of the Government, along a jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he
saw one of two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into
the forest and return, holding in both hands a Cobra de capello, which he
had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for assistance
to place it in their covered basket, but in doing this, he handled it so
inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and retained its hold for a
few seconds, as if unable to retract its fangs. The blood flowed, and
intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately; but with all expedition
the friend of the sufferer undid his waist-cloth, and took from it two
snake-stones, each of the size of a small almond, intensely black and
highly polished, though of an extremely light substance. These he applied,
one to each wound inflicted by the teeth of the serpent, to which they
attached themselves closely; the blood that oozed from the bites being
rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of {631}the article applied. The
stones adhered tenaciously for three or four minutes, the wounded man's
companion in the meanwhile rubbing his arm downwards from the shoulders
towards the fingers. At length the snake-stones dropped off of their own
accord; the suffering of the man appeared to subside; he twisted his
fingers till the joints cracked, and went on his way without concern.
Whilst this had been going on, another Indian of the party, who had come
up, took from his bag a small piece of white wood, which resembled a root,
and passed it gently near the head of the cobra, which the latter
immediately inclined close to the ground; he then lifted the snake without
hesitation, and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his basket. The
root by which he professed to be enabled to perform this operation with
safety he called the "Naya-thalic kalanga" (the root of the snake-plant),
protected by which he professed his ability to approach any reptile with
impunity."
The following narrative, communicated to Sir E. Tennent by H. E. Reyne, of
the Department of Public Works, Colombo, seems to exclude the possibility
of deception:–
"A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in 1854, requesting me to allow him to
show me his snakes dancing. As I had frequently seen them, I told him I
would give him a rupee if he would accompany me to the jungle and catch a
cobra that I knew frequented the place. He was willing, and as I was
anxious to test the truth of the charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put
a watch over them until I returned with him. Before going I examined the
man, and satisfied myself he had no snake about his person. When we arrived
at the spot, he played on a small pipe, and after persevering for some
time, out came a large cobra from an ant-hill, which I knew it occupied. On
seeing the man it tried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept
swinging it round until we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but
before long it bit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg
above the bite, and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the
poison. He was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually
went away, the stone falling off just before he was relieved. When he
recovered he held a cloth up, which the snake flew at, and caught its fangs
in it; while in that position, the man passed his hand up its back, and
having seized it by the throat, {632}he extracted the fangs in my presence
and gave them to me. He then squeezed out the poison on to a leaf. It was a
clear oily substance, and when rubbed on the hand produced a fine lather. I
carefully watched the whole operation, which was also witnessed by my clerk
and two or three other persons."
_N. haje_ is the common hooded cobra of Africa, the "Aspis," so called on
account of its shield or hood–the "Spy-Slange" of the Boers. As a rule the
spectacle-marks on the neck are absent or indistinct, the general colour
varies much, either brown above, yellowish beneath, with or without brown
spots; or dark brown above with yellowish spots, dark brown beneath; or
blackish above and beneath. The name Spy-Slange, meaning Spitting Snake,
refers to the habit which this and other African Cobras have of letting the
poison drop from the mouth like saliva when they are excited. This is not a
particularly economical habit, nor is it of the slightest use to the snake.
_N._ (_Ophiophagus_ s. _Hamadryas_) _bungarus_ s. _elaps_ is the
"Hamadryad" or "Snake-eating Cobra" or "King Cobra." It has a well
dilatable hood; the very variable coloration is yellowish to black, with or
without an olive gloss. Many specimens have more or less distinct dark
cross-bands or rings around the body, while others are olive above with
black-edged scales, and others again are very dark above and beneath. The
distinctive, specific character is the small number of scales, these
forming only fifteen rows on the middle of the body, nineteen or twenty-one
on the dilatable neck. There is a pair of large occipital shields behind
the parietals.
This snake reaches the length, enormous for a poisonous snake, of 12 feet
or more. Its size and very poisonous nature make it the curse of the
jungle. It ranges from India to South China, and to the Philippines. The
food seems to consist entirely of other snakes.
_Sepedon haemachates_ is another hooded snake in South Africa, where it is
known as the "Ringhals," _i.e._ banded neck. It differs from _Naja_ by the
absence of small teeth on the maxillaries behind the fangs, and by the
strongly keeled scales, which form nineteen rows. The general colour is
black above variegated with yellow or pale brown; the under parts are also
black, often with one or two whitish bands across the lower portion of the
neck.
{633}The Rev. G. Fisk[191] mentions the case of two young "Ringhals," of 10
and 9 inches in length, having been attacked and partly devoured by a
mouse, supposed to be _Dendromys melanotis_, which was put with the snakes
in a band-box. On the habits of the Ringhals see Symonds.[192]
[Illustration: FIG. 169.–_Sepedon haemachates_ (the "Ringhals"). × ⅕.]
_Bungarus._–The scales are smooth, and form thirteen to seventeen rows. The
spine is very prominent, and the median row of scales which covers the
ridge is much enlarged. There is no dilatable hood. In other respects
_Bungarus_ is closely allied to _Naja_; about half-a-dozen species, in
South-Eastern Asia.
_B. fasciatus_ reaches a length of 5 feet. The general colour is bright
yellow, alternating with blackish rings.
_B. coeruleus_ s. _candidus_ is the dreaded "Krait," occurring in the whole
of the Indian sub-region. It is dark brown or bluish black with narrow
cross-bars or white specks, or it is alternately barred brown and yellow;
the under parts are uniform white. Total length rarely 4 feet.
The "Krait" seems to cause more deaths in India than any other snake, since
it is very common, especially in Bengal and in {634}Southern India, and
often creeps into the houses. It lives chiefly on rats, lizards, and
snakes.
_Callophis._–With only thirteen rows of smooth scales. The head is small,
not distinct from the neck. The small eye has a round pupil. The short tail
has two ventral rows of scales. The whole body is cylindrical. Several
small species, one or two feet in length, in South-Eastern Asia. _C.
macclellandi_ in India and Indo-China is reddish brown above, yellow below,
with regular, equidistant, black, light-edged cross-bands or rings. Total
length up to 2 feet.
_Doliophis_ differs from _Callophis_ mainly by the enormously developed
poison-glands which, instead of being restricted to the head, extend along
the anterior third of the body, gradually thickening, and terminating in
front of the heart with club-shaped ends. Owing to the extension of these
glands, which can be felt through the skin as thickenings at the end of the
first third of the body, the heart has been shifted farther back than in
any other snake. Several species in Indo-China and in the Malay Islands,
_D. intestinalis_ with many colour-variations.
Australia suffers from an abundance of Elapine snakes, of which we will
mention only the three commonest.
_Pseudechis_ e.g. _Ps. porphyriaceus_, the "Black Snake" of Australia, has
seventeen rows of smooth scales on the body, a few more on the neck, which
however is not, or is only slightly, dilated. A few of the sub-caudal
scales are undivided, the rest are paired. The head is distinct from the
neck; the pupil is round. Total length up to 5 or 6 feet. The general
colour above is black, with the outer row of scales red at the base; the
ventral scales are red with black edges. The females are generally more
brown than black, and are therefore sometimes known as "Brown Adders." They
live on small mammals, birds, lizards and other snakes.
_Notechis scutatus_ s. _Hoplocephalus curtus_, the "Tiger Snake," has
rather small eyes with round pupils. The head is distinct from the
cylindrical body, which is covered with fifteen to nineteen rows of smooth
scales. The sub-caudals are single. The head of this variably coloured
snake is mostly black, the body olive brown with dark cross-bands; towards
the tail the coloration becomes more uniformly blackish. The under parts
are pale {635}yellow. The range of this very common snake extends over
Tasmania and Australia.
_Acanthophis antarcticus_, the "Death Adder," is easily recognised by the
peculiar tail, the end of which is laterally compressed, beset with a few
rows of enlarged imbricating scales, and terminates in a thin horny spine.
The head is distinct from the neck, and flat; the eye has a vertical pupil.
The short and thick body is covered with twenty-one or twenty-three rows of
keeled scales. The anterior caudals are single, the posterior double. The
colours of the upper parts are a mixture of brown, reddish and yellow, with
dark cross-bands. The belly is pale yellow, often spotted with brown or
black. The end of the tail is yellow, reddish brown or black. The total
length of this stout and ugly viviparous creature remains under 3 feet. It
is widely distributed from South Australia to the Moluccas. The use of the
peculiar tail very probably consists in attracting or fixing the attention
of small animals; the snake, lying coiled up on a dry and sandy spot,
slightly raising and vibrating the tip of the tail.
_Elaps_ is an entirely American genus, with many species, most of which are
extremely prettily coloured, red and black in alternate rings being a
favourite pattern. The maxillaries carry no teeth behind the poison-fangs.
The scales of the body are smooth and form fifteen rows. The tail is short.
The small eye has mostly a vertical pupil. The head is very small, not
distinct from the neck. The squamosal and quadrate bones are short, and the
gape of the mouth is so limited that these beautiful snakes, although
possessing strong poison, are practically harmless to man. One of the
prettiest is _E. corallinus_ of the forests of Tropical South America and
the Lesser Antilles. The whole body, above and below, is adorned with about
twenty deep black rings, which are edged with yellow and again separated by
red rings equalling in width the black ones. Sometimes the red rings are
dotted with black, and the black dots may form additional rings between the
red and the yellow. Total length under 3 feet.
SUB-FAM. 2. HYDROPHINAE (Sea-Snakes).–The tail is strongly compressed,
sometimes the body also. All the scales are small, and there are often no
enlarged ventrals. The eyes are small, with round pupils. All these snakes
are very poisonous and live in the sea, often at considerable distances
from the land, {636}with the exception of one species of _Distira_, _D.
semperi_, which is confined to the land-locked freshwater Lake Taal at
Luzon in the Philippines. They live on fish, and range from the Persian
Gulf to Central America. In conformity with their absolutely aquatic life
they are viviparous, and they die when kept out of the water for any length
of time. About fifty species are known.
_Enhydrina valakadien s. bengalensis_ has scales with a small tubercle or
keel, which is stronger in the males; the ventrals are very small, forming
a scarcely enlarged series. The maxillaries carry two or more small grooved
teeth in addition to the poison-fangs. The back is olive or dark grey, with
black transverse bands, which are most distinct in the young. The under
parts are white. This species ranges from Persia to the Malay Islands.
[Illustration: FIG. 170.–_Enhydrina valakadien_ (left upper figure) and
_Hydrophis obscura_ (right lower figure). × ¼.]
_Hydrophis_ e.g. _H. obscura_.–The body is long; the head and neck are very
slender, the body becoming much thicker farther back. The small teeth
behind the poison-fangs are not grooved. The ventral scales are very small,
the others are keeled, strongly so {637}in the males. The general
coloration of this Sea-Snake, which reaches about one yard in length, is
dark olive-green above with yellowish cross-bars, which form complete rings
round the slender part of the body. Other specimens are pale olive, with
dark cross-bands. This species occurs in the Bay of Bengal and the Malay
Archipelago.
As a rule Sea-Snakes are not found in mid-ocean. After leaving Ceylon, the
steamer meets them again in the Straits of Malacca. Those which occur near
the south coast of Japan, e.g. _Distira cyanocincta_, are found there only
in the summer, and are probably carried there by the south-west monsoon.
According to Semper the gravid female visits the shores of low islands,
there to give birth to its young between the rocks, and she remains with
her offspring for some time. Semper once found a large female, probably
_Platurus fasciatus_ s. _colubrinus_, coiled up amongst rocks, and between
the folds were at least twenty young, each already about 2 feet long.
Boulenger[193] has written an interesting popular account of Sea-Snakes.
FAM. 8. AMBLYCEPHALIDAE.–Some thirty species of Neotropical and Oriental
Snakes have been separated from the Colubridae on account of the
pterygoids, which are widely separated from the quadrates, the posterior
ends of the pterygoids not reaching beyond the level of the occipital
condyle. This condition can be ascertained when the mouth is opened widely.
The prefrontals are not in contact with the nasals. The squamosals are
reduced to pad-like vestiges. Externally the Amblycephalidae are easily
distinguished from the Colubridae by the absence of a longitudinal median
mental groove. The head is thick, very distinct from the neck, and gives
these harmless snakes a "poisonous" appearance. The pupil is vertical.
_Amblycephalus_, e.g. _A. monticola_.–Maxillaries short, with only five or
six teeth. Sub-caudals in two rows. Body compressed, covered with fifteen
rows of scales. South-Eastern Asia.
FAM. 9. VIPERIDAE.–The maxillaries are very short, movably attached to the
prefrontals and ectopterygoids, so that they can be erected together with
the large poison-fangs, which (besides reserve-teeth) are the only
maxillary teeth. The prefrontals are not in contact with the nasals. The
squamosals are very loosely {638}attached. For further details see Fig.
180. The poison-fangs are perforated, having a wide hole on the anterior
side at the base, in connexion with the large poison-gland; the hole leads
into a canal, which opens gradually as a semi-canal on the anterior surface
of the distal third or quarter of the tooth. As usual in poisonous snakes,
several reserve-teeth are stowed away behind the acting fang. When the
latter is broken off or has served its time it is cast off at the base, and
the next reserve tooth takes its place. The supply of reserve-teeth is
indefinite, half-finished teeth down to mere germs constantly growing.
All the Viperidae are very poisonous, and all, except the African
_Atractaspis_, are viviparous. They include terrestrial, arboreal,
semi-aquatic, and burrowing types. The family is cosmopolitan, excepting
Madagascar and the whole of the Australian region; it is divided into
Vipers and Pit-Vipers.
SUB-FAM. 1. VIPERINAE (Vipers).–There is no sensory external pit between
the eye and the nose, and the maxillary is not hollowed out above. The
Vipers are absolutely restricted to the Old World, ranging over the whole
of Europe, Africa, and Asia, with the exception of Madagascar; their
northern extension is limited only by the permanently frozen condition of
the underground. Nine genera with about forty species are known.
[Illustration: FIG. 171.–Map showing the distribution of the Sub-Family
Viperinae. Corsica and Sardinia should be black in the map.]
_Causus_ with a few species in Africa and _Azemiops feae_ in Upper Burmah
are the only vipers which have the head covered {639}with large symmetrical
shields, while in the other genera the head-shields are broken up into
scales or small shields. _Causus rhombeatus_ is very common in Africa, from
the Gambia to the Cape. It reaches a length of a little more than 2 feet.
Pale olive-brown above, usually with a dorsal series of large rhombic or
V-shaped dark brown, sometimes white-edged spots, and with a dark
arrow-shaped mark on the occiput; under parts yellowish white or grey.
_Bitis_ s. _Echidna_.–Very much like _Vipera_, but the nasal shields are
separated from the rostral by small scales, and the postfrontal bone is
very large. Several species in Africa.
[Illustration: FIG. 172.–_Bitis arietans_ (Puff Adder). × ¼.]
The head is very distinct from the neck, chiefly owing to the large
poison-glands and to its being, like the body, much depressed. The small
eye has a vertical pupil, and is separated from the labials by a series of
small scales. The scales are keeled, and form many, from twenty-nine to
forty-one, rows; the tail is very short, with two rows of scales below.
In _B. arietans_, the "Puff Adder," the nostrils are directed upwards. This
ugly brute is yellowish to orange brown above with regular, chevron-shaped
dark bars or other markings, helping {640}to conceal the creature when it
is lying on sandy and stony ground; the under parts are yellowish white.
The Puff Adder reaches a length of 4, or very rarely 5 feet, ranging all
over Africa, except the north coast, and extending into Southern Arabia. It
is very slow, and trusts to not being discovered when lying in the dry
grass; when approached it inflates the body and hisses loudly with a
puffing sound, watches the enemy with raised and characteristically bent
head and neck; but it bites only when actually touched or attacked. The
effect of the bite is very dangerous. Its prey consists chiefly of small
mammals, which are hunted during the night.
_B. (Echidna) nasicornis_, of Tropical West Africa, has two or three
enlarged scales above the supranasals; they stand upon erectile tissue so
as to form horn-like elevations. This "Nose-horned Viper" grows to a length
of 4 feet, and is rather prettily marked; the ground-colour is purplish or
reddish brown, with a vertebral series of large, pale, dark-edged spots and
oblique crosses. The young are at birth as much as one foot in length, and
are very tastefully coloured.
_Cerastes_ and _Echis_ prefer to burrow in sand. The lateral scales are
smaller than the dorsals, and arranged obliquely with serrated keels, so
that the snakes can cover themselves with sand by lateral shovelling
motions of the sides of the body.
_Cerastes cornutus_, the "Horned Viper" of North-Eastern Africa, from
Algeria to Arabia, extending also into Palestine, has the sides of the
ventral scales bent angularly, with an obtuse keel on either side. Above
each eye stands a large horny, spiky scale. The upper parts are pale
yellowish brown, mostly with dark spots arranged in several longitudinal
rows. The under parts are white. This, or perhaps _C. vipera_, which has no
horns, is supposed to be the species which has become famous through the
suicide of Cleopatra.
About twenty years ago a number of "Horned Vipers" were brought to the
Zoological Gardens of London, and attracted attention by their unusually
long horns. It was found that some wily Egyptian snake-catcher had tried to
manufacture a new species by taking specimens of the hornless _C. vipera_
and inserting a pair of hedgehog's spines, pushing them upwards through the
mouth.
The "Horned Viper" attains a length of two feet and a half. {641}In the
daytime it is invisible, being buried in the sand with only the eyes,
nostrils, and the "horns" appearing above the surface.
_Vipera._–The head is distinct from the neck, and is covered with small
scales and a few larger shields. The eye is separated from the labials by
scales; the nasals are in contact with the rostral shield or separated by
one naso-rostral shield. The scales on the body are strongly keeled; they
are in two rows on the short tail. This genus with about ten species ranges
over Europe, Asia, and the greater part of Africa.
[Illustration: FIG. 173.–_Cerastes cornutus_, the "Horned Viper" (right),
and _Vipera ammodytes_, the "European Nose-horned Viper" (left). × 1.]
_V. berus_, the Common European Viper (see Fig. 165, p. 620). The snout is
not turned up at the end; between the small head-scales there is generally
a pair of well-developed parietal and frontal shields. The scales of the
trunk form twenty-one rows. The coloration is very variable, there being
grey, brown, red, or black specimens in the same country, and the
much-spoken-of black zigzag line along the back is so often indistinct that
it is a character not to be relied upon. Usually the grey, yellowish,
olive, brown or red ground-colour is set off by a dark zigzag band along
the spine, and by a series of lateral spots; an oblique or St. Andrew's
cross or two diverging bold streaks of dark brown or black are usually
present on the back of the head, and there is a dark streak behind the eye.
The under parts are grey, brown, or black, uniform or speckled; the end of
the tail is usually yellow or red.
{642}[Illustration: FIG. 174.–Skin of Viper. × 1. (From White's _History of
Selborne_.)]
According to Boulenger, who is making a special study of the individual
variations of Vipers (concerning colour, scaling, number of vertebrae,
etc.), some specimens are entirely black in the males through extension of
the black markings, in the females through darkening of the ground-colour.
Males are usually distinguishable from females by darker, deep black
markings and lighter ground-colour. The females are mostly larger than the
males. The largest specimen in the British Museum measures 700 mm. = 28
inches, but a viper 2 feet long may be considered a very large specimen.
The Common Viper has a wide range, from Wales to Saghalien Island, and from
Caithness to the north of Spain. It ascends the Alps to a considerable
altitude, up to 6000 feet. J. Blum[194] has published an elaborate
statistical account of the Viper in Germany, unfortunately confining
himself strictly to the political frontiers. According to the map attached
to his work, the Viper is common all over Germany with the exception of
South-Western and parts of Middle Germany. It is absent in Alsace, the
Bavarian Palatinate, Rhenish Prussia, Hesse, the northern half of Baden,
Würtemberg, and Franconia, countries which, speaking broadly, have a warm
subsoil, composed of Red Sandstone and Basaltic formation. As a rule the
Viper prefers heaths, moors, and mixed woods with sunny slopes. Brambles,
clumps of nettles, hedges, the edges of little copses, heaps of stones, are
favourite places of retreat, affording shelter, holes, and the vicinity of
mice, which form its chief sustenance. At harvest-time it is often found in
cornfields, and it frequently hides in the sheaves. Vipers are fond of
basking on certain spots, on the top of a stone, the stump of a tree, or a
patch of sand: a shower of rain or even passing clouds drive them back into
their holes. They are eminently nocturnal, when they regularly "beat" their
district, biting and paralysing their prey before swallowing it. A fire
kindled at night is sure to draw vipers near; the same applies to other
vipers, for instance _Cerastes_, which appears in perplexing {643}numbers
at the camp-fire. They cannot climb, and they avoid going into water. The
pairing takes place as a rule from March to May, a number of individuals,
mostly males, collecting around the females, and forming entangled lumps of
snakes; parturition takes place in the following July and August. In
exceptionally warm winters they have been known to pair in December, having
left their winter-quarters. They hibernate for about six months, more or
less according to the climate, congregating in great numbers, sometimes in
dozens. With very rare exceptions Vipers do not take food in captivity, but
prefer starving themselves to death. The bite is as a rule not fatal. The
seriousness of the case depends of course upon many circumstances, as for
instance the state of concentration of the venom, the position and depth of
the bite, and last but not least upon the general condition of health of
the victim. General depression aggravated by nervousness, weakness of the
bitten limb, occasional breaking out of the wound, are of frequent and
protracted occurrence. (See also p. 590.)
_V. aspis_ is a more southern and western European Viper, occurring from
France to the Tyrol, and in Italy. The snout is slightly turned up at the
end, and still more so in _V. latastei_ of Spain and Portugal. In _V.
ammodytes_, of South-Eastern Europe, the raised portion is produced into a
soft, scaly appendage (see the lower figure on p. 641). Vipers are
sometimes unpleasantly common in certain localities. This was for instance
the case at the drill-ground near Metz, and the military authorities paid a
price for each viper delivered to them. The supply of the latter increased
to an alarming extent until the German authorities discovered that a
regular trade had been established across the frontier, and that the French
Lorrainers were importing vipers briskly.
_V. russelli_, the "Daboia" or Russell's Viper, is one of the scourges of
India, Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. The scales form about thirty rows on the
body. The upper surface of the head is covered with small, imbricating,
usually keeled scales. The general colour is pale brown above with three
longitudinal series of black, light-edged rings, which sometimes encircle
reddish spots. The under parts are yellowish white, uniform, or with small
crescentic black spots. Total length up to about 5 feet. The poisoning
symptoms are described on p. 590.
{644}SUB-FAM. 2. CROTALINAE ("Pit-Vipers").–With a deep cavity or pit
between the eye and the nose, lodged in the hollowed-out maxillary bone.
This pit is lined with a modified continuation of the epidermis, and is
amply supplied with branches from the trigeminal nerve. It is undoubtedly
sensory, but we do not know its function. A good anatomical account of this
organ has been given by West.[195] Some of the Pit-Vipers have a rattle at
the end of the tail; these are the Rattle-Snakes. The rattle is composed of
a number of horny bells which fit into each other. The oldest or terminal
bell is in reality the horny covering of the tip of the tail, and with each
moult or shedding of the skin the youngest bell becomes loose, but is held
by the new covering which has been developed in the meantime. There is thus
produced an ever-increasing number of loosely-jointed bells, but now and
then most or all the bells break off, probably when they are worn out, and
a new set is gradually developed. Rattles with a dozen bells are, for
instance, very rare. They naturally increase in bulk with the age of the
snake, but the number of joints is no indication of the snake's age.
[Illustration: FIG. 175.–Rattle of Rattle-Snake. (From White's _History of
Selborne_.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 176.–Map showing the distribution of the Sub-Family
Crotalinae.]
Pit-Vipers have a very wide distribution. They are divided into four genera
with about sixty species. Rattle-Snakes are {645}restricted to America, but
other Pit-Vipers occur in North and South America and in the southern half
of Asia.
_Ancistrodon._–Without a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered
with nine large shields, but the internasals and prefrontals are sometimes
broken up into scales. The scales of the body have apical, sensory pits.
About ten species, some in Central and North America, others in the Caspian
district (_A. halys_), in the Himalayas (_A. himalayanus_), in Ceylon,
Java, etc.
[Illustration: FIG. 177.–_Ancistrodon piscivorus_ (Water-Viper). × ¼.]
_A. piscivorus_ s. _Trigonocephalus cenchris_ (part), the "Water-Viper,"
inhabits North America from Carolina and Indiana to Florida and Texas. The
general colour is reddish to dark brown, with darker cross-bands or with
C-shaped markings; a dark, light-edged band extends from the eye to the
angle of the mouth. The under parts are yellowish, spotted with black, or
the latter is the prevailing colour. Total length up to 5 feet. The
Water-Viper is semi-aquatic and lives chiefly on fishes, but it also eats
other snakes and various Amphibia, Birds, and Mammals. This snake is very
good-humoured in captivity, and becomes {646}easily tame. A gentleman in
Berlin, rather too much addicted to making pets of poisonous snakes, had a
pair which propagated regularly. When I was a boy he invited me to feed the
young Water-Vipers with fishes cut into strips, and I enjoyed this
immensely until he warned me not to touch the mother, which might bite
strangers.
[Illustration: FIG. 178.–_Ancistrodon contortrix_ (Moccasin-Snake or
Copper-head). × ¼.]
_A. contortrix_ s. _Trigonocephalus cenchris_ (part), the "Moccasin-Snake"
or "Copper-head," is one of the few poisonous snakes which possess a loreal
shield, _i.e._ a shield intercalated between the pre-oculars and the
nasals; below it lies the pit. The general colour is yellowish to pink or
pale brown, with dark brown or red cross-bars or triangular marks. The
under surface is yellowish or reddish, speckled with grey or brown, and
with a lateral series of large blackish spots. Total length of full-grown
specimens about one yard. The Moccasin-Snake ranges from Massachusetts and
Kansas to Northern Florida and Texas. It prefers swampy localities or
meadows with high grass, where it hunts for small Mammals and Birds.
_Lachesis._–Without a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered
with very small shields or with scales. About forty {647}species in
South-Eastern Asia and in Central and South America.
_L._ (_Bothrops_ s. _Craspedocephalus_) _lanceolatus_ inhabits nearly the
whole of South America, extending into Mexico and the Lower Antilles,
_e.g._ Martinique, Guadaloupe, and Santa Lucia, where it is known as the
"Fer-de-Lance," and is the curse of the sugar-plantations on account of its
being so very common and so deadly poisonous. The Mongoose was introduced
as a possible antagonist, but the little Indian Mammal wisely left the
dangerous reptile alone, and has in some places established himself as
another pest–as a destroyer of poultry. The Fer-de-Lance grows to a length
of 6 feet, establishes itself everywhere–in swamps, plantations, forests,
in the plains and in the hills–and is very prolific, producing, according
to its size, dozens of young which are 10 inches long, very active and
snappy.
[Illustration: FIG. 179.–Head of _Lachesis lanceolatus_ after removal of
the skin. × 1. _D_, Duct, bent upon itself, from the poison-gland into the
tooth; _Dig_, digastric muscle or opener of the jaw; _N_, nostril; _P.G_,
poison-gland; _S.Gr_, sensory groove or pit; _S.Q_, point of junction of
the squamosal and quadrate; _T.a_, _Temp.a_, anterior, and _T.p_,
posterior, temporal muscle.]
_L._ (_Trimeresurus_) _gramineus_ s. _viridis_, to mention one Asiatic
species, grows to less than 3 feet in length, is bright green above,
sometimes with faint blackish bars; green, yellow, or whitish below, and
with a light streak along the outer row of scales. The end of the tail is
usually bright red. This beautiful snake has a prehensile tail and is
arboreal. Its range extends over the whole of India, to Hong-Kong and to
Timor, and even into the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
_Sistrurus._–With a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered with
nine large shields. A few species in North America east of the Rocky
Mountains, e.g. _S. miliarius_.
{648}_Crotalus._–With a rattle. The upper surface of the head is covered
with small scales. Range from Southern Canada and British Columbia to
Northern Argentina, but not in the West Indian Islands. About ten, mostly
closely-allied species.
[Illustration: FIG. 180.–Skull of a Rattle-Snake, _Crotalus durissus_. × 1.
A, Lateral view, jaws slightly opened; B, ventral view; C, lateral view,
the jaws opened fully in the position of striking; D, dorsal view. Compare
this with the diagrammatic figures on p. 588, where the mechanism has been
explained. _Col_, Columella auris; _Cond_, condyle; _Cr_ (in B), sphenoidal
crest for the attachment of the powerfully developed ventral
cranio-cervical muscles; _E.P_, ectopterygoid or transverse bone; _F_,
frontal; _Max_, maxillary; _P_, parietal; _P^1_, post-orbital process;
_Pal_, palatine; _Pmx_, pre-maxillary; _Pr.f_, prefrontal; _Ptg_,
endopterygoid; _Q_, quadrate; _Sq_, squamosal.]
{649}The effect of the poison of Rattle-Snakes has been discussed on
p. 589.
_C. horridus_ is the common Rattle-Snake of the United States; _C.
confluentus_ is the species in Western and _C. durissus_ the common species
in South-Eastern North America. Very large Rattle-Snakes, _C. durissus_,
attain a length of 8 feet, others not often more than five. They prey
chiefly upon small Mammals, hunting for them at night. In the daytime they
are also about, mainly in order to bask. Although they occasionally take to
the water in pursuit of their prey, they dislike being wetted by rain,
withdrawing then into their holes, appropriating as a rule those of
ground-squirrels, rats, and Prairie-dogs. The often-repeated story about
Rattle-Snakes living in neighbourly friendship in the holes of
Prairie-dogs, together with the little Prairie-owls, is an exaggeration. We
do not know how many of the original inmates are eaten. Pairing takes place
in the spring. During the cold months they hibernate under ground, often in
considerable numbers.
Rattle-Snakes have few enemies besides man and pigs. The latter kill and
eat them wherever they can. The rattle is decidedly useful to the snake as
an instrument of warning off any approaching possible enemy, since no snake
likes to bite unless in self-defence or in order to kill its prey. The
noise of the rattle is very loud in dry weather, much duller on clammy
days; it is a shrill sound like that of a rattling alarm-clock, and a
well-conditioned snake in a room can make conversation well-nigh
impossible, and can keep on rattling for half an hour or longer. The rattle
is kept in such rapid lateral vibrations that it shows only a blurred
image, the rattle standing with its broader sides vertically, not
horizontally. They endure captivity for many years, and become tame enough
not to hiss and to rattle whenever they are approached.
_C. horridus_ is grey-brown above, usually with a rusty vertebral stripe
and with V- or M-shaped blackish cross-bands; the under surface is
yellowish; the end of the tail is blackish. The supra-ocular shields are
smooth and much narrower than the scaly space between them, and there is
only one pair of internasals.
_C. durissus_ s. _adamanteus_ differs from the previous species chiefly by
possessing two pairs of internasals; and the dark {650}markings on the body
form a handsome pattern of rhombs with lighter centres and yellowish edges.
This is the largest species of Rattle-Snake, reaching a length of 8 feet.
_C. confluentus_ has broader, transversely striated, supra-ocular shields.
The specific name refers to the continuous series of large brown or red
rhomboidal spots on the back.
[Illustration: FIG. 181.–_Crotalus durissus_ s. _adamanteus_
(Rattle-Snake). × ¼.]
_C. terrificus_ ranges from Arizona to Argentina, and is the only species
of Rattle-Snake in South America. It differs from the others by having a
pair of prefrontal shields behind the pair of internasals.
{651}INDEX
Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or
species; figures in italics indicate that the reference relates to
systematic position; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. =
and in following page or pages; n. = note.
Abdominal armour, of _Cricotus_, 287;
of Microsauri, 289;
of Prosauri, 290
Abdominal ribs, of Rhynchocephali, 292, 298;
of Dinosauria, 414;
of _Megalosaurus_, 421
Aberrant scaling of Lacertilia, 495
_Ablepharus_, 560;
eyelids, 494
_Acanthodactylus vulgaris_, _559_
_Acanthophis antarcticus_, _635_
Acentrous vertebrae, _i.e._ those without a centrum or body, 4
_Acris_, 186, _189_;
_A. gryllus_, _207_ f.
Acrochordinae, _606_
_Acrochordus javanicus_, _607_
_Acteosaurus_, _489_
_Actinodon_, _83_, 287, 288
Adams, visit to the Mugger-peer, 455 f.
Adaptive characters of Anura, 142
Adhesive apparatus, of tadpoles, 57, 57;
of Tree-frogs, 187;
of _Thoropa_, 209;
of finger-discs of Raninae, 239;
of Geckos, 505, 505
_Aelurosaurus_, _307_
Aestivation, of Crocodiles, 457;
of Tortoises, 357, 365, 404
_Aetosaurus_, 432;
_Ae. ferratus_, _433_, 448
_Agalychnis_, _189_, _206_
_Agama_, _520_;
_A. sanguinolenta_, _520_;
_A. stellio_, _521_, 521
Agamidae, _513_, _515_ f.
_Agamura_, tail, 506
Agassiz, on habits of Alligator Turtle, 341;
of _Trionyx_, 407
Age of Chelonia, how to estimate, 326;
great age attained by Tortoises, 369, 376, 377;
_see also_ Growth, rate of
Aglossa, 139, _140_, _143_ f.;
distribution, 143
Aglypha, _592_, _606_ f.
_Ahaetulla_ s. _Leptophis_, _618_, 619
Aistopodes, _81_
Aldabra, gigantic tortoises of, 373 f., 375
Algae, destructive to shell of tortoises, 357
Allantois, an embryonic outgrowth from the posterior part of the gut,
acting as a respiratory organ, 278
_Alligator_, _450_, _466_ f.;
_A. mississippiensis_, _467_ f.;
skull, 468;
nesting, 469;
_A. sinensis_, 471
Alligator Turtle, 340
_Allopleuron hofmanni_, 380
_Allosaurus_, _422_
Alpine, Newt, _126_;
Salamander, _119_
Altitude, high, in which Anura have been found, 181
_Alytes_, _157_ f.;
_A. cisternasi_, _160_;
_A. obstetricans_, _158_;
urino-genital organs, 49
Amblycephalidae, _592_, 593, _637_
_Amblycephalus monticola_, _637_
_Amblyrhynchus_, 528;
_A. cristatus_, _533_
_Amblystoma_, skull, 17, 94, 96, _109_, _110_ f., 112;
_A. jeffersonianum_, _111_;
_A. mavortium_, _115_;
_A. opacum_, _110_;
_A. persimile_, _111_;
_A. punctatum_, _110_;
_A. talpoideum_, _110_;
_A. tigrinum_, _111_ f.;
metamorphosis of, 112 f.
Amblystomatinae, _102_, _109_
_Ameiva_, 549
Amnion, a membrane round the embryo, 278
Amphibia, 3 f.;
definition, 5;
systematic position, 5;
numbers of species, 4
Amphicondylous, _i.e._ the occipital part of the skull articulates with
the neck by a right and a left knob, 4
_Amphignathodon_, 185;
_A. guentheri_, _188_
Amphignathodontinae, _139_, _188_
_Amphisbaena_, _566_;
_A. fuliginosa_, _566_
Amphisbaenidae, _514_, _565_ f.
_Amphiuma_, 88, 96;
_A. means_ s. _tridactyla_, _100_, 101
Amphiumidae, _94_, _97_ {652}
_Amphodus_, _210_;
_A. wucheri_, 211
Anaconda, 603, 603
_Anaides_ = _Autodax_ (q.v.), _107_
Anal sacs of Chelonia, used as additional respiratory organs, 330
_Anarosaurus pumilio_, _477_
_Anchisaurus_, 415, 417, _421_;
skull of _A. coelurus_, 421
_Ancistrodon_, _645_;
_A. contortrix_, _646_, 646;
_A. halys_, _645_;
_A. himalayanus_, _645_;
_A. piscivorus_, _645_, 645
Anderson, on nest of _Gavialis_, 452
Andrews, on _Amblystoma_, 110
_Andrias scheuchzeri_, 84
Anelytropidae, _514_, _564_
_Anelytropsis papillosus_, _564_
Anguidae, _513_, _537_ f.;
distribution, 501, 529
_Anguis fragilis_, _539_, 539
_Aniella pulchra_, _564_
Aniellidae, _514_, _564_
Annandale, on habits of _Calotes_, 518;
of _Liolepis_, 527;
of _Rhacophorus_, 247;
of _Varanus salvator_, 544
_Anodonta_, as food of _Trionyx_, 407
_Anodontohyla_, _236_
_Anolis_, _528_;
_A. carolinensis_, _529_
Anomodontia, _309_
Anura, 7;
characters, 138;
classification, 139 f., 141;
phylogenetic tree of, 142
Anus, asymmetrical position of, 60
Apoda, _84_ f.;
affinities, 88;
distribution, 89;
eyes, 86;
skin, 87;
skull, 84, 85;
spermatozoa, 87;
tentacular apparatus, 88;
vertebrae, 86;
visceral arches, 86
_Archaeopteryx_, 417
_Archegosaurus_, vertebrae, 13, _82_, 287
Arcifera, of Cope, 140;
of Boulenger, 140
Arciferous, type of shoulder-girdle, 24, 25
_Arion_, slug, eaten by tortoises, 363
Arrau-turtle (_Podocnemis_), 391 f.
Arteria cutanea magna, 144;
A. sacralis of Anura, 144
_Arthroleptis_, _241_, _242_;
_A. seychellensis_, _243_, 243
_Ascaphus_, _153_
_Asterophrys_, _161_
Athecae, _333_;
definition of name, 337
_Atlantosaurus_, 415, _419_;
_A. immanis_, _419_, 420
Atlas and Axis, _i.e._ first and second cervical vertebrae; of
_Cryptobranchus_, 13;
of Crocodilia, 283;
of Chelonia, 283, 316;
of _Sphenodon_, 283, 294;
atlas fused with axis, 307
Atoposauridae, _453_
_Atractaspis_, _638_;
dentition, 593 n.
Atria, the thin-walled receptive parts (auricles) of the heart
Auditory columellar apparatus, of Amphibia, 24;
of Anura, 29
Australian, Anura, spawning time and habits of, 201;
Lacertilia, 502
_Autodax_, 96, _104_, _107_;
_A. lugubris_, _107_;
_A. iecanus_, _107_
Autosauri, _491_ f.
Axis;
_see_ Atlas
Axolotl, 65, _112_ f., 112;
Neoteny of, 65, 112
_Azemiops feae_, _638_
Balancers of Amphibia, 45
_Baptanodon_, 483, _484_
Barfurth, on absorption of Tadpole's tail, 61
Bartlett, on _Boa constrictor_, 602;
on _Pipa_, 152
_Basiliscus_, 528, _530_;
_B. americanus_, _530_, 530
Bates, on habits of _Podocnemis_, 392 f.
_Batrachomyia_, fly infesting Bufonidae, 177
_Batrachophrynus_, _224_;
_B. macrostomus_, 225;
_B. brachydactylus_, 224
_Batrachopsis_, _161_
_Batrachoseps_, 96, _104_
_Batrachylodes_, _241_
_Batrachyperus_, 96;
_B. sinensis_, _109_
Baur, on _Sphargis_, 336
_Bdellophis_, _90_
Bedriaga, on Axolotl, 114;
synopsis of Urodelous Larvae, 59 n.
Bell, J., on classification, 8
Bell, Napier, on habits of _Iguana_, 531
_Belodon_, 305, _434_, 448
Bemmelen, on _Sphargis_, 336
Berg, on _Spelerpes fuscus_, 106
Bert, quoted, 571 n.
Bidder's organ, 49, 52
Biedermann, on change of colour in _Hyla_, 35
Birds not related to Dinosaurs, 416 f.
_Bitis arietans_, _639_, 639;
_B. nasicornis_, _640_
Black Snake, of Australia, _634_;
of North America, _613_
Blainville, de, on classification, 7
_Blanus cinereus_, _566_
Blood, shape of red corpuscles, 4;
temperature, 67 f.
Blood-sucker = _Calotes ophiomachus_, 519
Blum, quoted, 642 n.
_Boa_, _602_;
_B. constrictor_, _602_;
_B. dumerili_, _602_;
_B. madagascariensis_, _602_
Boettger, on influence of climate and country upon reptiles, 492 f.
Boidae, _592_, _596_ f.;
skull, 596, 597
Boinae, _601_ f.
_Bombinator_, _154_ f., 155;
habits, 156 f.;
tadpoles, 157;
abnormal vertebrae, 22;
shoulder-girdle, 25;
urino-genital organs, 49;
_B. igneus_, _154_, 155;
_B. pachypus_, _155_
_Bothrops_, _647_
Boulenger, classification of Amphibia Caudata, 9; {653}
on vertebrae of _Pelobates_, 20;
on vertebrae of _Bombinator_, 22;
number of phalanges in Anura, 27;
on poison of Amphibia, 36;
on vocal sacs, 48;
on modes of fecundation and nursing habits, 54, 56;
synopsis of Tadpoles, 59 n.;
on tadpoles of _Rana opisthodon_, 260;
on classification of Anura, 140, 141;
on _Pipa_, 152;
on _Scaphiopus solitarius_, 165;
on _Alligator sinensis_, 471;
on _Lanthanotus_, _542_;
on aberrant scaling, 495;
on _Heloderma_, 540 n.;
on classification of Snakes, 592;
on Sea-Snakes, 637;
on _Sphargis_, 336
_Boulengerula_, _90_
Box-Tortoises, _362_, 364, 365
Brachial plexus, of Anura, 39
_Brachycephalus_, 226, _227_;
_B. ephippium_, _231_
_Brachylophus_, distribution, 501, _528_
Brain, of _Scaphognathus_, 485;
small size of, in Dinosaurs, 425
Branchial arches, of Urodela, 16;
of Anura, 42
Branchiosauri, _80_
_Branchiosaurus_, skull, 80;
_B. salamandroides_, _80_
Brauer, on development of Apoda, 92;
on nursing habits of _Arthroleptis_, 243
Breeding of Axolotl, 113
_Breviceps_, shoulder-girdle, 26, 225, 226, _227_, _232_;
_B. mossambicus_, _232_
_Brithopus_, _308_
Brongniart, on classification, 7
_Brontosaurus_, 415, _418_;
_B. excelsus_, 418
_Brontozoum_, 415, 417;
_B. giganteum_, _420_
Brood-pouches, of Anura, 151, 248;
of _Hyla goeldii_, 198;
of _Nototrema_, 202;
of _Rhinoderma_, 228
_Brookesia_, _580_
Brown Adder, _634_
Brown Frog, Common, 251 f., 255
Brücke, quoted, 571
Buchholz, on _Chiromantis_, _244_ f.
Budgett, on breeding habits of _Phyllomedusa_, 204;
on _Paludicola_, 220;
on _Lepidobatrachus_, 218;
quick development of _Phryniscus_, 231;
on _Bufo marinus_, 179
_Bufo_, sacral vertebra, 22;
shoulder-girdle, 26;
urine-genital organs, 49;
development of adhesive apparatus, 57;
_B. agua_, _178_;
_B. americanus_, _178_;
_B. calamita_, _181_ f.;
_B. ceratophrys_, _179_;
_B. empusus_ and _B. peltocephalus_, dermal ossifications, 179;
_B. jerboa_, 166;
_B. lentiginosus_, _178_, _179_;
map of distribution, 167, _168_, _169_ f.;
_B. marinus_, _178_;
_B. mauritanica_ s. _pantherina_, _184_;
_B. melanostictus_, _177_, _179_;
_B. quercinus_, _178_;
_B. variabilis_ = _viridis_, _180_;
_B. viridis_, _180_ f., 493;
_B. vulgaris_, 170 f., 172;
large-sized specimens, 171;
immured in buildings, 174;
diseases, 176;
distribution, 177
Bufonidae, _139_, _166_ f.;
distribution, 167;
affinities, 166
Bufoniformes, 139
Bullfrog, of America, _Rana catesbiana_, 261;
of India, _Callula pulchra_, 234;
_Rana tigrina_, 261
_Bungarus coeruleus_ s. _candidus_, _633_;
_B. fasciatus_, _633_
Butler, on fat-bodies, 500
_Cabrita_, 551
_Cacopus_, shoulder-girdle, 25, 225, 226, _228_
_Cacosternum_, 225, _227_
_Caiman_, _450_, _471_;
vomer, 435;
_C. niger_, _471_, _472_;
_O. palpebrosus_, _471_;
_C. sclerops_, _471_;
_C. trigonatus_, _471_, _472_
Calcareous deposits in the skin of Amphibia, 31, 34
_Calliphora silvatica_, fly infesting _Bufo_, 176
_Callophis macclellandi_, _634_
_Calluella_, 235, _236_
_Callula_, 226, _228_, _234_;
_C. pulchra_, habits of, _234_ f.
_Callulops_, 225, _228_
_Calophrynus_, 225, _227_
_Calotes_, _517_;
_C. emma_, _518_;
_C. mystaceus_, _519_;
_C. ophiomachus_, _519_;
_C. versicolor_, _518_
_Calyptocephalus_, 179, _212_, _215_
_Camptosaurus_, _426_
_Capitosaurus_, _83_
Carapace, 321 f., 319, 320, 322, 323;
posterior portion movable in _Cinyxis_, _364_, 365;
carapace of tortoises, evolution of, 337;
composition of, 324 f.;
reduction of component elements, 325;
reduction in thickness, 373;
correlative changes, 328;
of _Sphargis_, 335 f.;
of _Chelone_, 379;
of _Testudo_, 322;
of Pleurodira, 389;
reduction in Trionychidae, 325;
fenestration, 325;
with hinge in _Cinyxis_, 364, 365
_Cardioglossa_, _274_
Carettochelydidae, _313_, _314_
_Carettochelys_, 337, 389, 390;
_C. insculpta_, _404_;
absence of horny shields, 325
Carpet Snake, _598_, 599
Carpus (_see also_ Limbs), of _Eryops_, 286;
of _Sphenodon_, 294;
of Chelonia, 320, 320;
of Eusuchia, 440
_Casarea_, _603_
Case, on _Sphargis_, 336
_Cassina_, _240_
_Causus_, _638_;
_C. rhombeatus_, _639_
_Centrolene geckoideum_, _211_
_Cerastes cornutus_, _640_, 641
Ceratobatrachidae, 141 {654}
Ceratobatrachinae, _139_, _237_ f.
_Ceratobatrachus guentheri_, _237_
_Ceratohyla_, 211
_Ceratophora_, _517_;
_C. stoddarti_, _517_;
_C. tennenti_, _517_
_Ceratophrys_, _212_, _215_ f.;
_C. cornuta_, 216;
_C. dorsata_, 215;
_C. ornata_, 216, 217
Ceratopsia, _430_
_Ceratosaurus_, 413, 416, 417;
_C. nasicornis_, _422_, 422
_Cerberus rhynchops_, _625_
_Cetiosaurus_, _419_
_Chalarodon_, _528_;
geographical distribution of; 501
_Chalcides_, _562_;
_Ch. bedriagae_, 563;
_Ch. guentheri_, 563;
_Ch. lineatus_, 563;
_Ch. ocellatus_, 563;
_Ch. tridactylus_, 563
_Chamaeleon_, _573_;
_Ch. bifidus_, 580;
_Ch. calcaratus_, 579;
_Ch. parsoni_, 580;
_Ch. pumilus_, 579, 575;
_Ch. vulgaris_, 573, 574, 575
Chamaeleontes, _567_ f.;
distribution, 568;
skull, 568, 569;
tongue, 569 f.;
colour-changing mechanism, 570, 571, 573 f.;
eggs, 572
Chamaeleontidae, _573_ f.
_Chamaerops humilis_, dates of, eaten by _Testudo_, 367
Chameleon, misnamed _Calotes_, _518_;
misnamed _Polychrus_, _529_
Chauvin, Marie von, on Axolotl, 113;
on _Salamandra atra_, 120
_Chelodina_, suppression of neural plates, 324;
intergular shields, 389, 315;
skull, 399;
_Ch. longicollis_, _402_ f., 403
_Chelone_, skull, 317;
skeleton, 320;
plastron, 321;
shields, 327;
intergular shields, 325;
_Ch. mydas_, _381_ f.;
various modes of fishing, etc., 382, 383;
_Ch. imbricata_, _384_, 385
Chelonemydidae, 380
Chelonia, 312;
number of species, 312;
affinities of, 312;
classification, 313;
key to living families, 314;
plastron, names of the horny shields, 315; 321, 325;
vertebrae, 314 f., 316;
skull, 280, 317, 356, 364, 379, 400, 405;
skeleton of _Testudo_, 319;
of _Chelone_, 320;
pectoral arch, 318;
pelvis, 319;
plastron, bones of, 321;
limbs, 320;
bony shell, 321 f., 322, 323;
evolution of, 337;
evolution of the horny shields, 326 f., 327;
regeneration, 329;
sense-organs, 329;
digestive apparatus, 330;
respiration, 331;
growth of _Chrysemys_, 349
Chelonidae, _313_, _314_, _378_ f.;
affinities of, 380
Chelydidae, _313_, _314_, _399_;
distribution, 332, 333
_Chelydosaurus_, _82_, 287
_Chelydra_, 328;
_Ch. serpentina_, _338_
Chelydridae, _313_, _314_, _338_;
distribution of, 332
_Chelydropsis_, nuchal plates, 324
_Chelys fimbriata_, _400_;
skull, 400, 401;
intergular shields, 325
_Chersydrus granulatus_, _607_
_Chioglossa_, 96, _115_;
_Ch. lusitanica_, _121_
_Chirixalus_, _241_
_Chiroleptes_, 209, _213_, _221_;
_Ch. platycephalus_, _221_
_Chiromantis_, 238, _241_, _244_;
_Ch. petersi_, _244_;
_Ch. xerampelina_, _244_
_Chirotes_, 564;
_Ch. canaliculatus_, _566_
_Chirotherium_, _83_
_Chlamydosaurus kingi_, 522, 523
Choanae, or inner nasal openings, 47
Chorda dorsalis, the axial rod between the gut and the spinal cord,
around which the vertebrae are formed, 12
_Chorophilus_, 186, _189_;
_Ch. ornatus_, _208_
Chromatophores, 35
_Chrysemys_, costal plates of, 325;
green colour of, 328, _346_ f.;
colour of iris, 329;
_Ch. concinna_, _346_, 349, 350;
_Ch. elegans_, _346_;
_Ch. picta_, 346, _347_, 348;
_Ch. rubriventris_, _346_
_Chthonerpeton_, 87, _90_
_Cimoliasaurus_, _478_;
_C. australis_, _478_;
_C. cantabrigiensis_, _478_;
_C. chilensis_, _478_;
_C. haasti_, _478_
Cinosternidae, _313_, _314_, _342_;
distribution, 332
_Cinosternum_, 342 f.;
arrangement of neural plates, 324;
_C. leucostomum_, _342_, 344;
_C. odoratum_, _342_, 343;
_C. pennsylvanicum_, _342_, 344
_Cinyxis belliana_, _365_;
_C. erosa_, _364_, 365;
_C. homeana_, _364_
_Cistecephalus_, _310_
_Cistudo_, arrangement of neural plates, 324;
_C. Carolina_, 361 f., 364;
colour of iris, 329
_Claosaurus_, _429_
Clarke, on habits and development of _Alligator_, 467
Classification of Amphibia, historical account, 7 f.
Clawed Toad (_Xenopus_), _146_ f.
Claws or nails of Amphibia, 32
Cleithra = the pair of additional clavicles;
of Stegocephali, 79;
of _Pareiasaurus_, 304, 305
_Clemmys_, _356_ f.;
_C. caspica_, _358_;
_C. insculpta_, _359_;
_C. leprosa_, _356_ f., 353;
skull, 356
_Clepsydrops_, _308_
_Clidastes tortor_, _490_
Cloaca, of Chelonia, 330;
of Crocodiles, 445;
of Lacertilia, 498
_Cnemidophorus_, _549_;
_C. sexlineatus_, _549_
Cobra, _627_, 627
Coccyx, _s._ Os coccygeum, of Anura, 20, 21, 22 {655}
_Coecilia_, _89_
Coeciliidae, _89_ f.;
distribution of, 89
_Coelopeltis_, _624_;
_C. monspessulana_ s. _lacertina_, _624_
_Coelurus_, _415_;
_C. gracilis_, _423_
Colombo, gigantic tortoise of, 377
Coloration, warning colours of Amphibia, 38, 156;
protective, of Amphibia, 191, 238, 252;
of deserticolous reptiles, 494
_Colosthetus_, 238, _242_
Colour, changes of, in Anura, 35;
in _Calotes_, 518, 519, 520;
in Geckos, 509;
in Lacertilia, 498;
mechanism of changing, in Chameleons, 570, 571
_Coluber_, _615_ f.;
_C. aesculapii_ = _flavescens_ = _longissimus_, _616_ f.;
_C. leopardinus_, _616_;
_C. (Rhinechis) scalaris_, _617_
Colubridae, _593_, _606_ f.
Colubrinae, _607_ f.
Columella cranii, 496, 550, 551
Columellar auditory chain, of Amphibia, 4;
of Anura, 29;
of Crocodiles, 446;
of Lizards, 496
Comoro Islands, Tortoises of, 373
_Compsognathus_, _415_, 416, 417;
_C. longipes_, _423_, 425
Condyle, occipital, of Theromorpha, 302;
exaggerated importance of its character, 285
_Conolophus subcristatus_, _532_
Conus arteriosus, continuation of the heart beyond the ventricles so far
as it contains valves, 6
Cope, on classification of Amphibia, 9;
of Anura, 140, 141;
on _Siren_, 136;
on hand-skeleton of _Eryops_, 286;
on _Sphargis_, 336;
classification of Lacertae, 513;
classification of Snakes, 592
_Cophophryne_, 167, _168_
_Cophyla_, _236_
Copper-head, _646_, 646
Copulatory organs, of Lacertilia, 499;
absent in _Sphenodon_, 294;
of Chelonia, 330;
of Snakes, 585
Coqui, 214
_Coronella_, _619_;
_C. austriaca_ s. _laevis_, _619_, 620;
_C. girondica_, _621_
_Cornufer_, _241_, _243_;
_C. corrugatus_, _244_;
_C. johnstoni_, _243_;
_C. solomonis_, _244_;
_C. unicolor_, _244_
_Corythomantis_, _189_, _207_;
_C. greeningi_, 207
Costal plates of Chelonia, 324 f., 322, 323
_Craspedocephalus_, 647
Crested Newt, 125, 125
_Cricotus_, 285, _285_;
_C. heteroclitus_, 287
_Crinia_, _213_;
spawning, 223
Crocodilia, _431_ f.;
skeleton, 434 f.;
skull, 280, 434 f.;
atlas and axis, 283, 431, 439;
affinities, 432;
teeth, 437;
skin, 442;
dermal armour, 442;
skin glands, 443;
tongue, 443;
respiratory organs, 444;
"diaphragm," 444;
digestive organs, 444;
cloaca, 445;
heart, 445;
ear, 445;
eye, 446;
geographical distribution, 446, 446;
voice, 447;
habits, 447;
propagation, 447;
classification, 448
Crocodilidae, _454_
_Crocodilus_, _450_, _454_ f.;
teeth, 437;
skin glands, 443;
_C. acutus_, _446_, 449;
_C. americanus_, _466_;
skull, 466;
_C. biporcatus_ = _porosus_, _458_;
rate of growth, 459;
_C. cataphractus_, _465_;
_C. intermedius_, _466_;
_C. johnstoni_, _466_;
_C. niloticus_ = _vulgaris_, _460_ f., 449, 461;
habits, 462 f.;
_C. palustris_, 449, _454_;
skull, 455;
_C. porosus_, _458_;
skull, 458;
_C. vulgaris_, 449, _460_ f.
Crotalinae, _644_
_Crotalus_, _648_;
rattle of, 644;
_C. adamanteus_, _649_, 650;
_C. confluentus_, 649, _650_;
_C. durissus_, 648, _649_, 650;
_C. horridus_, _649_;
_C. terrificus_, _650_
_Cryptobranchus_, 84, _96_, _99_;
fossil, 84;
_C. alleghaniensis_, _97_;
_C. japonicus_, 98, 99
_Cryptoclidus_, shoulder-girdle, 474, 475, _478_
Cryptodira, _313_, _338_
_Cryptopsophis_, _89_;
_C. multiplicatus_, _92_
_Cryptotis_, _213_
Cutis, of Amphibia, 33 f.
_Cyamodus_, _311_
_Cyclanorbis_, _411_;
nuchal plate, 324
_Cycloderma_, _411_
_Cyclodus_ s. _Tiliqua_, _561_;
_C. gigas_, _561_, 562
_Cyclorhamphus_, _212_
_Cynognathus_, 301, 302, 303;
_C. berryi_, _307_;
_C. crateronotus_, _306_;
_C. platyceps_, _307_
Cystignathidae, _139_, _209_ f.;
distribution, 161
Cystignathinae, _139_, _211_ f.
_Cystignathus_ = _Leptodactylus_, 210, _218_
Dab = _Uromastix_, _526_, 526
_Daboia_, _643_
_Dactylethra_;
see _Xenopus_, _146_ f.
Darwin, on _Conolophus_, 532 n.;
on tortoises of Galapagos Islands, 377
_Dasypeltis scabra_, _622_, 622;
dentition, 593 n.
Davison, on breeding of _Amphiuma_, 101
_Dawsonia_, _289_
Death Adder, _635_
Denburgh, van, on _Autodax_, 107
_Dendrobates_, _272_;
_D. braccatus_, _273_;
_D. tinctorius_, _272_, 273;
_D. trivittatus_, _273_;
_D. typographus_, _273_;
various uses of its poison, 38
Dendrobatinae, _139_, _237_, _272_ f.; {656}
distribution, 239
_Dendrophis_, _618_;
_D. punctulatus_, _618_, 618
Dendrophryniscinae, _139_, _224_
_Dendrophryniscus brevipollicatus_, _224_
Dentition, of snakes, 582, 592, 593;
_see_ also Teeth
Dermal armour, of _Cricotus_, 287;
of Microsauri, 289;
of Prosauri, 290;
of Theromorpha, 302;
of Chelonia, 321 f., 337;
of Dinosauria, 415;
of Pseudosuchia, 433;
of Parasuchia, 434;
of Crocodiles, 442
Dermal ossification in Anura, 179, 190, 210
Dermatemydidae, _313_, _314_, _341_;
distribution of, 332
_Dermatemys mawi_, _341_, 342
_Dermatochelys coriacea_, _333_ f., 334
_Dermophis_, _89_, _93_;
_D. thomensis_, _93_
Deserticolous reptiles, 493 f.
Desmognathinae, _102_
_Desmognathus_, 96, _102_;
_D. fuscus_, _102_, 103
_Deuterosaurus_, _308_
Development, of Anura, 56 f., 57;
of horny teeth, 58;
of Apoda, 92;
of _Crocodilus_, 465;
of _Alligator_, 467
_Diadectes_, _308_
_Diademodon_, _309_
_Diaglena_, 185, _189_;
_D. jordani_, _207_;
_D. petasata_, _207_
Diaphragm, of Anura, 144;
of crocodiles, 444
Diapophyses (the lateral or "transverse" processes of the neural arches)
of Anura, 138, 141
Dibamidae, _514_, _564_
_Dibamus novae-guineae_, _564_
_Dicamptodon_, 96;
_D. ensatus_, _109_
_Diclonius_ = _Hadrosaurus_, _429_
_Dicynodon_, 301, 302, 303, _310_;
skull, 280;
_D. leoniceps_, _310_;
_D. orientalis_, _310_;
_D. tigriceps_, _310_
Digestive apparatus, of Chelonia, 330;
of crocodiles, 444;
of Lacertilia, 498
Digits = Fingers and Toes.
Number of digits in Urodela, 15, 16;
in Anura, 26;
terminal phalanges, 26;
number of joints, 27;
adhesive discs, 27;
variability in numbers, 563;
digits of _Eryops_, 286;
of Crocodiles, 441;
of Plesiosauri, 475;
of Geckos, 505
_Dimetrodon_, _308_
_Dimorphodon macronyx_, _486_
Dinosauria, _412_;
affinities of, 415;
analogies with Birds, 416
_Diplocynodon_, 448;
_D. hastingsiae_, _454_
_Diplodocus longus_, _419_ f.;
skull, 419
_Diplovertebron_, _287_, 288
Dipsadomorphinae, _623_ f.
_Dipsadomorphus_, _623_;
_D. cyaneus_, _624_;
_D. trigonatus_, _623_
_Dipsas bucephala_, _624_
Discoglossidae, _139_, _152_ f.
_Discoglossus_, urino-genital organs, 49, _153_;
_D. pictus_, 153 f.
_Dissorophus multicinctus_, _82_
_Distira cyanocincta_, _637_;
_D. semperi_, _636_
Distribution, geographical;
_see_ Maps
Dolichosauri, _489_
_Dolichosaurus longicollis_, _489_
_Dolichosoma longissimum_, _81_
_Doliophis intestinalis_, _634_
Dollo, on _Sphargis_, 336
_Dracaena_, _547_;
_D. guianensis_, _549_
_Draco_, _516_;
_D. dussumieri_, _516_;
_D. volans_, _516_, 516
Duméril, 7, 139;
and Bibron, on classification of Snakes, 592
Dwarf Chameleon, _579_
Dyscophinae, _139_, _235_ f.
_Dyscophus_, _236_;
_D. antongili_, _236_
Ear, of Chelonia, 330;
of Crocodiles, 445 f.;
of Snakes, 583
Ear-opening of deserticolous reptiles, 494
_Echeneis remora_, used for turtle fishing, 382
_Echidna_ s. _Bitis_, _639_, 639
_Echis_, _640_;
_E. arenicola_, deserticolous, 493
_Edalorhina_, _212_
Eggs of Amphibia, 53;
mode of deposition in Amphibia, 54-56;
of _Ichthyophis_, 91;
and spermatophore of _Triton viridescens_, 128;
nursing and taking care of, 55;
by _Pipa_, 151;
by _Alytes_, 159;
by _Rhacophorus reticulatus_, 248;
by _Nototrema_, 188, _202_;
by _Amphignathodon_, _188_;
by _Hyla goeldii_, 198, 198;
by _Leptodactylus mystacinus_, 219;
by _Rhinoderma_, _228_;
by _Rhacophorus_, _248_;
by _Desmognathus fuscus_, 103, 103;
number of: in _Bufo vulgaris_, 175;
in _Bufo viridis_, 181;
in _Hyla arborea_, 193;
in _Rana esculenta_, 270
Eggs of Reptilia: _Sphenodon_, 299;
Chelonia, 331;
_Testudo graeca_, 369;
_T. ibera_, 369;
_T. elegans_, 371;
_T. polyphemus_, 372;
_Emys orbicularis_, 355;
_Clemmys leprosa_, 358;
_Chelone mydas_, 382;
_Thalassochelys caretta_, 387;
_Podocnemis expansa_, 393 f., 398;
_Trionyx_, 408;
mode of laying by _Emys_, 355;
by _Podocnemis_, 393;
used commercially, 394 f.;
enormous destruction of, 395, 399;
_Crocodilus_, 463, 464 f.;
_Alligator_, 470;
eggs and nest of _Gavialis_, 452;
Lacertilia, 499;
increasing in size after deposition, 499;
Geckos, 506, 508, 509, 511;
_Tarentola_, 509;
_Lacerta viridis_, 555;
_Chameleons_, 572
Egg-sac, of _Salamandrella_, 110 {657}
Egg-tooth, of Lacertilia, 499
Eimer, on habits of _Lacerta_, 552;
on _L. coerulea_, 558
_Elachistodon westermanni_, _625_
Elachistodontinae, _625_
_Elaphis_ s. _Coluber_, _615_ f.
Elapinae, _626_
_Elaps corallinus_, _635_
Elasmosauridae, _478_
_Elasmosaurus_, _478_
_Elginia_, 301, 304;
_E. mirabilis_, skull, 280, _305_
_Elosia_, _212_
_Elseya_, 389, 399
Emerald Lizard, _555_
Emery, on hand-skeleton of _Eryops_, 286
_Empedias molaris_, _308_
_Emyda_, _411_
_Emydura_, 389, 399
_Emys_, _350_ f.;
_E. blandingi_, _355_;
_E. europaea_ = _orbicularis_, _351_ f., 353
Enaliosauri, _476_
_Endothiodon_, _307_
_Engystoma_, _227_, _231_;
_E. carolinense_, _232_
Engystomatidae, _139_, _225_ f.
Engystomatinae, _139_, _225_ f.
_Engystomops_, 166, _168_
_Enhydrina valakadien_ s. _bengalensis_, _636_, 636
_Enygrus_, _601_
_Eosphargis_, 336, 337
Epichordal type of vertebrae, 20, 145
Epidermis, of Amphibia, 31 f.;
sense-organs in, 33
_Equisetum_, eaten by _Uromastix_, 525
_Eremias_, 551;
deserticolous, 493
_Erpetosuchus_, _433_
_Eryops_, 285, _286_;
trunk-vertebrae, 286, 288, 304;
_E. megacephalus_, 286
_Eryx_, _604_;
_E. jaculus_, _604_;
deserticolous, 493
Escuerzo = _Ceratophrys_, 216
Espada, on _Rhinoderma_, 228
Eublepharinae, _512_
_Euchirosaurus_, _83_, 287
_Eunectes murinus_, 603, 603
_Euprepes vittata_, _562_
_Euproctus_ = _Triton_, _130_
_Eurysternum_, 380
Eustachian tubes, of Anura, 29;
of Pelobatidae, 161;
of Aglossa, 143
_Eusuchia_, _434_
Eye, of Apoda, 86;
of Chelonia, 329;
of deserticolous reptiles, 494;
of Chameleons, 569;
of Snakes, 583
Eyed Lizard, _556_, 556
Eyelid, of Geckos, 504, 512;
transparent in _Chelodina_, 329;
lower, transparent in Lacertidae, 551;
in Scincidae, 560
Fasting, of _Chrysemys_, 347
Fat-bodies, of Amphibia, 49, 52;
of Lacertilia, 500
Fecundation, various modes of, in Amphibia, 54;
in Apoda, 87
Fer-de-Lance, _647_
Ferreiro = _Hyla faber_, _196_ f.
_Feylinia_, _564_
Fingers, number of, in Urodela, 15;
number of joints in Anura, 26, 27;
terminal modifications of, in Anura, 26;
mechanism of adhesive discs in Hylidae, 187
Fire Salamander, _115_
Firmisternal shoulder-girdle, 24, 25
Firmisternia, 140
Fischer-Sigwart, on growth of _Alytes_, 159 f.;
on growth of _Bufo_, 175;
on gestation of _Chalcides_, 563
Fletcher, on spawning of Australian frogs, 201, 223
Flower, S. S., on habits of _Rhacophorus_, 249;
_Phrynella pollicaris_, 233;
_Callula pulchra_, 234
Flying Dragon, _516_
Flying Frog, _Rhacophorus_, 245 f., 246
Foot, tridactyle, in _Hallopus_, 423;
bird-like in _Compsognathus_, 423
Fore-limb, of Urodela, 15;
of Anura, 26;
of Proreptilia, 286;
of Microsauri, 289;
of Prosauri, 290, 298;
of Theromorpha, 302;
of Chelonia, 320;
of Dinosauria, 414, 423, 425, 427;
of Crocodilia, 440;
of Plesiosauria, 475;
of Ichthyosauria, 481;
of Pterosauria, 485;
of Pythonomorpha, 489;
of Lacertilia, 497
Frog, _see_ Rana.
Grassfrog, 251;
Water-frog, 263, 268, 269
Gage, on _Triton viridescens_, 129
Galapagos Islands, tortoises of, 372, 377 f.
_Galesaurus_, _307_
_Gampsosteonyx_, _271_;
_G. batesi_, _238_, _240_
Gasco, on spawning of newts, 124
Gastrechmia, 140, 141, _232_
Gastrocentrous vertebrae, defined, 282
Gaupp, on frogs' respiration, 47 n.
Gavialidae, _451_ f.
_Gavialis_, 435, 436, _451_;
_G. gangeticus_, _452_;
skull, 449, 452
_Gavialosuchus_, _453_
_Gecko_, _511_;
_G. stentor_, _511_;
_G. verus_ = _guttatus_ = _verticillatus_, _511_
_Geckolepis_, deserticolous, 493
Geckones, _502_ f.;
distribution, 500, 503;
adhesive apparatus, 505, 505;
voice, 506;
reproduction of tail, 506;
eyelids, 504, 512
Geckonidae, _507_ f.
Geckoninae, _507_ f.
Gegenbaur, on classification, 9
_Gegenophis_, 87, _90
Geikia_, _310_ {658}
Genital organs, of Amphibia, 48 f., 49
_Genyophryne_, _236_;
_G. thomsoni_, _236_
Genyophrynidae, 141
Genyophryninae, _139_, _236_
Geographical distribution, principles of, 69 f.;
regions and sub-regions, 74 f. (for details _see also_ Maps);
of Apoda, 89;
of Urodela, 95, 96;
of Anura, 143, 161, 167, 185, 239;
of Chelonia, 331 f., 332, 333;
of Crocodilia, 446;
of Lacertilia, 500 f., 515, 529, 543, 552, 565, 568;
of Snakes, 585
_Geomolge_, 96
_Geosaurus_, _451_
_Geotriton_, 97
_Geotrypetes_, _89_
_Gerrhonotus_, _538_;
_G. coeruleus_, _538_
Gerrhosauridae, _514_, _559_
_Gerrhosaurus flavigularis_, _559_
Gharial, _452_;
_see_ also _Gavialis_
Gigantic Tortoises, _372_ f.
Gila Monster, _541_
Gills, definition, 40;
development of, 41, 43;
retention of, 40;
external and internal, 43 f.;
operculum of, 44;
of _Nototrema_, 203
Gill-clefts, 42;
of Urodela, 42;
of Anura, 42
Girtanner, on musical appreciation of tortoises, 368
Glass-Snake, _538_
_Glauconia_, _594_
Glauconiidae, _592_, _594_
_Glyphoglossus_, 225, 226, _228_, _233_;
_G. molossus_, _233_
Goeldi, on _Hyla faber_, 197;
on habits of _Podocnemis expansa_, 397 f.
_Gomphognathus_, _308_, 309
_Gondwanosaurus_, _83_
_Gongylus_, _562_
Goniopholidae, _453_
_Goniopholis_, 448, _453_;
_G. crassidens_, _453_;
_G. simus_, 453
_Gordonia_, 301, 303, _310_;
skull, 280
Grass-Frog, 251 f., 255
Grass-Snake, _608_ f.
Greek Tortoise, _365_ f.
Green Lizard, _555_
Green Toad, _180_
Green, or Edible, Turtle, _381_ f.
Groenberg, on _Pipa_, 149
Growth, rate of, in _Testudo ibera_, 370;
_Chrysemys picta_, 349;
_Emys orbicularis_, 351, 355
Gular shields of Chelonia, 315
Gundlach, on _Leptodactylus_, 219
Günther, 140;
on gigantic Tortoises, 374;
on classification of Snakes, 592
Gutzeit, on horny teeth of Tadpoles, 58
_Gymnodactylus_, tail, 506, _512_, 512;
deserticolous, 493
Gymnophiona, _84_ f.
_Gymnophis_, _90_
_Gymnophthalmus_, aberrant scaling, 495
Haast, on habits of _Sphenodon_, 299
_Hadrosaurus mirabilis_, _429_
Haeckel, on classification, 9
_Hallopus victor_, _423_
Hamadryad, _632_
Hand-skeleton, excalation of second finger in _Eryops_, 286
_Haptoglossa_, 96
Hardun = _Agama stellio_, _521_
_Hatteria_–see _Sphenodon_, 293 f.
Hawksbill-Turtle, _384_ f.
Hay, on _Sphargis_, 337
Hearing of Chelonia, 330
Heart, modification of, in lungless Amphibia, 47
Hedonic glands (ἡδονή, lust), 443
_Heleioporus_, _213_, _222_;
_H. albopunctatus_, _222_;
_H. pictus_, _222_
_Helix virgata_, eaten by _Hyla coerulea_, 200
_Heloderma horridum_, _540_;
_H. suspectum_, _540_, 541
Helodermatidae, _513_, _540_ f.
_Hemidactylus turcicus_, _508_, 508
Hemiphractinae, _139_, _210_ f.
_Hemiphractus_, _210_
_Hemisus_, 225, 226, _228_, _232_;
shoulder-girdle, 25;
_H. guttatum_, _232_;
_H. sudanense_, _232_
Hensel, on _Bufo marinus_, 179;
on tadpoles of _Thoropa_, 209;
on nest-building of _Leptodactylus_, 219
Herodotus, on Crocodiles, 462
_Herpele_, _90_
_Herpestes griseus_ (Mongoos), 629
Hibernation, temperature of blood during, 68;
of Tortoises, 347, 349, 354, 358, 360, 363, 365, 369, 376;
of Crocodiles, 447
Hinckley, on tadpoles of _Hyla versicolor_, 195
Hind-limbs, of Urodela, 15;
of Anura, 27;
of Prosauria, 289;
of Theromorpha, 302, 305;
of Chelonia, 321;
of Dinosauria, 414, 423, 425, 427, 429;
of Crocodilia, 440;
of Plesiosauria, 476;
of Ichthyosauria, 480;
of Pterosauria, 486;
of Lacertilia, 497;
of Ophidia, 593, 594, 596
_Hipistes hydrinus_, _625_
Holbrook, on the Black Snake, _613_;
on habits of _Alligator_, 470 f.
Holoblastic eggs;
the whole mass of the egg undergoes the process of cleavage, 53
Homalopsinae, _625_
_Homalopsis buccata_, _625_
Homing of turtles, instances of, 386
_Homoeosaurus pulchellus_, _292_ {659}
_Homopholis_, deserticolous, 493
Homothermous, defined, 68
_Hoplocephalus curtus_, _634_
_Hoplurus_, _528_;
geographical distribution, 501
Horned Toad = _Ceratophrys_, 215 f., 216, 217
Horned Viper, _640_, 641
Horny nail, on tail of Chelonia, 328
Horny scales, of Chelonia, 328
Horny shields, of Chelonia, 314, 315, 322, 323, 326 f., 327;
their growth, 326
Horny teeth, of Anura, 58
Hose, on reproduction of tortoise-shell, 386
Howes, on development of _Sphenodon_, 298
Humerus of _Sphenodon_, 294
Hutton, on Starred Tortoise, 370 f.
Huxley, on classification, 9
_Hydraspis_, 389;
skull, 399
_Hydromedusa_, 389, _404_;
_H. tectifera_, _404_
Hydrophinae, _635_
_Hydrophis obscura_, _636_, 636
_Hydrosaurus_, _543_
_Hyla_, _189_ f.;
_H. arborea_, _190_ f., 190;
var. _meridionalis_, _191_;
var. _savignyi_ = _japonica_, 191;
_H. aurea_, _201_ f.;
spawning, 201;
_H. carolinensis_ s. _lateralis_, _194_;
_H. coerulea_, _198_ f., 199;
spawning, 223;
_H. dasynotus_ and _H. nigromaculata_, dermal ossifications of, 190;
_H. ewingi_, _201_;
spawning, 223;
_H. faber_, peculiar nursing habits, 196 f.;
_H. femoralis_, _194_;
_H. goeldii_, _198_, 198;
female with eggs, 198;
_H. maxima_, _196_;
_H. nebulosa_ s. _luteola_, _197_;
nest-building, 198;
_H. polytaenia_, _198_;
_H. squirella_, _194_;
_H. vasta_, _195_;
_H. versicolor_, _194_ f.
Hylaeformes, 139
_Hylaeobatrachus croyi_, _83_
_Hylaeosaurus_, _425_
_Hylambates_, 238, _240_
_Hylella_, 186, _189_, _203_
Hylidae, _139_, _185_ f.;
distribution, 185, 186;
mechanism of climbing, 187;
map of distribution, 185;
distribution, 186
Hylinae, _139_, _189_ f.
_Hylixalus_, 238, _242_
_Hylodes_, _212_;
_H. martinicensis_, _214_ f., 214;
_H. abbreviatus_ = _Thoropa miliaris_, 209
_Hylonomus_, 288, _289_
_Hyloplesion longicostatum_, _289_
_Hylopsis_, _212_;
_H. platycephalus_, _224_
_Hylorhina_, _212_
_Hymenochirus_, 143, 144, _149_
_Hynobius_, 96, _109_
Hyoid apparatus, of Urodela, 16;
of Anura, 31;
of Chelonia, 318;
of _Chelys_, 400;
of Lacertilia, 496
_Hyperodapedon gordoni_, _292_
_Hyperolia_, _213_;
spawning, 223
Hyperphalangeal limbs, of Eusuchia, 441;
of Ichthyosauri, 480
_Hypogeophis_, 87, _89_, _92_;
_H. alternans_, _92_;
_H. rostratus_, _92_
_Hypopachus_, 226, _227_, 235
_Hypsilophodon foxi_, _427_
_Hypsirhina plumbea_, _625_
Iberian Water-tortoise, 357 f.
Ichthyodea, distribution of, 95
_Ichthyophis_, skull, 85, 88, _89_ f., 91;
_I. glutinosa_, _90_, 91;
_I. monochrous_, _90_
Ichthyopsida, 5, 277
Ichthyopterygia, 476
Ichthyosauri, _483_ f.
Ichthyosauria, _478_ f.;
skull, 281, 479;
vertebrae, 480;
limbs, 481;
shoulder-girdle, 481
_Ichthyosaurus_, _483_;
_I. communis_, _483_;
_I. campylodon_, _483_;
_I. quadriscissus_, 483;
_I. tenuirostris_, _483_;
_I. trigonodon_, _483_
_Idiochelys_, 380
_Iguana_, 306, 528, _531_;
_I. tuberculata_, _531_
Iguanidae, _513_, _528_ f.;
distribution, 501, 529
_Iguanodon_, 416, 417, _427_;
_I. bernissartensis_, _428_, 428;
_I. mantelli_, _427_
Ihering, on breeding habits of _Phyllomedusa_, 205 f., 206
Ikeda, on nursing habits of _Rhacophorus_, 248
_Ilysia_, _595_
Ilysiidae, _592_, _594_
Inframarginal shields, 326, 315
Intergular shields of Chelonia, 325, 315
Iris, colour of, in Chelonia, 329
_Ixalus_, 238, _241_
Jaw, lower, of _Salamandra_, 17;
of Urodela, 18;
of Anura, 30
Keller, quoted, 571 n.
_Keraterpeton_, _81_, 288;
_K. crassum_, _81_
Kidneys of Amphibia, 48 f., 49
Klinckowstroem, on _Pipa_, 149
Kollmann, on Neoteny, 64
Krait, _633_
Labial glands of _Heloderma_, 498
_Labyrinthodon_, _83_
Labyrinthodonta, _82_
_Lacerta_, _553_;
_L. agilis_, _554_;
_L. muralis_, _557_;
_L. ocellata_, _556_ f., 556;
_L. pater_, _556_;
_L. schreiberi_, _555_;
_L. tangitana_, _556_;
_L. viridis_, _555_;
skull, 550;
_L. vivipara_, _553_
Lacertae, _513_ f.
Lacertidae, _514_, _549_ f.;
skull, 550;
distribution, 552
Lacertilia, 491 f.; {660}
skeleton, 494 f.;
skin, 497;
change of colour, 498
_Lachesis gramineus_, _647_;
_L. lanceolatus_, _646_, 647
Land-tortoises, _364_ f.
Lanthanotidae, _514_, _541_ f.
_Lanthanotus borneensis_, _541_
_Laosaurus_, _427_
_Lariosaurus_, 473, 474;
_L. balsami_, _477_
Larvae, of _Ichthyophis_, 91;
of _Hypogeophis_, 92;
of _Amblystoma_, 112;
of _Triton waltli_, 131
Latreille, on classification, 7, 8
Laurenti, on classification, 7
Leathery Turtle = _Sphargis_, 333 f., 334
Lechriodonta, distribution of, 95;
defined, 102
_Lepidobatrachus_, _212_, _218_
_Lepidophyma_, _547_
Lepospondylous, defined, 79
_Leptobrachium_, _161_;
_L. carinense_, _166_
_Leptodactylus_, _212_, 218 f.;
_L. albilabris_, 219;
_L. mystacinus_, 219;
_L. ocellatus_, 219;
_L. typhonius_, 219 f.
_Leptognathus_, _624_
_Leptophis_, _618_;
_L. liocerus_, _618_, 619
Leslie, on _Xenopus_, 146
Leuckart, on classification, 8
Leydig's duct, defined, 48, 49
_Lialis burtoni_, _567_
Limbs, of Amphibia, 26, 27;
Stegocephali, 79, 83;
_Eryops_, 286;
Microsauri, 289;
Prosauri, 291;
_Sphenodon_, 298;
Theromorpha, 302;
Pareiasauri, 305;
Chelonia, 320, 319, 320;
_Sphargis_, 335;
Chelonidae, 379;
Dinosauria, 414 f., 418, 420;
_Compsognathus_, 423;
Stegosauri, 426 f.;
_Iguanodon_, 428, 428;
Eusuchia, 440;
Plesiosauria, 475, 475;
_Lariosaurus_, 477;
Ichthyosauria, 480;
Pterosauria, 485, 485;
Lacertilia, 495;
Geckones, 505;
Chameleons, 568;
reduction of, in Lacertilia, 497;
in Ophidia, 593, 594, 596
_Limnodynastes_, _213_, 222;
spawning, 223
_Limnomedusa_, _212_
Linnaeus, on classification, 7
_Liodon haumuriensis_, _490_
_Liolepis belli_, _527_
_Liopelma_, 153;
_L. hochstetteri_, _160_
_Liophryne_, 225, _227_
_Liosaurus_, _529_
Lissamphibia, _84_ f.
Lizard, Common English, _553_;
Emerald, _555_;
Eyed, _556_, 556;
Green, _555_;
Sand, _554_;
Wall, _557_
Lizards, _491_ f.
Locality, sense of, in Tortoises, 368, 387
Loggerhead Turtle, _387_;
individual varieties of shields, 327, 388
Longevity, of _Testudo daudini_, 376;
_T. graeca_, 369;
_T. ibera_, 369;
_T. sumeirei_, 377
_Loxocemus bicolor_, _598_
_Loxomma_, _83_
_Lucilia bufonivora_, fly infesting _Bufo_, 176
Lungs, definition, 40;
suppression of, 46;
of Aglossa, 144;
of Lacertilia, 499
Luth, or Leathery Turtle, 333 f., 334
_Lycosaurus_, _307_
_Lygosoma_, distribution, 501
Lymph-spaces, in the cutis of Anura, 34
_Lyriocephalus scutatus_, 517, 518
_Lytoloma_, 336, 380