint the face in streaks, and the body
variously--sometimes blue on one side, and red on the other. They rub
their bodies with carapa oil, to keep off insects; and _one_ of the
ingredients of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant called
_muneery_.
Their forehead is depressed.
They give nicknames to each other and to strangers, irrespective of
rank; and the better their authorities take it the greater their
influence.
It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit of the deceased hovers
over the dwelling in which death took place, and that it will not
tolerate disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse _in_ the hammock, and
_under_ the hut in which it became one. This they burn and desert.
_The Carabísi._--Twenty years ago the Carabísi (_Carabeese_,
_Carabisce_) mustered one thousand fighting men. It would now be
difficult to raise one hundred. But the diminution of their numbers and
importance began earlier still. Beyond the proper Carabísi area, there
are numerous Carabísi names of rivers, islands, and other geographical
objects. Hence, their area has decreased.
Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers, dogs, rats, frogs, insects,
and other sorts of food, unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by
their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the part which they perforate,
and wherein they wear their usual pins; besides which they fasten a
large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of the head.
In ordinary cases the hammock in which the death took place, serves as a
coffin, the body is buried, and a funeral procession made once or twice
round the grave; but the bodies of persons of importance are watched and
washed by the nearest female relations, and when nothing but the
skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned, painted, packed in a basket and
preserved. When, however, there is a change of habitation they are
_burned_; after which the ashes are collected, and kept.
Here we have interment and cremation in one and the same tribe; a
circumstance which should guard us against exaggerating their value as
characteristic and distinguishing customs.
Again. The _Macusi_ is closely akin to the Carabísi; yet the Macusi
buries his dead in a sitting posture without coffins, and with but few
ceremonies. Now the sitting posture is common to the Peruvians, the
Oregon Indians, and numerous tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers
it to be one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Red Man of
America in general.
The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man of note dies his relations
plant a field of cassava; just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a
cocoa-nut tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve moons are over,
and the cassava is ripe, they re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each
other cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are then _hung up_ on
the spot where the person died. Six moons later a second meeting takes
place--and, this time, the whips are _buried_.
The _Waika_ are a small tribe of the _Accaways_; the _Zapara_ of the
_Macusis_. Besides these, the following Guiana Indians are Carib.
The _Arecuna_; of which the _Soerikong_ are a section.
The _Waiyamara_.
The _Guinau_.
The _Maiongkong_.
The _Woyawai_.
The _Mawakwa_, or Frog Indians--a tribe that flattens the head.
The _Piano-ghotto_; of which the _Zaramata_ and _Drio_ are sections.
The _Tiveri-ghotto_.
2. _The Warow_, _Waraw_, _Warau_, or _Guarauno_.--These are the Indians
of the Delta of the Orinoco, and the parts between that river and the
Pomaroon. Their language is peculiar, but by no means without
miscellaneous affinities. They are the fluviatile boatmen of South
America. Their habit of taking up their residence in trees when the
ground is flooded, has given both early and late writers an opportunity
of enlarging upon their semi-arboreal habits.
3. _The Wapisianas_ fall into--
_a._ The _Wapisianas_ Proper--
_b._ The _Atorai_, of which the _Taurai_, or _Dauri_ (the same word
under another form), and the extinct, or nearly extinct, _Amaripas_ are
divisions.
_c._ The _Parauana_.
4. The _Tarumas_, on the Upper Essequibo, have their probable affinities
with the uninvestigated tribes of Central South America.
The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are those of St. Vincents. In no
other West Indian islands are there any aborigines extant.
FOOTNOTES:
[71] _Dinni_, _tinni_, _din_, _tin_, &c.=_man_ in the Athabaskan
tongues.
[72] Called also _Carriers_, _Nagail_, and _Chin Indians_; though
whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.
[73] By no means to be confounded with the _Chepewyans_.
[74] The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas, Tuskaroras, and
Hurons.
[75] See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the British
Association," 1847, p. 121.
[76] Thirty-eight.
[77] This requires modification. The Sitkan practices have already been
noticed.
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Transcriber's Amendments:
p. 30, fn. 10, 'Fallermayer' amended to _Fallmerayer_.
p. 31, 'Britany' amended to _Brittany_.
p. 32, 'Notitiæ ...' amended to _Notitia Utriusque Imperii_.
p. 34, 'Caffres' amended to _Kaffres_.
p. 35, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_;
'Cabyles' amended to _Kabyles_.
p. 39, 'Avekoom' amended to _Avekvom_;
'Woloff' amended to _Wolof_;
'Bambarra' amended to _Bambara_.
p. 40, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_.
p. 65, 'languge' amended to _language_.
p. 67, 'Yorriba' amended to _Yarriba_;
'Callabar' amended to _Calabar_;
'Mosketo' amended to _Mosquito_.
p. 75, 'Amokosa' amended to _Amakosa_: '_The Amakosa._--This'.
p. 84, 'Caffraria' amended to _Kaffraria_.
p. 86, 'Crawford' amended to _Crawfurd_.
p. 94, 'Trangangetic' amended to _Transgangetic_.
p. 98, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to _Crawfurd's Embassy_.
p. 107, 'Kamti' amended to _Khamti_.
p. 121, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_.
p. 137, 'Pottaing' amended to _Potteang_.
p. 140, 'Kuttak' amended to _Cuttack_;
'Penna' amended to _Pennu_ (twice).
p. 141, 'Cicacole' amended to _Chicacole_.
p. 146, 'jackall' amended to _jackal_.
p. 148, 'Rajaship' amended to _Rajahship_.
p. 177, 'Levitican' amended to _Levitical_.
p. 181, 'Peshawer' amended to _Peshawar_.
p. 192, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to _Maha-Sohon_.
p. 193, 'Singalese' amended to _Singhalese_.
p. 197, 'Binjarri' amended to _Brinjarri_;
'Telagu' amended to _Telugu_.
p. 198, 'Taremuki' amended to _Tarremúki_.
p. 199, 'Bowri' amended to _Bhowri_.
p. 201, 'Guzerat' amended to _Gujerat_.
p. 228, 'Skofi' amended to _Skoffi_.
p. 233, 'tatooing' amended to _tattooing_.
p. 237, 'tatooings' amended to _tattooings_.
p. 243, 'Saskachewan' amended to _Saskatchewan_.
p. 259, 'tatoo' amended to _tattoo_.
p. 262, 'Caribis' amended to _Carabísi_.
Further Notes:
p. 113, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows 'Áká' and 'Ábor' repositioned
to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. Tángkhul'
(column), which originally read '--', has been amended to '11'.
p. 172-175, corrections to extracts taken from _A History of the Sikhs_,
by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.