TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DESCENDANTS OF JO_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Lamennais, Robert de" to "Latini, Brunetto" Volume 16, Slice 2

John of Gaunt, = Blanche, = Constance, = Catherine,

duke of Lancaster, titular king | daughter and heiress of | the elder of the two daughters | daughter of Sir Payne Roet,

of Castile. | Henry, duke of Lancaster. | and heiresses of Peter, king of | widow of Sir Hugh Swynford.

| | Castile and Leon. |

+---------------+------------+-----------------------------+ | +----------+-------+--+------------------+

| | | | | | | | |

Philippa, Henry IV.,= Mary de Bohun,= Joan, Elizabeth, Catherine, John Henry Thomas Joan Beaufort,

married to king of | daughter and daughter of married to John married to Prince Beaufort, Beaufort, Beaufort, wife of Ralph Nevill, 1st

John I., king England. | co-heir of Charles the Holand, duke of Henry, afterwards earl of cardinal. duke of earl of Westmoreland, by

of Portugal. | Humphrey de Bad, king Exeter, who was Henry III. of Somerset. Exeter. whom she became an ancestor

| | Bohun, earl of of Navarre. beheaded by Henry Castile. | of Edward IV., Richard III.,

Edward, | Hereford and No issue. IV.; afterwards to | +-+------------------+ Warwick the King Maker and

king of | Essex. Sir John Cornwall, John II. | | many noble families.

Portugal. | created Baron king of Castile. Henry John

| | Fanhope. | Beaufort, Beaufort,

+----+--------+ +-+------------------------+----------+-----+----+ Isabella of Castile, earl of earl, afterwards

Alphonso V. Ferdinand, Henry V., = Catherine, Thomas, John, | Humphrey, kings of Spain till Edmund, = Margaret

of Portugal. duke of Viseu. king of | daughter of duke of duke of | duke of the accession of the earl of Rich- | Beaufort.

John II Emmanuel, | of France | Sir Owen Tudor |

of Portugal. king of Portugal; | afterwards | by Catherine, |

whose descendants | Tudor. Philippa, widow of Henry |

have reigned in that | married V. |

country ever since. Henry VI. to Eric |

| VII. of Henry VII.,

Edward, Denmark king of England.

prince of Wales. of Sweden. |

+---------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+

| | |

Henry VIII. Margaret = James IV. Mary. = Charles Brandon,

| | king of Scotland. | duke of Suffolk.

+-----------+-----------+ | |

| | | James V., +-------+---+-----------------+

Edward VI. Mary, Elizabeth, king of Scotland. | | |

queen of queen of | Henry, Frances, Eleanor,

England. England. Mary Stuart. earl of wife of Henry wife of Henry,

| Lincoln. Grey, marquess 2nd. earl of

James VI. of Scotland of Dorset, Cumberland.

and I. of England created duke of

whose descendants Suffolk.

have reigned in Great |

Britain ever since. Lady Jane Grey

and others.

His son and successor, HENRY, 1st duke of Lancaster (c. 1300-1361), was

a soldier of unusual distinction. Probably from his birthplace in

Monmouthshire he was called Henry of Grosmont. He fought in the naval

fight off Sluys and in the one off Winchelsea in 1350; he led armies

into Scotland, Gascony and Normandy, his exploits in Gascony in 1345 and

1346 being especially successful; he served frequently under Edward III.

himself; and he may be fairly described as one of the most brilliant and

capable of the English warriors during the earlier part of the Hundred

Years' War. During a brief respite from the king's service he led a

force into Prussia and he was often employed on diplomatic business. In

1354 he was at Avignon negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to

make peace between England and France, and one of his last acts was to

assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360. In

1337 he was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he succeeded to his father's

earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester; in 1349 he was created earl of

Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of Lancaster. He was steward of

England and one of the original knights of the order of the garter. He

died at Leicester on the 13th of March 1361. He left no sons; one of his

daughters, Maud (d. 1362), married William V., count of Holland, a son

of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the other, Blanche (d. 1369),

married Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who obtained his

father-in-law's titles and estates.

LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (fl. 1591-1618), English navigator and statesman,

one of the foremost pioneers of the British Indian trade and empire. In

early life he fought and traded in Portugal. On the 10th of April 1591

he started from Plymouth, with Raymond and Foxcroft, on his first great

voyage to the East Indies; this fleet of three ships is the earliest of

English oversea Indian expeditions. Reaching Table Bay (1st of August

1591), and losing one ship off Cape Corrientes on the 12th of September,

the squadron rested and refitted at Zanzibar (February 1592), rounded

Cape Comorin in May following, and was off the Malay Peninsula in June.

Crossing later to Ceylon, the crews insisted on returning home; the

voyage back was disastrous; only twenty-five officers and men reappeared

in England in 1594. Lancaster himself reached Rye on the 24th of May

1594; in the same year he led a military expedition against Pernambuco,

without much success; but his Indian voyage, like Ralph Fitch's overland

explorations and trading, was an important factor in the foundation of

the East India Company. In 1600 he was given command of the company's

first fleet (which sailed from Torbay towards the end of April 1601); he

was also accredited as Queen Elizabeth's special envoy to various

Eastern potentates. Going by the Cape of Good Hope (1st of November

1601) Lancaster visited the Nicobars (from the 9th of April 1602), Achin

and other parts of Sumatra (from the 5th of June 1602), and Bantam in

Java; an alliance was concluded with Achin, a factory established at

Bantam and a commercial mission despatched to the Moluccas. The return

voyage (20th of February to 11th of September 1603) was speedy and

prosperous, and Lancaster (whose success both in trade and in diplomacy

had been brilliant) was rewarded with knighthood (October 1603). He

continued to be one of the chief directors of the East India Company

till his death in May 1618; most of the voyages of the early Stuart time

both to India and in search of the North-West passage were undertaken

under his advice and direction; Lancaster Sound, on the north-west of

Baffin's Bay (in 74° 20' N.), was named by William Baffin after Sir

James (July 1616).

See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_, vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 102-110,

vol. iii. pp. 708-715 (1599); Purchas, _Pilgrims_, vol. i. pt. ii. pp.

147-164; also _The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster ... to the East

Indies ..._, ed. Sir Clements Markham, Hakluyt Soc. (1877), _Calendars

of State Papers, East Indies_. The original journals of Lancaster's

voyage of 1601-1603 have disappeared, and here we have only Purchas to

go on.

LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, _Duke of_ (1340-1399), fourth son of Edward

III. and Queen Philippa, was born in March 1340 at Ghent, whence his

name. On the 29th of September 1342 he was made earl of Richmond; as a

child he was present at the sea fight with the Spaniards in August 1350,

but his first military service was in 1355, when he was knighted. On the

19th of May 1359 he married his cousin Blanche, daughter and ultimately

sole heiress of Henry, duke of Lancaster. In her right he became earl of

Lancaster in 1361, and next year was created duke. His marriage made him

the greatest lord in England, but for some time he took no prominent

part in public affairs. In 1366 he joined his eldest brother, Edward the

Black Prince, in Aquitaine, and in the year after led a strong

contingent to share in the campaign in support of Pedro the Cruel of

Castile. With this began the connexion with Spain, which was to have so

great an influence on his after-life. John fought in the van at Najera

on the 3rd of April 1367, when the English victory restored Pedro to his

throne. He returned home at the end of the year. Pedro proved false to

his English allies, and was finally overthrown and killed by his rival,

Henry of Trastamara, in 1369. The disastrous Spanish enterprise led

directly to renewed war between France and England. In August 1369 John

had command of an army which invaded northern France without success. In

the following year he went again to Aquitaine, and was present with the

Black Prince at the sack of Limoges. Edward's health was broken down,

and he soon after went home, leaving John as his lieutenant. For a year

John maintained the war at his own cost, but whilst in Aquitaine a

greater prospect was opened to him. The duchess Blanche had died in the

autumn of 1369 and now John married Constance (d. 1394), the elder

daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and in her right assumed the title of king

of Castile and Leon. For sixteen years the pursuit of his kingdom was

the chief object of John's ambition. No doubt he hoped to achieve his

end, when he commanded the great army which invaded France in 1373. But

the French would not give battle, and though John marched from Calais

right through Champagne, Burgundy and Auvergne, it was with disastrous

results; only a shattered remnant of the host reached Bordeaux.

The Spanish scheme had to wait, and when John got back to England he was

soon absorbed in domestic politics. The king was prematurely old, the

Black Prince's health was broken. John, in spite of the unpopularity of

his ill-success, was forced into the foremost place. As head of the

court party he had to bear the brunt of the attack on the administration

made by the Good Parliament in 1376. It was not perhaps altogether just,

and John was embittered by reflections on his loyalty. As soon as the

parliament was dissolved he had its proceedings reversed, and next year

secured a more subservient assembly. There came, however, a new

development. The duke's politics were opposed by the chief

ecclesiastics, and in resisting them he had made use of Wycliffe. With

Wycliffe's religious opinions he had no sympathy. Nevertheless when the

bishops arraigned the reformer for heresy John would not abandon him.

The conflict over the trial led to a violent quarrel with the Londoners,

and a riot in the city during which John was in danger of his life from

the angry citizens. The situation was entirely altered by the death of

Edward III. on the 21st of June. Though his enemies had accused him of

aiming at the throne, John was without any taint of disloyalty. In his

nephew's interests he accepted a compromise, disclaimed before

parliament the truth of the malicious rumours against him, and was

reconciled formally with his opponents. Though he took his proper place

in the ceremonies at Richard's coronation, he showed a tactful

moderation by withdrawing for a time from any share in the government.

However, in the summer of 1378, he commanded in an attack on St Malo,

which through no fault of his failed. To add to this misfortune, during

his absence some of his supporters violated the sanctuary at

Westminster. He vindicated himself somewhat bitterly in a parliament at

Gloucester, but still avoiding a prominent part in the government,

accepted the command on the Scottish border. He was there engaged when

his palace of the Savoy in London was burnt during the peasants' revolt

in June 1381. Wild reports that even the government had declared him a

traitor made him seek refuge in Scotland. Richard had, however,

denounced the calumnies, and at once recalled his uncle.

John's self-restraint had strengthened his position, and he began again

to think of his Spanish scheme. He urged its undertaking in parliament

in 1382, but nearer troubles were more urgent, and John himself was

wanted on the Scottish border. There he sought to arrange peace, but

against his will was forced into an unfortunate campaign in 1384. His

ill-success renewed his unpopularity, and the court favourites of

Richard II. intrigued against him. They were probably responsible for

the allegation, made by a Carmelite, called Latemar, that John was

conspiring against his nephew. Though Richard at first believed it, the

matter was disposed of by the friar's death. However, the court party

soon after concocted a fresh plot for the duke's destruction; John

boldly denounced his traducers, and the quarrel was appeased by the

intervention of the king's mother. The intrigue still continued, and

broke out again during the Scottish campaign in 1385. John was not the

man to be forced into treason to his family, but the impossibility of

the position at home made his foreign ambitions more feasible.

The victory of John of Portugal over the king of Castile at Aljubarrota,

won with English help, offered an opportunity. In July 1386 John left

England with a strong force to win his Spanish throne. He landed at

Corunna, and during the autumn conquered Galicia. Juan, who had

succeeded his father Henry as king of Castile, offered a compromise by

marriage. John of Gaunt refused, hoping for greater success with the

help of the king of Portugal, who now married the duke's eldest daughter

Philippa. In the spring the allies invaded Castile. They could achieve

no success, and sickness ruined the English army. The conquests of the

previous year were lost, and when Juan renewed his offers, John of Gaunt

agreed to surrender his claims to his daughter by Constance of Castile,

who was to marry Juan's heir. After some delay the peace was concluded

at Bayonne in 1388. The next eighteen months were spent by John as

lieutenant of Aquitaine, and it was not till November 1389 that he

returned to England. By his absence he had avoided implication in the

troubles at home. Richard, still insecure of his own position, welcomed

his uncle, and early in the following year marked his favour by creating

him duke of Aquitaine. John on his part was glad to support the king's

government; during four years he exercised his influence in favour of

pacification at home, and abroad was chiefly responsible for the

conclusion of a truce with France. Then in 1395 he went to take up the

government of his duchy; thanks chiefly to his lavish expenditure his

administration was not unsuccessful, but the Gascons had from the first

objected to government except by the crown, and secured his recall

within less than a year. Almost immediately after his return John

married as his third wife Catherine Swynford; Constance of Castile had

died in 1394. Catherine had been his mistress for many years, and his

children by her, who bore the name of Beaufort, were now legitimated. In

this and in other matters Richard found it politic to conciliate him.

But though John presided at the trial of the earl of Arundel in

September 1397, he took no active part in affairs. The exile of his son

Henry in 1398 was a blow from which he did not recover. He died on the

3rd of February 1399, and was buried at St Paul's near the high altar.

John was neither a great soldier nor a statesman, but he was a

chivalrous knight and loyal to what he believed were the interests of

his family. In spite of opportunities and provocations he never lent

himself to treason. He deserves credit for his protection of Wycliffe,

though he had no sympathy with his religious or political opinions. He

was also the patron of Chaucer, whose _Boke of the Duchesse_ was a

lament for Blanche of Lancaster.

The chief original sources for John's life are Froissart, the

maliciously hostile _Chronicon Angliae_ (1328-1388), and the

eulogistic _Chronicle_ of Henry Knighton (both the latter in the Rolls

Series). But fuller information is to be found in the excellent

biography by S. Armytage-Smith, published in 1904. For his descendants

see the table under LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. (C. L. K.)

LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838), English educationist, was born in

Southwark in 1778, the son of a Chelsea pensioner. He had few

opportunities of regular instruction, but he very early showed unusual

seriousness and desire for learning. At sixteen he looked forward to the

dissenting ministry; but soon after his religious views altered, and he

attached himself to the Society of Friends, with which he remained

associated for many years, until long afterwards he was disowned by that

body. At the age of twenty he began to gather a few poor children under

his father's roof, and to give them the rudiments of instruction,

without a fee, except in cases in which the parent was willing to pay a

trifle. Soon a thousand children were assembled in the Borough Road;

and, the attention of the duke of Bedford, Mr Whitbread, and others

having been directed to his efforts, he was provided with means for

building a schoolroom and supplying needful materials. The main features

of his plan were the employment of older scholars as monitors, and an

elaborate system of mechanical drill, by means of which these young

teachers were made to impart the rudiments of reading, writing and

arithmetic to large numbers at the same time. The material appliances

for teaching were very scanty--a few leaves torn out of spelling-books

and pasted on boards, some slates and a desk spread with sand, on which

the children wrote with their fingers. The order and cheerfulness of the

school and the military precision of the children's movements began to

attract much public observation at a time when the education of the poor

was almost entirely neglected. Lancaster inspired his young monitors

with fondness for their work and with pride in the institution of which

they formed a part. As these youths became more trustworthy, he found

himself at leisure to accept invitations to expound what he called "his

system" by lectures in various towns. In this way many new schools were

established, and placed under the care of young men whom he had trained.

In a memorable interview with George III., Lancaster was encouraged by

the expression of the king's wish that every poor child in his dominions

should be taught to read the Bible. Royal patronage brought in its train

resources, fame and public responsibility, which proved to be beyond

Lancaster's own powers to sustain or control. He was vain, reckless and

improvident. In 1808 a few noblemen and gentlemen paid his debts, became

his trustees and founded the society at first called the Royal

Lancasterian Institution, but afterwards more widely known as the

British and Foreign School Society. The trustees soon found that

Lancaster was impatient of control, and that his wild impulses and

heedless extravagance made it impossible to work with him. He quarrelled

with the committee, set up a private school at Tooting, became bankrupt,

and in 1818 emigrated to America. There he met at first a warm

reception, gave several courses of lectures which were well attended,

and wrote to friends at home letters full of enthusiasm. But his fame

was short-lived. The miseries of debt and disappointment were aggravated

by sickness, and he settled for a time in the warmer climate of Carácas.

He afterwards visited St Thomas and Santa Cruz, and at length returned

to New York, the corporation of which city made him a public grant of

500 dollars in pity for the misfortunes which had by this time reduced

him to lamentable poverty. He afterwards visited Canada, where he gave

lectures at Montreal, and was encouraged to open a school which enjoyed

an ephemeral success, but was soon abandoned. A small annuity provided

by his friends in England was his only means of support. He formed a

plan for returning home and giving a new impetus to his "system," by

which he declared it would be possible "to teach ten thousand children

in different schools, not knowing their letters, all to read fluently in

three weeks to three months." But these visions were never realized. He

was run over by a carriage in the streets of New York on the 24th of

October 1838, and died in a few hours.

As one of the two rival inventors of what was called the "monitorial"

or "mutual" method of instruction, Lancaster's name was prominent for

many years in educational controversy. Dr Andrew Bell (q.v.) had in

1797 published an account of his experiments in teaching; and

Lancaster in his first pamphlet, published in 1803, frankly

acknowledges his debt to Bell for some useful hints. The two worked

independently, but Lancaster was the first to apply the system of

monitorial teaching on a large scale. As an economical experiment his

school at the Borough Road was a signal success. He had one thousand

scholars under discipline, and taught them to read, write and work

simple sums at a yearly cost of less than 5s. a head. His tract

_Improvements in Education_ described the gradation of ranks, the

system of signals and orders, the functions of the monitors, the

method of counting and of spelling and the curious devices he adopted

for punishing offenders. Bell's educational aims were humbler, as he

feared to "elevate above their station those who were doomed to the

drudgery of daily labour," and therefore did not desire to teach even

writing and ciphering to the lower classes. The main difference

between them was that the system of the one was adopted by

ecclesiastics and Conservatives,--the "National Society for the

Education of the Poor in the principles of the Established Church"

having been founded in 1811 for its propagation; while Lancaster's

method was patronized by the _Edinburgh Review_, by Whig statesmen, by

a few liberal Churchmen and by Nonconformists generally. It was the

design of Lancaster and his friends to make national education

Christian, but not sectarian,--to cause the Scriptures to be read,

explained and reverenced in the schools, without seeking by catechisms

or otherwise to attract the children to any particular church or sect.

This principle was at first vehemently denounced as deistic and

mischievous, and as especially hostile to the Established Church. To

do them justice, it must be owned that the rival claims and merits of

Bell and Lancaster were urged with more passion and unfairness by

their friends than by themselves. Yet neither is entitled to hold a

very high place among the world's teachers. Bell was cold, shrewd and

self-seeking. Lancaster had more enthusiasm, a genuine and abounding

love for children, and some ingenuity in devising plans both for

teaching and governing. But he was shiftless, wayward and

unmethodical, and incapable of sustained and high-principled personal

effort. His writings were not numerous. They consist mainly of short

pamphlets descriptive of the successes he attained at the Borough

Road. His last publication, _An Epitome of the Chief Events and

Transactions of my Own Life_, appeared in America in 1833, and is

characterized, even more strongly than his former writings, by

looseness and incoherency of style, by egotism and by a curious

incapacity for judging fairly the motives either of his friends or his

foes. We have since come to believe that intelligent teaching requires

skill and previous training, and that even the humblest rudiments are

not to be well taught by those who have only just acquired them for

themselves, or to be attained by mere mechanical drill. But in the

early stages of national education the monitorial method served a

valuable purpose. It brought large numbers of hitherto neglected

children under discipline, and gave them elementary instruction at a

very cheap rate. Moreover, the little monitors were often found to

make up in brightness, tractability and energy for their lack of

experience, and to teach the arts of reading, writing and computing

with surprising success. And one cardinal principle of Bell and

Lancaster is of prime importance. They regarded a school, not merely

as a place to which individual pupils should come for guidance from

teachers, but as an organized community whose members have much to

learn from each other. They sought to place their scholars from the

first in helpful mutual relations, and to make them feel the need of

common efforts towards the attainment of common ends. (J. G. F.)

LANCASTER, THOMAS, EARL OF (c. 1277-1322), was the eldest son of Edmund,

earl of Lancaster and titular king of Sicily, and a grandson of the

English king, Henry III.; while he was related to the royal house of

France both through his mother, Blanche, a granddaughter of Louis VIII.,

and his step-sister, Jeanne, queen of Navarre, the wife of Philip IV. A

minor when Earl Edmund died in 1296, Thomas received his father's

earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester in 1298, but did not become

prominent in English affairs until after the accession of his cousin,

Edward II., in July 1307. Having married Alice (d. 1348), daughter and

heiress of Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and added the earldom of Derby

to those which he already held, he was marked out both by his wealth and

position as the leader of the barons in their resistance to the new

king. With his associates he produced the banishment of the royal

favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1308; compelled Edward in 1310 to

surrender his power to a committee of "ordainers," among whom he himself

was numbered; and took up arms when Gaveston returned to England in

January 1312. Lancaster, who had just obtained the earldoms of Lincoln

and Salisbury on the death of his father-in-law in 1311, drove the king

and his favourite from Newcastle to Scarborough, and was present at the

execution of Gaveston in June 1312. After lengthy efforts at mediation,

he made his submission and received a full pardon from Edward in October

1313; but he refused to accompany the king on his march into Scotland,

which ended at Bannockburn, and took advantage of the English disaster

to wrest the control of affairs from the hands of Edward. In 1315 he

took command of the forces raised to fight the Scots, and was soon

appointed to the "chief place in the council," while his supporters

filled the great offices of state, but his rule was as feeble as that of

the monarch whom he had superseded. Quarrelling with some of the barons,

he neglected both the government and the defence of the kingdom, and in

1317 began a private war with John, Earl Warrenne, who had assisted his

countess to escape from her husband. The capture of Berwick by the

Scots, however, in April 1318 led to a second reconciliation with

Edward. A formal treaty, made in the following August, having been

ratified by parliament, the king and earl opened the siege of Berwick;

but there was no cohesion between their troops, and the undertaking was

quickly abandoned. On several occasions Lancaster was suspected of

intriguing with the Scots, and it is significant that his lands were

spared when Robert Bruce ravaged the north of England. He refused to

attend the councils or to take any part in the government until 1321,

when the Despensers were banished, and war broke out again between

himself and the king. Having conducted some military operations against

Lancaster's friends on the Welsh marches, Edward led his troops against

the earl, who gradually fell back from Burton-on-Trent to Pontefract.

Continuing this movement, Lancaster reached Boroughbridge, where he was

met by another body of royalists under Sir Andrew Harclay. After a

skirmish he was deserted by his troops, and was obliged to surrender.

Taken to his own castle at Pontefract, where the king was, he was

condemned to death as a rebel and a traitor, and was beheaded near the

town on the 22nd of March 1322. He left no children.

Although a coarse, selfish and violent man, without any of the

attributes of a statesman, Lancaster won a great reputation for

patriotism; and his memory was long cherished, especially in the north

of England, as that of a defender of popular liberties. Over a hundred

years after his death miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb

at Pontefract; thousands visited his effigy in St Paul's Cathedral,

London, and it was even proposed to make him a saint.

See _Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._, edited

with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-1883); and W. Stubbs,

_Constitutional History_, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896).

LANCASTER, a market town and municipal borough, river port, and the

county town of Lancashire, England, in the Lancaster parliamentary

division, 230 m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western

railway (Castle Station); served also by a branch of the Midland railway

(Green Ayre station). Pop. (1891) 33,256; (1901) 40,329. It lies at the

head of the estuary of the river Lune, mainly on its south bank, 7 m.

from the sea. The site slopes sharply up to an eminence crowned by the

castle and the church of St Mary. Fine views over the rich valley and

Morecambe Bay to the west are commanded from the summit. St Mary's

church was originally attached by Roger de Poictou to his Benedictine

priory founded at the close of the 11th century. It contains some fine

Early English work in the nave arcade, but is of Perpendicular

workmanship in general appearance, while the tower dates from 1759.

There are some beautiful Decorated oak stalls in the chancel, brought

probably from Cockersand or Furness Abbey.

The castle occupies the site of a Roman _castrum_. The Saxon foundations

of a yet older structure remain, and the tower at the south-west corner

is supposed to have been erected during the reign of Hadrian. The

Dungeon Tower, also supposed to be of Roman origin, was taken down in

1818. The greater part of the old portion of the present structure was

built by Roger de Poictou, who utilized some of the Roman towers and the

old walls. In 1322 much damage was done to the castle by Robert Bruce,

whose attack it successfully resisted, but it was restored and

strengthened by John of Gaunt, who added the greater part of the Gateway

Tower as well as a turret on the keep or Lungess Tower, which on that

account has been named "John o' Gaunt's Chair." During the Civil War the

castle was captured by Cromwell. Shortly after this it was put to public

use, and now, largely modernized, contains the assize courts and gaol.

Its appearance, with massive buildings surrounding a quadrangle, is

picturesque and dignified. Without the walls is a pleasant terrace walk.

Other buildings include several handsome modern churches and chapels

(notably the Roman Catholic church); the Storey Institute with art

gallery, technical and art schools, museum and library, presented to the

borough by Sir Thomas Storey in 1887; Palatine Hall, Ripley hospital (an

endowed school for the children of residents in Lancaster and the

neighbourhood), the asylum, the Royal Lancaster infirmary and an

observatory in the Williamson Park. A new town hall, presented by Lord

Ashton in 1909, is a handsome classical building from designs of E. W.

Mountford. The Ashton Memorial in Williamson Park, commemorating members

of the Ashton family, is a lofty domed structure. The grammar school

occupies modern buildings, but its foundation dates from the close of

the 15th century, and in its former Jacobean house near the church

William Whewell and Sir Richard Owen were educated. A horseshoe inserted

in the pavement at Horseshoe Corner in the town, and renewed from time

to time, is said to mark the place where a shoe was cast by John of

Gaunt's horse.

The chief industries are cotton-spinning, cabinet-making, oil

cloth-making, railway wagon-building and engineering. Glasson Dock, 5 m.

down the Lune, with a graving dock, is accessible to vessels of 600

tons. The Kendal and Lancaster canal reaches the town by an aqueduct

over the Lune, which is also crossed by a handsome bridge dated 1788.

The town has further connexion by canal with Preston. The corporation

consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3506 acres.

_History._--Lancaster (Lone-caster or Lunecastrum) was an important

Roman station, and traces of the Roman fortification wall remain. The

Danes left few memorials of their occupation, and the Runic Cross found

here, once supposed to be Danish, is now conclusively proved to be

Anglo-Saxon. At the Conquest, the place, reduced in size and with its

Roman castrum almost in ruins, became a possession of Roger de Poictou,

who founded or enlarged the present castle on the old site. The town and

castle had a somewhat chequered ownership till in 1266 they were granted

by Henry III. to his son Edmund, first earl of Lancaster, and continued

to be a part of the duchy of Lancaster till the present time. A town

gathered around the castle, and in 1193 John, earl of Mertoun,

afterwards king, granted it a charter, and another in 1199 after his

accession. Under these charters the burgesses claimed the right of

electing a mayor, of holding a yearly fair at Michaelmas and a weekly

market on Saturday. Henry III. in 1226 confirmed the charter of 1199; in

1291 the style of the corporation is first mentioned as _Ballivus et

communitas burgi_, and Edward III.'s confirmation and extension (1362)

is issued to the mayor, bailiffs and commonalty. Edward III.'s charter

was confirmed by Richard II. (1389), Henry IV. (1400), Henry V. (1421),

Henry VII. (1488) and Elizabeth (1563). James I. (1604) and Charles II.

(1665 and 1685) ratified, with certain additions, all previous charters,

and again in 1819 a similar confirmation was issued. John of Gaunt in

1362 obtained a charter for the exclusive right of holding the sessions

of pleas for the county in Lancaster itself, and up to 1873 the duchy

appointed a chief justice and a puisne justice for the court of common

pleas at Lancaster. In 1322 the Scots burnt the town, the castle alone

escaping; the town was rebuilt but removed from its original position on

the hill to the slope and foot. Again in 1389, after the battle of

Otterburn, it was destroyed by the same enemy. At the outbreak of the

Great Rebellion the burgesses sided with the king, and the town and

castle were captured in February 1643 by the Parliamentarians. In March

1643 Lord Derby assaulted and took the town with great slaughter, but

the castle remained in the hands of the Parliamentarians. In May and

June of the same year the castle was again besieged in vain, and in 1648

the Royalists under Sir Thomas Tyldesley once more fruitlessly besieged

it. During the rebellion of 1715 the northern rebels occupied Lancaster

for two days and several of them were later executed here. During the

1745 rebellion Prince Charles Edward's army passed through the town in

its southward march and again in its retreat, but the inhabitants stood

firm for the Hanoverians.

Two chartered markets are held weekly on Wednesday and Saturday and

three annual fairs in April, July and October. A merchant gild existed

here, which was ratified by Edward III.'s charter (1362), and in 1688

six trade companies were incorporated. The chief manufactures used to

be sailcloth, cabinet furniture, candles and cordage. The borough

returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1331 and again from

some time in Henry VIII.'s reign before 1529 till 1867, when it was

merged in the Lancaster division of north Lancashire. A church existed

here, probably on the site of the parish church of St Mary's, in

Anglo-Saxon times, but the present church dates from the early 15th

century. An act of parliament was passed in 1792 to make the canal

from Kendal through Lancaster and Preston, which is carried over the

Lune about a mile above Lancaster by a splendid aqueduct.

See Fleury, _Time-Honoured Lancaster_ (1891); E. Baines, _History of

Lancashire_ (1888).

LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Fairfield county, Ohio, U.S.A.,

on the Hocking river (non-navigable), about 32 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop.

(1900) 8991, of whom 442 were foreign-born and 212 were negroes; (1910

census) 13,093. Lancaster is served by the Hocking Valley, the Columbus

& Southern and the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania Lines)

railways, and by the electric line of the Scioto Valley Traction

Company, which connects it with Columbus. Near the centre of the city is

Mt. Pleasant, which rises nearly 200 ft. above the surrounding plain and

about which cluster many Indian legends; with 70 acres of woodland and

fields surrounding it, this has been given to the city for a park. On

another hill is the county court house. Lancaster has a public library

and a children's home; and 6 m. distant is the State Industrial School

for Boys. The manufactures include boots and shoes, glass and

agricultural implements. The total value of the city's factory product

in 1905 was $4,159,410, being an increase of 118.3% over that of 1900.

Lancaster is the trade centre of a fertile agricultural region, has good

transportation facilities, and is near the Hocking Valley and Sunday

Creek Valley coal-fields; its commercial and industrial importance

increased greatly, after 1900, through the development of the

neighbouring natural gas fields and, after 1907-1908, through the

discovery of petroleum near the city. Good sandstone is quarried in the

vicinity. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks and natural

gas plant. Lancaster was founded in 1800 by Ebenezer Zane (1747-1811),

who received a section of land here as part compensation for opening a

road, known as "Zane's Trace," from Wheeling, West Virginia, to

Limestone (now Maysville), Kentucky. Some of the early settlers were

from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, whence the name. Lancaster was

incorporated as a village in 1831 and twenty years later became a city

of the third class.

LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., on the Conestoga river, 68 m. W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900)

41,459, of whom 3492 were foreign-born and 777 were negroes; (1910

census) 47,227. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia &

Reading and the Lancaster, Oxford & Southern railways, and by tramways

of the Conestoga Traction Company, which had in 1909 a mileage of 152 m.

Lancaster has a fine county court house, a soldiers' monument about 43

ft. in height, two fine hospitals, the Thaddeus Stevens Industrial

School (for orphans), a children's home, the Mechanics' Library, and the

Library of the Lancaster Historical Society. It is the seat of Franklin

and Marshall College (Reformed Church), of the affiliated Franklin and

Marshall Academy, and of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed

Church, conducted in connexion with the college. The college was founded

in 1852 by the consolidation of Franklin College, founded at Lancaster

in 1787, and Marshall College, founded at Mercersburg in 1836, both of

which had earned a high standing among the educational institutions of

Pennsylvania. Franklin College was named in honour of Benjamin Franklin,

an early patron; Marshall College was founded by the Reformed Church and

was named in honour of John Marshall. The Theological Seminary was

opened in 1825 at Carlisle, Pa., and was removed to York, Pa., in 1829,

to Mercersburg, Pa., in 1837 and to Lancaster in 1871; in 1831 it was

chartered by the Pennsylvania legislature. Among its teachers have been

John W. Nevin and Philip Schaff, whose names, and that of the seminary,

are associated with the so-called "Mercersburg Theology." At

Millersville, 4 m. S.W. of Lancaster, is the Second Pennsylvania State

Normal School. At Lancaster are the graves of General John F. Reynolds,

who was born here; Thaddeus Stevens, who lived here after 1842; and

President James Buchanan, who lived for many years on an estate,

"Wheatland," near the city and is buried in the Woodward Hill Cemetery.

The city is in a productive tobacco and grain region, and has a large

tobacco trade and important manufactures. The value of the city's

factory products increased from $12,750,429 in 1900 to $14,647,681 in

1905, or 14.9%. In 1905 the principal products were umbrellas and canes

(valued at $2,782,879), cigars and cigarettes ($1,951,971), and foundry

and machine-shop products ($1,036,526). Lancaster county has long been

one of the richest agricultural counties in the United States, its

annual products being valued at about $10,000,000; in 1906 the value of

the tobacco crop was about $3,225,000, and there were 824 manufactories

of cigars in the county.

Lancaster was settled about 1717 by English Quakers and Germans, was

laid out as a town in 1730, incorporated as a borough in 1742, and

chartered as a city in 1818. An important treaty with the Iroquois

Indians was negotiated here by the governor of Pennsylvania and by

commissioners from Maryland and Virginia in June 1744. Some of General

Burgoyne's troops, surrendered at Saratoga, were confined here after the

autumn of 1780. The Continental Congress sat here on the 27th of

September 1777 after being driven from Philadelphia by the British; and

subsequently, after the organization of the Federal government,

Lancaster was one of the places seriously considered when a national

capital was to be chosen. From 1799 to 1812 Lancaster was the capital of

Pennsylvania.

LANCE, a form of spear used by cavalry (see SPEAR). The use of the

lance, dying away on the decay of chivalry and the introduction of

pistol-armed cavalry, was revived by the Polish and Cossack cavalry who

fought against Charles XII. and Frederick the Great. It was not until

Napoleon's time, however, that lancer regiments appeared in any great

numbers on European battlefields. The effective use of the weapon--long

before called by Montecucculi the "queen of weapons"--by Napoleon's

lancers at Waterloo led to its introduction into the British service,

and except for a short period after the South African War, in which it

was condemned as an anachronism, it has shared, or rather contested,

with the sword the premier place amongst cavalry arms. In Great Britain

and other countries lances are carried by the front rank of cavalry,

except light cavalry, regiments, as well as by lancer regiments. In

Germany, since 1889, the _whole_ of the cavalry has been armed with the

lance. In Russia, on the other hand, line cavalry being, until recently,

considered as a sort of mounted infantry or dragoons, the lance was

restricted to the Cossacks, and in Austria it enjoys less favour than in

Germany. Altogether there are few questions of armament or military

detail more freely disputed, in the present day as in the past, than

this of sword _versus_ lance.

The lances used in the British service are of two kinds, those with

ash and those with bamboo staves. The latter are much preferred and

are generally used, the "male" bamboo being peculiarly tough and

elastic. The lance is provided with a sling, through which the trooper

passes his right arm when the lance is carried slung, the point of the

steel shoe fitting into a bucket attached to the right stirrup. A

small "dee" loop is also provided, by which the lance can be attached

to the saddle when the trooper dismounts. The small flag is removed on

service. The head is of the best steel. The Germans, doubtless owing

to difficulty in obtaining bamboos, or ash in large quantity straight

enough in the grain over a considerable length, for lance staves,

have adopted a stave of steel tubing as well as one of pine (figs. 2,

3 and 4).

[Illustration: TYPES OF BRITISH AND GERMAN LANCES.

FIG. 1 is the British bamboo lance; figs. 2 and 3 the German steel

tubular lance, and fig. 4 the German pine-wood lance. The full

length of the German lance is 11 ft. 9 in., that of the Cossacks 9

ft. 10 in., that of the Austrian lancers 8 ft. 8 in., and the French

lance 11 ft. The British lance is 9 ft. long. The weight of a lance

varies but slightly. The steel-staved lance weighs 4 lb, the bamboo

4½.]

As to the question of the relative efficiency of the lance and the

sword as the principal arm for cavalry, it is alleged that the former

is heavy and fatiguing to carry, conspicuous, and much in the way when

reconnoitring in close country, working through woods and the like;

that, when unslung ready for the charge, it is awkward to handle, and

may be positively dangerous if a horse becomes restive and the rider

has to use both hands on the reins; that unless the thrust be

delivered at full speed, it is easily parried; and, lastly, that in

the _mêlée_, when the trooper has not room to use his lance, he will

be helpless until he either throws it away or slings it, and can draw

his sword. While admitting the last-mentioned objection, those who

favour the lance contend that success in the first shock of contact is

all-important, and that this success the lancer will certainly obtain,

owing to his long reach enabling him to deliver a blow before the

swordsman can retaliate, while, when the _mêlée_ commences, the rear

rank will come to the assistance of the front rank. Further, it is

claimed that the power of delivering the first blow gives confidence

to the young soldier; that the appearance of a lancer regiment,

preceded as it were by a hedge of steel, has an immense moral effect;

that in single combat a lancer, with room to turn, can always defeat

an opponent armed with a sword; and, lastly, that in pursuit a lancer

is terrible to an enemy, whether the latter be mounted or on foot. As

in the case of the perennial argument whether a sword should be

designed mainly for cutting or thrusting, it is unlikely that the

dispute as to the merits of the lance over the sword will ever be

definitely settled, since so many other factors--horsemanship, the

training of the horse, the skill and courage of the

adversary--determine the trooper's success quite as much as the weapon

he happens to wield. The following passage from _Cavalry: its History

and Tactics_ (London, 1853), by Captain Nolan, explains how the lance

gained popularity in Austria:--"In the last Hungarian war (1848-49)

the Hungarian Hussars were ... generally successful against the

Austrian heavy cavalry--cuirassiers and dragoons; but when they met

the Polish Lancers, the finest regiments of light horse in the

Austrian service, distinguished for their discipline, good riding,

and, above all, for their _esprit de corps_ and gallantry in action,

against those the Hungarians were not successful, and at once

attributed this to the lances of their opponents. The Austrians then

extolled the lance above the sword, and armed all their light cavalry

regiments with it."

The lancer regiments in the British service are the 5th, the 9th, the

12th, the 16th, the 17th and the 21st. All these were converted at

different dates from hussars and light dragoons, the last-named in

1896. The typical lancer uniform is a light-fitting short-skirted

tunic with a double-breasted front, called the plastron, of a

different colour, a girdle, and a flat-topped lancer "cap," adapted

from the Polish czapka (see UNIFORMS: _Naval and Military_). The

British lancers, with the exception of the 16th, who wear scarlet with

blue facings, are clad in blue, the 5th, 9th and 12th having scarlet

facings and green, black and red plumes respectively, the 17th (famous

as the "death or glory boys" and wearing a skull and crossbones badge)

white facings and white plume, and the 21st light-blue facings and

plume.

LANCELOT (Lancelot du Lac, or Lancelot of the Lake), a famous figure in

the Arthurian cycle of romances. To the great majority of English

readers the name of no knight of King Arthur's court is so familiar as

is that of Sir Lancelot. The mention of Arthur and the Round Table at

once brings him to mind as the most valiant member of that brotherhood

and the secret lover of the Queen. Lancelot, however, is not an original

member of the cycle, and the development of his story is still a source

of considerable perplexity to the critic.

Briefly summarized, the outline of his career, as given in the German

_Lanzelet_ and the French prose _Lancelot_, is as follows: Lancelot was

the only child of King Ban of Benoic and his queen Helaine. While yet an

infant, his father was driven from his kingdom, either by a revolt of

his subjects, caused by his own harshness (_Lanzelet_), or by the action

of his enemy Claudas de la Deserte (_Lancelot_). King and queen fly,

carrying the child with them, and while the wife is tending her husband,

who dies of a broken heart on his flight, the infant is carried off by a

friendly water-fairy, the Lady of the Lake, who brings the boy up in her

mysterious kingdom. In the German poem this is a veritable "Isle of

Maidens," where no man ever enters, and where it is perpetual spring. In

the prose _Lancelot_, on the other hand, the Lake is but a mirage, and

the Lady's court does not lack its complement of gallant knights;

moreover the boy has the companionship of his cousins, Lionel and

Bohort, who, like himself, have been driven from their kingdom by

Claudas. When he reaches the customary age (which appears to be

fifteen), the young Lancelot, suitably equipped, is sent out into the

world. In both versions his name and parentage are concealed, in the

_Lanzelet_ he is genuinely ignorant of both; here too his lack of all

knightly accomplishments (not unnatural when we remember he has here

been brought up entirely by women) and his inability to handle a steed

are insisted upon. Here he rides forth in search of what adventure may

bring. In the prose _Lancelot_ his education is complete, he knows his

name and parentage, though for some unexplained reason he keeps both

secret, and he goes with a fitting escort and equipment to Arthur's

court to demand knighthood. The subsequent adventures differ widely: in

the _Lanzelet_ he ultimately reconquers his kingdom, and, with his wife

Iblis, reigns over it in peace, both living to see their children's

children, and dying on the same day, in good old fairy-tale fashion. In

fact, the whole of the _Lanzelet_ has much more the character of a fairy

or folk-tale than that of a knightly romance.

In the prose version, Lancelot, from his first appearance at court,

conceives a passion for the queen, who is very considerably his senior,

his birth taking place some time after her marriage to Arthur. This

infatuation colours all his later career. He frees her from imprisonment

in the castle of Meleagant, who has carried her off against her will--(a

similar adventure is related in _Lanzelet_, where the abductor is

Valerîn, and Lanzelet is not the rescuer)--and, although he recovers his

kingdom from Claudas, he prefers to remain a simple knight of Arthur's

court, bestowing the lands on his cousins and half-brother Hector.

Tricked into a liaison with the Fisher King's daughter Elaine, he

becomes the father of Galahad, the Grail winner, and, as a result of the

queen's jealous anger at his relations with the lady, goes mad, and

remains an exile from the court for some years. He takes part,

fruitlessly, in the Grail quest, only being vouchsafed a fleeting

glimpse of the sacred Vessel, which, however, is sufficient to cast him

into unconsciousness, in which he remains for as many days as he has

spent years in sin. Finally, his relations with Guenevere are revealed

to Arthur by the sons of King Lot, Gawain, however, taking no part in

the disclosure. Surprised together, Lancelot escapes, and the queen is

condemned to be burnt alive. As the sentence is about to be carried into

execution Lancelot and his kinsmen come to her rescue, but in the fight

that ensues many of Arthur's knights, including three of Gawain's

brothers, are slain. Thus converted into an enemy, Gawain urges his

uncle to make war on Lancelot, and there follows a desperate struggle

between Arthur and the race of Ban. This is interrupted by the tidings

of Mordred's treachery, and Lancelot, taking no part in the last fatal

conflict, outlives both king and queen, and the downfall of the Round

Table. Finally, retiring to a hermitage, he ends his days in the odour

of sanctity.

The process whereby the independent hero of the _Lanzelet_ (who, though

his mother is Arthur's sister, has but the slightest connexion with the

British king), the faithful husband of Iblis, became converted into the

principal ornament of Arthur's court, and the devoted lover of the

queen, is by no means easy to follow, nor do other works of the cycle

explain the transformation. In the pseudo-chronicles, the _Historia_ of

Geoffrey and the translations by Wace and Layamon, Lancelot does not

appear at all; the queen's lover, whose guilty passion is fully

returned, is Mordred. Chrétien de Troyes' treatment of him is

contradictory; in the _Erec_, his earliest extant poem, Lancelot's name

appears as third on the list of the knights of Arthur's court. (It is

well, however, to bear in mind the possibility of later addition or

alteration in such lists.) In _Cligés_ he again ranks as third, being

overthrown by the hero of the poem. In _Le Chevalier de la Charrette_,

however, which followed _Cligés_, we find Lancelot alike as leading

knight of the court and lover of the queen, in fact, precisely in the

position he occupies in the prose romance, where, indeed, the section

dealing with this adventure is, as Gaston Paris clearly proved, an

almost literal adaptation of Chrétien's poem. The subject of the poem is

the rescue of the queen from her abductor Meleagant; and what makes the

matter more perplexing is that Chrétien handles the situation as one

with which his hearers are already familiar; it is Lancelot, and not

Arthur or another, to whom the office of rescuer naturally belongs.

After this it is surprising to find that in his next poem, _Le Chevalier

au Lion_, Lancelot is once, and only once, casually referred to, and

that in a passing reference to his rescue of the queen. In the

_Perceval_, Chrétien's last work, he does not appear at all, and yet

much of the action passes at Arthur's court.

In the continuations added at various times to Chrétien's unfinished

work the rôle assigned to Lancelot is equally modest. Among the fifteen

knights selected by Arthur to accompany him to Chastel Orguellous he

only ranks ninth. In the version of the _Luite Tristran_ inserted by

Gerbert in his _Perceval_, he is publicly overthrown and shamed by

Tristan. Nowhere is he treated with anything approaching the importance

assigned to him in the prose versions. Welsh tradition does not know

him; early Italian records, which have preserved the names of Arthur and

Gawain, have no reference to Lancelot; among the group of Arthurian

knights figured on the architrave of the north doorway of Modena

cathedral (a work of the 12th century) he finds no place; the real cause

for his apparently sudden and triumphant rise to popularity is extremely

difficult to determine. What appears the most probable solution is that

which regards Lancelot as the hero of an independent and widely diffused

folk-tale, which, owing to certain special circumstances, was brought

into contact with, and incorporated in, the Arthurian tradition. This

much has been proved certain of the adventures recounted in the

_Lanzelet_; the theft of an infant by a water-fairy; the appearance of

the hero three consecutive days, in three different disguises, at a

tournament; the rescue of a queen, or princess, from an Other-World

prison, all belong to one well-known and widely-spread folk-tale,

variants of which are found in almost every land, and of which numerous

examples have been collected alike by M. Cosquin in his _Contes

Lorrains_, and by Mr J. F. Campbell in his _Tales of the West

Highlands_.

The story of the loves of Lancelot and Guenevere, as related by

Chrétien, has about it nothing spontaneous and genuine; in no way can it

be compared with the story of Tristan and Iseult. It is the exposition

of a relation governed by artificial and arbitrary rules, to which the

principal actors in the drama must perforce conform. Chrétien states

that he composed the poem (which he left to be completed by Godefroi de

Leigni) at the request of the countess Marie of Champagne, who provided

him with _matière et san_. Marie was the daughter of Louis VII. of

France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine, subsequently wife of Henry II. of

Anjou and England. It is a matter of history that both mother and

daughter were active agents in fostering that view of the social

relations of the sexes which found its most famous expression in the

"Courts of Love," and which was responsible for the dictum that love

between husband and wife was impossible. The logical conclusion appears

to be that the _Charrette_ poem is a "_Tendenz-Schrift_," composed under

certain special conditions, in response to a special demand. The story

of _Tristan and Iseult_, immensely popular as it was, was too

genuine--(shall we say too crude?)--to satisfy the taste of the court

for which Chrétien was writing. Moreover, the Arthurian story was the

popular story of the day, and Tristan did not belong to the magic

circle, though he was ultimately introduced, somewhat clumsily, it must

be admitted, within its bounds. The Arthurian cycle must have its own

love-tale; Guenevere, the leading lady of that cycle, could not be

behind the courtly ladies of the day and lack a lover; one had to be

found for her. Lancelot, already popular hero of a tale in which an

adventure parallel to that of the _Charrette_ figured prominently, was

pressed into the service, Modred, Guenevere's earlier lover, being too

unsympathetic a character; moreover, Modred was required for the final

rôle of traitor.

But to whom is the story to be assigned? Here we must distinguish

between the _Lancelot_ proper and the _Lancelot-Guenevere_ versions; so

far as the latter are concerned, we cannot get behind the version of

Chrétien,--nowhere, prior to the composition of the _Chevalier de la

Charrette_ is there any evidence of the existence of such a story. Yet

Chrétien does not claim to have invented the situation. Did it spring

from the fertile brain of some court lady, Marie, or another? The

authorship of the _Lancelot_ proper, on the other hand, is invariably

ascribed to Walter Map (see MAP), the chancellor of Henry II., but so

also are the majority of the Arthurian prose Romances. The trend of

modern critical opinion is towards accepting Map as the author of a

_Lancelot_ romance, which formed the basis for later developments, and

there is a growing tendency to identify this hypothetical original

_Lancelot_ with the source of the German _Lanzelet_. The author, Ulrich

von Zatzikhoven, tells us that he translated his poem from a French

(_welsches_) book in the possession of Hugo de Morville, one of the

English hostages, who, in 1194, replaced Richard Coeur de Lion in the

prison of Leopold of Austria. Further evidence on the point is,

unfortunately, not at present forthcoming. To the student of the

original texts Lancelot is an infinitely less interesting hero than

Gawain, Perceval or Tristan, each of whom possesses a well-marked

personality, and is the centre of what we may call individual

adventures. Saving and excepting the incident of his being stolen and

brought up by a water-fairy (from a _Lai_ relating which adventure the

whole story probably started), there is absolutely nothing in Lancelot's

character or career to distinguish him from any other romantic hero of

the period. The language of the prose _Lancelot_ is good, easy and

graceful, but the adventures lack originality and interest, and the

situations repeat themselves in a most wearisome manner. English

readers, who know the story only through the medium of Malory's noble

prose and Tennyson's melodious verse, carry away an impression entirely

foreign to that produced by a study of the original literature. The

_Lancelot_ story, in its rise and development, belongs exclusively to

the later stage of Arthurian romance; it was a story for the court, not

for the folk, and it lacks alike the dramatic force and human appeal of

the genuine "popular" tale.

The prose _Lancelot_ was frequently printed; J. C. Brunet chronicles

editions of 1488, 1494, 1513, 1520 and 1533--of this last date there

are two, one published by Jehan Petit, the other by Philippe Lenoire,

this last by far the better, being printed from a much fuller

manuscript. There is no critical edition, and the only version

available for the general reader is the modernized and abridged text

published by Paulin Paris in vols. iii. to v. of _Romans de la Table

Ronde_. A Dutch verse translation of the 13th century was published by

M. W. J. A. Jonckbloet in 1850, under the title of _Roman van

Lanceloet_. This only begins with what Paulin Paris terms the

_Agravain_ section, all the part previous to Guenevere's rescue from

Meleagant having been lost; but the text is an excellent one, agreeing

closely with the Lenoire edition of 1533. The Books devoted by Malory

to Lancelot are also drawn from this latter section of the romance;

there is no sign that the English translator had any of the earlier

part before him. Malory's version of the _Charrette_ adventure differs

in many respects from any other extant form, and the source of this

special section of his work is still a question of debate among

scholars. The text at his disposal, especially in the _Queste_

section, must have been closely akin to that used by the Dutch

translator and the compiler of Lenoire, 1533. Unfortunately, Dr

Sommer, in his study on the _Sources of Malory_, omitted to consult

these texts, with the result that the sections dealing with _Lancelot_

and _Queste_ urgently require revision.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Lanzelet_ (ed. Hahn, 1845, out of print and extremely

difficult to obtain). Chrétien's poem has been published by Professor

Wendelin Foerster, in his edition of the works of that poet, _Der

Karrenritter_ (1899). A Dutch version of a short episodic poem,

_Lancelot et le cerf au pied blanc_ will be found in M. Jonckbloet's

volume, and a discussion of this and other _Lancelot_ poems, by Gaston

Paris, is contained in vol. xxx. of _Histoire littéraire de la

France_. For critical studies on the subject cf. Gaston Paris's

articles in _Romania_, vols. x. and xii.; Wechssler, _Die

verschiedenen Redaktionen des Graal-Lancelot Cyklus_; J. L. Weston,

_The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac_ (Grimm Library, vol. xii.); and

_The Three Days' Tournament_ (Grimm Library, vol. xv.) an appendix to

the previous vol. (J. L. W.)

LANCET (from Fr. _lancette_, dim. of _lance_, lance), the name given to

a surgical instrument, with a narrow two-edged blade and a lance-shaped

point, used for opening abscesses, &c. The term is applied, in

architecture, to a form of the pointed arch, and to a window of which

the head is a lancet-arch.

LANCEWOOD, a straight-grained, tough, light elastic wood obtained from

the West Indies and Guiana. It is brought into commerce in the form of

taper poles of about 20 ft. in length and from 6 to 8 in. in diameter at

the thickest end. Lancewood is used by carriage-builders for shafts; but

since the practice of employing curved shafts has come largely into use

it is not in so great demand as formerly. The smaller wood is used for

whip-handles, for the tops of fishing-rods, and for various minor

purposes where even-grained elastic wood is a desideratum. The wood is

obtained from two members of the natural order Anonaceae. The black

lancewood or carisiri of Guiana (_Guatteria virgata_) grows to a height

of 50 ft., is of remarkably slender form, and seldom yields wood more

than 8 in. diameter. The yellow lancewood tree (_Duguetia quitarensis_,

yari-yari, of Guiana) is of similar dimensions, found in tolerable

abundance throughout Guiana, and used by the Indians for arrow-points,

as well as for spars, beams, &c.

LAN-CHOW-FU, the chief town of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and one

of the most important cities of the interior part of the empire, on the

right bank of the Hwang-ho. The population is estimated at 175,000. The

houses, with very few exceptions, are built of wood, but the streets are

paved with blocks of granite and marble. Silks, wood-carvings, silver

and jade ornaments, tin and copper wares, fruits and tobacco are the

chief articles of the local trade. Tobacco is very extensively

cultivated in the vicinity.

LANCIANO (anc. _Anxanum_), a town and episcopal see of the Abruzzi,

Italy, in the province of Chieti, situated on three hills, 984 ft. above

sea-level, about 8 m. from the Adriatic coast and 12 m. S.E. of Chieti.

Pop. (1901) 7642 (town), 18,316 (commune). It has a railway station on

the coast railway, 19 m. S.E. of Castellammare Adriatico. It has broad,

regular streets, and several fine buildings. The cathedral, an imposing

structure with a fine clock-tower of 1619, is built upon bridges of

brickwork, dating perhaps from the Roman period (though the inscription

attributing the work to Diocletian is a forgery), that span the gorge of

the Feltrino, and is dedicated to S. Maria del Ponte, Our Lady of the

Bridge. The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore dates from 1227 and has a

fine façade, with a portal of 1317 by a local sculptor. The processional

cross by the silversmith Nicola di Guardiagrele (1422) is very

beautiful. In S. Nicola is a fine reliquary of 1445 by Nicola di

Francavilla. The church of the Annunziata has a good rose window of

1362. The industries of the town, famous in the middle ages, have

declined. Anxanum belonged originally to the tribe of the Frentani and

later became a _municipium_. It lay on the ancient highroad, which

abandoned the coast at Ortona 10 m. to the N. and returned to it at

Histonium (Vasto). Remains of a Roman theatre exist under the bishop's

palace.

See V. Bindi, _Monumenti degli Abruzzi_ (Naples, 1889, 690 sqq.), and

for discoveries in the neighbourhood see A. de Nino in _Notizie degli

scavi_ (1884), 431. (T. As.)

LANCRET, NICOLAS (1660-1743), French painter, was born in Paris on the

22nd of January 1660, and became a brilliant depicter of light comedy

which reflected the tastes and manners of French society under the

regent Orleans. His first master was Pierre d'Ulin, but his acquaintance

with and admiration for Watteau induced him to leave d'Ulin for Gillot,

whose pupil Watteau had been. Two pictures painted by Lancret and

exhibited on the Place Dauphine had a great success, which laid the

foundation of his fortune, and, it is said, estranged Watteau, who had

been complimented as their author. Lancret's work cannot now, however,

be taken for that of Watteau, for both in drawing and in painting his

touch, although intelligent, is dry, hard and wanting in that quality

which distinguished his great model; these characteristics are due

possibly in part to the fact that he had been for some time in training

under an engraver. The number of his paintings (of which over eighty

have been engraved) is immense; he executed a few portraits and

attempted historical composition, but his favourite subjects were balls,

fairs, village weddings, &c. The British Museum possesses an admirable

series of studies by Lancret in red chalk, and the National Gallery,

London, shows four paintings--the "Four Ages of Man" (engraved by

Desplaces and l'Armessin), cited by d'Argenville amongst the principal

works of Lancret. In 1719 he was received as Academician, and became

councillor in 1735; in 1741 he married a grandchild of Boursault, author

of _Aesop at Court_. He died on the 14th of September 1743.

See d'Argenville, _Vies des peintres_; and Ballot de Sovot, _Éloge de

M. Lancret_ (1743, new ed. 1874).

LAND, the general term for that part of the earth's surface which is

solid and dry as opposed to sea or water. The word is common to Teutonic

languages, mainly in the same form and with essentially the same

meaning. The Celtic cognate forms are Irish _lann_, Welsh _llan_, an

enclosure, also in the sense of "church," and so of constant occurrence

in Welsh place-names, Cornish _lan_ and Breton _lann_, health, which has

given the French _lande_, an expanse or tract of sandy waste ground. The

ultimate root is unknown. From its primary meaning have developed

naturally the various uses of the word, for a tract of ground or country

viewed either as a political, geographical or ethnographical division of

the earth, as property owned by the public or state or by a private

individual, or as the rural as opposed to the urban or the cultivated as

opposed to the built on part of the country; of particular meanings may

be mentioned that of a building divided into tenements or flats, the

divisions being known as "houses," a Scottish usage, and also that of a

division of a ploughed field marked by the irrigating channels, hence

transferred to the smooth parts of the bore of a rifle between the

grooves of the rifling.

For the physical geography of the land, as the solid portion of the

earth's surface, see GEOGRAPHY. For land as the subject of cultivation

see AGRICULTURE and SOIL, also RECLAMATION OF LAND. For the history of

the holding or tenure of land see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES and FEUDALISM; a

particular form of land tenure is dealt with under MÉTAYAGE. The

article AGRARIAN LAWS deals with the disposal of the public land

(_Ager publicus_) in Ancient Rome, and further information with regard

to the part played by the land question in Roman history will be found

under ROME: § _History_. The legal side of the private ownership of

land is treated under REAL PROPERTY and CONVEYANCING (see also

LANDLORD AND TENANT, and LAND REGISTRATION).

LANDAU, a town in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, lying under

the eastern slope of the Hardt Mountains, 32 m. by rail S.W. from

Mannheim, at the junction of lines to Neustadt an der Hardt, Weissenburg

and Saarbrücken. Pop. (1905) 17,165. Among its buildings are the Gothic

Evangelical church, dating from 1285; the chapel of St Catherine built

in 1344; the church of the former Augustinian monastery, dating from

1405; and the Augustinian monastery itself, founded in 1276 and now

converted into a brewery. There are manufactures of cigars, beer, hats,

watches, furniture and machines, and a trade in wine, fruit and cereals.

Large cattle-markets are held here. Landau was founded in 1224, becoming

an imperial city fifty years later. This dignity was soon lost, as in

1317 it passed to the bishopric of Spires and in 1331 to the Palatinate,

recovering its former position in 1511. Captured eight times during the

Thirty Years' War the town was ceded to France by the treaty of

Westphalia in 1648, although with certain ill-defined reservations. In

1679 Louis XIV. definitely took possession of Landau. Its fortifications

were greatly strengthened; nevertheless it was twice taken by the

Imperialists and twice recovered by the French during the Spanish

Succession War. In 1815 it was given to Austria and in the following

year to Bavaria. The fortifications were finally dismantled in 1871.

The town is commonly supposed to have given its name to the four-wheeled

carriage, with an adjustable divided top for use either open or closed,

known as a "landau" (Ger. _Landauer_). But this derivation is doubtful,

the origin of the name being also ascribed to that of an English

carriage-builder, Landow, who introduced this form of equipage.

See E. Heuser, _Die Belagerungen von Landau in den Jahren 1702 und

1703_ (Landau, 1894); Lehmann, _Geschichte der ehemaligen freien

Reichsstadt Landau_ (1851); and Jost, _Interessante Daten aus der 600

jährigen Geschichte der Stadt Landau_ (Landau, 1879).

LANDECK, a town and spa in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the

Biele, 73 m. by rail S. of Breslau and close to the Austrian frontier.

Pop. (1905) 3,481. It is situated at an altitude of 1400 ft. It has

manufactures of gloves. Landeck is visited by nearly 10,000 people

annually on account of its warm sulphur baths, which have been known

since the 13th century. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castle

of Karpenstein.

See Langner, _Bad Landeck_ (Glatz, 1872); Schütze, _Die Thermen von

Landeck_ (Berlin, 1895); Wehse, _Bad Landeck_ (Breslau, 1886); Joseph,

_Die Thermen von Landeck_ (Berlin, 1887), and Patschovsky, _Führer

durch Bad Landeck und Umgebung_ (Schweidnitz, 1902).

LANDEN, JOHN (1719-1790), English mathematician, was born at Peakirk

near Peterborough in Northamptonshire on the 23rd of January 1719, and

died on the 15th of January 1790 at Milton in the same county. He lived

a very retired life, and saw little or nothing of society; when he did

mingle in it, his dogmatism and pugnacity caused him to be generally

shunned. In 1762 he was appointed agent to the Earl Fitzwilliam, and

held that office to within two years of his death. He was first known as

a mathematician by his essays in the _Ladies' Diary_ for 1744. In 1766

he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was well acquainted

with the works of the mathematicians of his own time, and has been

called the "English d'Alembert." In his _Discourse_ on the "Residual

Analysis," he proposes to avoid the metaphysical difficulties of the

method of fluxions by a purely algebraical method. The idea may be

compared with that of Joseph Louis Lagrange's _Calcul des Fonctions_.

His memoir (1775) on the rotatory motion of a body contains (as the

author was aware) conclusions at variance with those arrived at by Jean

le Rond, d'Alembert and Leonhard Euler in their researches on the same

subject. He reproduces and further develops and defends his own views in

his _Mathematical Memoirs_, and in his paper in the _Philosophical

Transactions_ for 1785. But Landen's capital discovery is that of the

theorem known by his name (obtained in its complete form in the memoir

of 1775, and reproduced in the first volume of the _Mathematical

Memoirs_) for the expression of the arc of an hyperbola in terms of two

elliptic arcs. His researches on elliptic functions are of considerable

elegance, but their great merit lies in the stimulating effect which

they had on later mathematicians. He also showed that the roots of a

cubic equation can be derived by means of the infinitesimal calculus.

The list of his writings is as follows:--_Ladies' Diary_, various

communications (1744-1760); papers in the _Phil. Trans._ (1754, 1760,

1768, 1771, 1775, 1777, 1785); _Mathematical Lucubrations_ (1755); _A

Discourse concerning the Residual Analysis_ (1758); _The Residual

Analysis_, book i. (1764); _Animadversions on Dr Stewart's Method of

computing the Sun's Distance from the Earth_ (1771); _Mathematical

Memoirs_ (1780, 1789).

LANDEN, a town in the province of Liége, Belgium, an important junction

for lines of railway from Limburg, Liége and Louvain. Pop. (1904) 2874.

It is the birthplace of the first Pippin, distinguished as Pippin of

Landen from his grandson Pippin of Herstal. In 1693 the French under

Marshal Luxemburg defeated here the Anglo-Dutch army under William III.

This battle is also called Neerwinden from a village 3 m. W. of Landen.

Here in 1793 the Austrians under Frederick of Saxe-Coburg and Clerfayt

defeated the French under Dumouriez.

LANDER, RICHARD LEMON (1804-1834) and JOHN (1807-1839), English

explorers of the Niger, were natives of Cornwall, sons of an innkeeper

at Truro. At the age of eleven Richard went to the West Indies in the

service of a merchant. Returning to England after an absence of three

years he took service with various wealthy families, with whom he

travelled on the continent. In 1823-1824 he accompanied Major

(afterwards General Sir) W. M. Colebrooke, on a tour through Cape

Colony. In 1825 Richard offered his services to Hugh Clapperton, then

preparing for his second expedition to West Africa. He was Clapperton's

devoted servant and companion in this expedition, and on Clapperton's

death near Sokoto in April 1827 Richard Lander, after visiting Kano and

other parts of the Hausa states, returned to the Guinea coast through

Yoruba bringing with him Clapperton's journal. To this on its

publication (1829) was added _The Journal of Richard Lander from Kano to

the Coast_, and in the next year Lander published another account of the

expedition entitled _Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to

Africa ... with the subsequent Adventures of the Author_. To this

narrative he prefixed an autobiographical note. Richard Lander, though

without any scientific attainments, had exhibited such capacity for

exploration that the British government decided to send him out to

determine the course of the lower Niger. In the expedition he was

accompanied by his brother John, by trade a printer, and better educated

than Richard, who went as an unsalaried volunteer. Leaving England in

January 1830, the brothers landed at Badagry on the Guinea coast on the

22nd of March. They then travelled by the route previously taken by

Clapperton to Bussa on the right bank of the Niger, reached on the 17th

of June. Thence they ascended the river for about 100 m. Going back to

Bussa the travellers began, on the 20th of September, the descent of the

river, not knowing whither it would lead them. They journeyed in canoes

accompanied by a few negroes, their only scientific instrument a common

compass. They discovered the Benue river, ascertaining when passing its

confluence, by paddling against its stream, that their course was not in

that direction. At the beginning of the delta they were captured by the

Ibos, from whom they were ransomed by "King Boy" of Brass Town; by him

they were taken to the Nun mouth of the river, whence a passage was

obtained to Fernando Po, reached on the 1st of December. The Landers

were thus able to lay down with approximate correctness the lower course

of the Niger--a matter till then as much in dispute as was the question

of the Nile sources. In the attack by the Ibos the Landers lost many of

their records, but they published a narrative of their discoveries in

1832, in three small volumes--_Journal of an Expedition to Explore the

Course and Termination of the Niger_. In recognition of his services the

Royal Geographical Society--formed two years previously--granted Richard

Lander in 1832 the royal medal, he being the first recipient of such an

award. In the same year Richard went to Africa again as leader of an

expedition organized by Macgregor Laird and other Liverpool merchants to

open up trade on the Niger and to found a commercial settlement at the

junction of the Benue with the main stream. The expedition encountered

many difficulties, suffered great mortality from fever, and was not able

to reach Bussa. Lander made several journeys up and down stream, and

while going up the river in a canoe was attacked by the natives on the

20th of January 1834 at a spot about 84 m. above the Nun mouth, and

wounded by a musket ball in the thigh. He was removed to Fernando Po,

where he died on the 6th of February. John Lander, who on his return to

England in 1831 obtained a situation at the London customs house, died

on the 16th of November 1839 of a disease contracted in Africa.

See, besides the books mentioned, the _Narrative_ of the Niger

expedition of 1832-1834, published in 1837 by Macgregor Laird and R.

A. K. Oldfield.

LANDES, a department in the south-west of France, formed in 1790 of

portions of the ancient provinces of Guyenne (Landes, Condomios

Chalosse), Gascony and Béarn, and bounded N. by Gironde, E. by

Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses Pyrenées, and W. (for 68 m.) by

the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1906) 293,397. Its area, 3615 sq. m., is second

only to that of the department of Gironde. The department takes its name

from the _Landes_, which occupy three-quarters of its surface, or

practically the whole region north of the Adour, the chief river of the

department. They are separated from the sea by a belt of dunes fringed

on the east by a chain of lakes. South of the Adour lies the Chalosse--a

hilly region, intersected by the Gabas, Luy and Gave de Pau, left-hand

tributaries of the Adour, which descend from the Pyrenees. On the right

the Adour is joined by the Midouze, formed by the junction of the Douze

and the Midou. The climate of Landes is the Girondine, which prevails

from the Loire to the Pyrenees. Snow is almost unknown, the spring is

rainy, the summer warm and stormy. The prevailing wind is the

south-west, and the mean temperature of the year is 53° F., the

thermometer hardly ever rising above 82° or falling below 14°. The

annual rainfall in the south of the department in the neighbourhood of

the sea reaches 55 in., but diminishes by more than half towards the

north-east.

The fertility of La Chalosse is counterbalanced by the comparative

poorness of the soil of the Landes, and small though the population is,

the department does not produce wheat enough for its own consumption.

The chief cereal is maize; next in importance are rye, wheat and millet.

Of vegetables, the bean is most cultivated. The vine is grown in the

Chalosse, sheep are numerous, and the "Landes" breed of horses is well

known. Forests, chiefly composed of pines, occupy more than half the

department, and their exploitation forms the chief industry. The resin

of the maritime pine furnishes by distillation essence of turpentine,

and from the residue are obtained various qualities of resin, which

serve to make varnish, tapers, sealing-wax and lubricants. Tar, and an

excellent charcoal for smelting purposes, are also obtained from the

pine-wood. The department has several mineral springs, the most

important being those of Dax, which were frequented in the time of the

Romans, and of Eugénie-les-Bains and Préchacq. The cultivation of the

cork tree is also important. There are salt-workings and stone quarries.

There are several iron-works in the department; those at Le Boucau, at

the mouth of the Adour, are the most important. There are also

saw-mills, distilleries, flour-mills, brick and tile works and

potteries. Exports include resinous products, pine-timber, metal,

brandy; leading imports are grain, coal, iron, millinery and furniture.

In its long extent of coast the department has no considerable port.

Opposite Cape Breton, however, where the Adour formerly entered the sea,

there is, close to land, a deep channel where there is safe anchorage.

It was from this once important harbour of Capbreton that the

discoverers of the Canadian island of that name set out. Landes includes

three arrondissements (Mont-de-Marsan, Dax and St Sever), 28 cantons and

334 communes.

Mont-de-Marsan is the capital of the department, which comes within the

circumscription of the appeal court of Pau, the académie (educational

division) of Bordeaux and the archbishopric of Auch, and forms part of

the region of the 18th army corps. It is served by the Southern railway;

there is some navigation on the Adour, but that upon the other rivers is

of little importance. Mont-de-Marsan, Dax, St Sever and

Aire-sur-l'Adour, the most noteworthy towns, receive separate notice.

Hagetmau has a church built over a Romanesque crypt, the roof of which

is supported on columns with elaborately-carved capitals. Sorde has an

interesting abbey-church of the 13th and 14th centuries.

LANDES, an extensive natural region of south-western France, known more

strictly as the Landes de Gascogne. It has an area of 5400 sq. m., and

occupies three-quarters of the department of Landes, half of that of

Gironde, and some 175,000 acres of Lot-et-Garonne. The Landes, formerly

a vast tract of moorland and marsh, now consist chiefly of fields and

forests of pines. They form a plateau, shaped like a triangle, the base

of which is the Atlantic coast while the apex is situated slightly west

of Nérac (Lot-et-Garonne). Its limits are, on the S. the river Adour; on

the E. the hills of Armagnac, Eauzan, Condomois, Agenais and Bazadais;

and on the N.E. the Garonne, the hills of Médoc and the Gironde. The

height of the plateau ranges in general from 130 to 260 ft.; the highest

altitude (498 ft.) is found in the east near Baudignan (department of

Landes), from which point there is a gradual slope towards north, south,

east and west. The soil is naturally sterile. It is composed of fine

sand resting on a subsoil of tufa (_alios_) impermeable by water; for

three-quarters of the year, consequently, the waters, settling on the

almost level surface and unable to filter through, used to transform the

country into unwholesome swamps, which the Landesats could only traverse

on stilts. About the middle of the 18th century an engineer, François

Chambrelent, instituted a scheme of draining and planting to remedy

these evils. As a result about 1600 m. of ditches have been dug which

carry off superficial water either to streams or to the lakes which

fringe the landes on the west, and over 1,600,000 acres have been

planted with maritime pines and oaks. The coast, for a breadth of about

4 m., and over an area of about 225,000 acres, is bordered by dunes, in

ranges parallel to the shore, and from 100 to 300 ft. in height. Driven

by the west wind, which is most frequent in these parts, the dunes were

slowly advancing year by year towards the east, burying the cultivated

lands and even the houses. Nicolas Thomas Brémontier, towards the end of

the 18th century, devised the plan of arresting this scourge by planting

the dunes with maritime pines. Upwards of 210,000 acres have been thus

treated. In the south-west, cork trees take the place of the pines. To

prevent the formation of fresh dunes, a "dune littorale" has been formed

by means of a palisade. This barrier, from 20 to 30 ft. high, presents

an obstacle which the sand cannot cross. On the eastern side of the

dunes is a series of lakes (Hourtin et Carcans, Lacanau, Cazau or

Sanguinet, Biscarrosse, Aureilhan, St Julien, Léon and Soustons)

separated from the sea by the heaping up of the sand. The salt water has

escaped by defiltration, and they are now quite fresh. The Basin of

Arcachon, which lies midway between the lakes of Lacanau and Cazau,

still communicates with the ocean, the current of the Leyre which flows

into it having sufficient force to keep a passage open.

LANDESHUT, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, at the north foot

of the Riesengebirge, and on the river Bober, 65 m. S.W. of Breslau by

rail. Pop. (1905) 9000. Its main industries are flax-spinning,

linen-weaving and manufactures of cloth, shoes and beer. The town dates

from the 13th century, being originally a fortress built for protection

against the Bohemians. There the Prussians defeated the Austrians in May

1745, and in June 1760 the Prussians were routed by a greatly superior

force of Austrians.

See Perschke, _Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Landeshut_

(Breslau, 1829).

LANDGRAVE (Ger. _Landgraf_, from _Land_, "a country" and _Graf_, "count"

), a German title of nobility surviving from the times of the Holy Roman

Empire. It originally signified a count of more than usual power or

dignity, and in some cases implied sovereignty. The title is now rare;

it is borne by the former sovereign of Hesse-Homburg, now incorporated

in Prussia, the heads of the various branches of the house of Hesse, and

by a branch of the family of Fürstenberg. In other cases the title of

landgrave is borne by German sovereigns as a subsidiary title; e.g. the

grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar is landgrave of Thuringia.

LANDLORD AND TENANT. In _Roman Law_, the relationship of landlord and

tenant arose from the contract of letting and hiring (_locatio

conductio_), and existed also with special incidents, under the forms of

tenure known as _emphyteusis_--the long lease of Roman law--and

_precarium_, or tenancy at will (see ROMAN LAW).

_Law of England._--The law of England--and the laws of Scotland and

Ireland agree with it on this point--recognizes no absolute private

ownership of land. The absolute and ultimate owner of all land is the

crown, and the highest interest that a subject can hold therein--viz. an

estate in fee simple--is only a tenancy. But this aspect of the law,

under which the landlord, other than the crown, is himself always a

tenant, falls beyond the scope of the present article, which is

restricted to those holdings that arise from the hiring and leasing of

land.

Leases.

The legal relationship of landlord and tenant is constituted by a lease,

or an agreement for a lease, by assignment, by attornment and by

estoppel. And first of a lease and an agreement for a lease. All kinds

of interests and property, whether corporeal, such as lands or

buildings, or incorporeal, such as rights of common or of way, may be

let. The Benefices Act 1898, however, now prohibits the grant of a lease

of an advowson. Titles of honour, offices of trust or relating to the

administration of justice, and pensions granted by the crown for

military services are also inalienable. Generally speaking, any person

may grant or take a lease. But there are a number of common-law and

statutory qualifications and exceptions. A lease by or to an infant is

voidable at his option. But extensive powers of leasing the property of

infants have been created by the Settled Estates Act 1877 and the

Settled Land Act 1882. A person of unsound mind can grant or take a

lease if he is capable of contracting. Leases may be made on behalf of

lunatics subject to the jurisdiction in lunacy under the provisions of

the Lunacy Act 1890 and the Settled Land Act 1882. A married woman can

lease her "separate property" apart from or under the Married Women's

Property Acts, as if she were a single woman (_feme sole_). As regards

other property, the concurrence of her husband is generally necessary.

An alien was, at common law, incapable of being either a lessor or a

lessee. But this disqualification is removed by the Naturalization Act

1870. The right to deal with the property of a convict while he is

undergoing sentence (but not while he is out of prison on leave) is, by

the Forfeiture Act 1870, vested in his administrator. Leases by or to

corporations must be by deed under their common seal, and the leasing

powers of ecclesiastical corporations in particular are subject to

complicated statutory restrictions which cannot here be examined (see

Phillimore, _Eccl. Law_, 2nd ed., p. 1281). Powers of granting building

and other leases have been conferred by modern legislation on municipal

corporations and other local authorities.

A person having an interest in land can, in general, create a valid

interest only to the extent of that interest. Thus a tenant for years,

or even from year to year only, may stand in his turn as landlord to

another tenant. If he profess, however, to create a tenancy for a period

longer than that to which his own interest extends, he does not thereby

give to his tenant an interest available against the reversioner or

remainder man. The subtenant's interest will expire with the interest of

the person who created it. But as between the subtenant and his

immediate lessor the subtenancy will be good, and should the interest of

the lessor become greater than it was when the subtenancy was created

the subtenant will have the benefit of it. On his side, again, the

subtenant, by accepting that position, is estopped from denying that his

lessor's title (whatever it be) is good. There are also special rules of

law with reference to leases by persons having only a limited interest

in the property leased, e.g. a tenant for life under the Settled Land

Acts, or a mortgagor or mortgagee.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Lamennais, Robert de" to "Latini, Brunetto" Volume 16, Slice 2 · 第 8 / 30 题

TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DESCENDANTS OF JOHN OF GAUNT.