a mystery, but more mysterious is the affinity between God and his loving
devotee. It cannot and must not be described before the uninitiated.
Suffice it to say that the souls possessing the higher qualities of
beneficence, sympathy, mercy, etc. have that affinity hinted at in the
following saying of the prophet: “Imitate divine attributes”. For man has
been created in the image of God, nay he is, in a way, akin to Him, says
the Quran. “And when the Lord said to the angels: Surely I am going to
create a mortal from dust, so when I have made him complete, and breathed
into him of My Ruh (soul), fall down making obeisance to him”.[64] It is
this affinity which is pointed out in the following tradition: God said
to Moses “I was sick and thou didst not visit Me”. Moses replied “O God,
thou art Lord of heaven and earth: how couldst thou be sick?” God said “A
certain servant of mine was sick: hadst thou visited him, thou wouldst
have visited me”. Therefore our prophet Mahommed has said: “Says God:
My servant seeks to be near me that I may make him my friend, and when
I have made him my friend, I become his ear, his eye, his tongue.”[65]
It must, however, be remembered that mystical affinity vaguely conceived
leads to extremes. Some have fallen into abject anthropomorphism; others
have gone so far as to believe in the airy nothings of pantheism. These
are all vagaries of the imagination, whether they take the form of “Ibn
Allah”, (Son of God) or “Anal Haq” (I am God).[66] They are to a great
extent responsible for the evils of superstition and scepticism.
These four causes when properly understood, demonstrate that the true
object of our love is God and therefore it has been enjoined: “Thou shalt
love the lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with
all thy mind”.[67]
Man’s highest happiness
The constitution of man possesses a number of powers and propensities,
each of which has its own distinctive kind of enjoyment suited to it
by nature. The appetite of hunger seeks food which preserves our body
and the attainment of which is the delight of it, and so with every
passion and propensity when their particular objects are attained.
Similarly the moral faculty—call it inward sight, light of faith or
reason—any name will do provided the object signified by it is rightly
understood—delights in the attainment of its desideratum. I shall call it
here the faculty of reason (not that wrangling reason of the Scholastics
and the dialecticians)—that distinctive quality which makes him lord
of creation. This faculty delights in the possession of all possible
knowledge. Even an expert in chess boastfully delights in the knowledge
of the game however insignificant it may be. And the higher the subject
matter of our knowledge the greater our delight in it. For instance
we would take more pleasure in knowing the secrets of a king than the
secrets of a vizier. Now delights are either (a) external, derived from
the five senses, or (b) internal, such as love of superiority and power,
love of the knowledge, etc. enjoyed by the mind. And the more the mind is
noble the more there will be a desire for the second kind of delights.
The simple will delight in dainty dishes, but a great mind leaving them
aside will endanger his life and his honour and reputation from the
jaws of death. Even sensuous delights present an amusing example of
preference. An expert in chess while absorbed in playing will not come to
his meals though hungry and repeatedly summoned, because the pleasure
of check-mating his adversary is greater to him than the object of his
appetite. Thus we see that inward delights and they are chiefly love of
knowledge and superiority are preferred by noble minds. If then a man
believes in a perfect being, will not the pleasure of His contemplation
be preferred by him and will it not absorb his whole self? Surely the
delights of the righteous are indescribable, for they are even in this
life, in a paradise which no eye has seen and no ear has heard.
Abu Sulaiman Darani,[68] the renowned Sufi, says: “There are servants of
God whom neither fear of hell nor the hope of heaven can deviate from the
divine love, how can the world with its temptations come in their way?”.
Abu Mahfuz Karkhi was once asked by his disciples: “Tell us what led you
to devotion” but he kept quiet. “Is it the apprehension of death.” said
one of them. “It matters little” replied the saint “Is it due to hell
or to paradise”, inquired another. “What of them” said the saint “both
belong to a supreme Being, if you love him you will not be troubled by
them”. Saint Rabia[69] was once asked about her faith: “God forbid”,
answered Rabia: “If I serve him like a bad labourer thinking of his wages
only”. And then she sang: “Love draws me nigh, I know not why”. Thus we
see that the hearts of those who ate and drank and breathed like us felt
delights of divine love which was their highest happiness.
If we think over man’s gradual development we find that every stage of
his life is followed by a new sort of delight. Children love playing and
have no idea of the pleasures of courtship and marriage experienced by
young men, who in their turn would not care to exchange their enjoyments
for wealth and greatness which are the delights of the middle aged men
who consider all previous delights as insignificant and low. These last
mentioned delights are also looked upon as unsubstantial and transitory
by pure and noble souls fully developed.
The Quran says: “Know that this world’s life is only sport and play and
boasting among yourselves, and vying in the multiplication of wealth
and children”. “Say, shall I tell you what is better than these? For
the righteous are gardens with their Lord, beneath which rivers flow,
to abide in them and pure mates and Allah’s pleasure and Allah sees the
servants”. “Those who say: Our Lord, surely we believe, so forgive us our
faults, and keep us from the chastisement of fire; the patient and the
truthful and the obedient and those who spend (benevolently) and those
who ask forgiveness in morning times”.[70]
Let us now point out some drawbacks which hinder the path of the divine
love.
Man from his infancy is accustomed to enjoy sensual delights which
are firmly implanted in him. Blind imitation of the creed with vague
conception of the deity and his attributes fails to eradicate sensual
delights and evoke the raptures of divine love. It is the dynamic force
of direct contemplation of his attributes manifested in the universe that
can prove an incentive for his love. To use a figure: a nation loves
its national poet, but the feeling of one who studies the poet will be
of exceeding strong love. The world is a masterpiece; he who studies it
loves its invisible Author in a manner which cannot be described but is
felt by the favoured few. Another drawback which sounds like a paradox,
should be deeply studied. It is as follows: when we find a person writing
or doing any other work, the fact that he is living will be most apparent
to us: that is to say, his life, knowledge, power and will will be more
apparent to us than his other internal qualities, e.g. colour, size,
etc. which being perceived by the eye may be doubted. Similarly stones,
plants, animals, the earth, the sky, the stars, the elements, in fact
everything in the universe reveals to us the knowledge, power and the
will of its originator. Nay, the first and the foremost proof is our
consciousness, because the knowledge that I exist is immediate,[71]
and more apparent than our perceptions. Thus we see that man’s actions
are but one proof of his life, knowledge, power and will, but with
reference to God the whole phenomenal existence with its law of causation
and order and adaptability bears testimony of him and his attributes.
Therefore, He is so dazzlingly apparent that the understanding of the
people fails to see Him just as the bat pereeaes at night fails to see
in daylight, because its imperfect sight cannot bear the light of the
sun, so our understanding is blurred by the effulgent light of his
manifestations. The fact is that objects are known by their opposites but
the conception of one who exists everywhere and who has no opposite would
be most difficult. Besides, objects which differ in their respective
significances can also be distinguished but if they have common
significances the same difficulty will be felt. For instance if the sun
would have shone always without setting, we could have formed no idea of
light, knowing simply that objects have certain colours. But the setting
of the sun revealed to us the nature of light by comparing it with
darkness. If then light, which is more perceptible and apparent would
have never been understood had there been no darkness notwithstanding its
undeniable visibility, there is no wonder if God who is most apparent
and all pervading true light (Nur)[72] remains hidden, because if he
would have disappeared (which means the annihilation of the universe),
there would have been an idea of him by comparison as in the case of the
light and darkness. Thus we see that the very mode of his existence and
manifestation is a drawback for human understanding. But he whose inward
sight is keen and has strong intuition in his balanced state of mind
neither sees nor knows any other active power save God omnipotent. Such a
person neither sees the sky as the sky nor the earth as the earth—in fact
sees nothing in the universe except in the light of its being work of an
all pervading True One. To use a figure: if a man looks at a poem or a
writing, not as a collection of black lines scribbled on white sheets of
paper but as a work of a poet or an author, he ought not to be considered
as looking to anything other than the author. The universe is a unique
masterpiece, a perfect song, he who reads it looks at the divine author
and loves him. The true Mowahhid is one who sees nothing but God. He
is not even aware of his self except as servant of God. Such a person
will be called absorbed in Him; he is effaced, the self is annihilated.
These are facts known to him who sees intuitively, but weak minds do not
know them. Even Ulamas fail to express them adequately or consider the
publicity of them as unsafe and unnecessary for the masses.
THE UNITY OF GOD[73]
There are four stages in the belief in the unity of God. The first is
to utter the words: “There is no God but God” without experiencing any
impression in the heart. This is the creed of the hypocrites. The a
second is to utter the above words and to believe that their meaning
is also true. This is the dogma of ordinary Muslims. The third is
to perceive by the inward light of the heart the truth of the above
Kalima. Through the multiplicity of causes the mind arrives at the
conception of the unity of the final cause. This is the stage of the
initiates. The fourth is to gaze at the vision of an all-comprehensive,
all-absorbing One, losing sight even of the duality of one’s own self.
This is the highest stage of the true devotee. It is described by the
Sufis as Fanafittauhid (i.e. the effacement of one’s individuality in
contemplating the unity of God).[74] To use a simile these four stages
may be compared with a walnut which is composed of an external hard rind,
an internal skin, the kernel, and oil. The hard rind, which is bitter in
taste, has no value except that it serves as a covering for some time.
When the kernel is extracted the shell is thrown away. Similarly the
hypocrite who, uttering the Kalima, is associated with the Muslims and
safely enjoys their privileges, but at death is cut off from the faithful
and falls headlong into perdition. The internal skin is more useful than
the external in as much as it preserves the kernel and may be used, but
is in no way equal to the kernel itself. Similarly the dogmatic belief
of the ordinary Muslim is better than the lip service of the hypocrite,
but lacks that broad clear insight which is described as “He whose heart
Allah has opened to Islam walks in his light”.
The kernel is undoubtedly the desired object, but it contains some
substance which is removed when oil is being pressed out. Similarly the
conception of an efficient final cause is the aim and object of the
devotees, but is inferior to the vision of the all-pervading Holy One,
because the conception of causality involves duality.
But the objection may be urged: How can we ignore the diversities and
multiplicities of the universe? Man has hands and feet, bones and blood,
heart and soul,—all distinct—yet he is one individual. When we are
thinking of a dear old friend and suddenly he stands before us, we do not
think of any multiplicity of his bodily organs, but are delighted to see
him. The simile, though not quite appropriate is suggestive, especially
for beginners. When they reach that stage they will themselves see its
truth. Words fail to express the beatitude of that highest stage. It can
be enjoyed, but not described.[75]
Let us consider the nature of the third stage. Man finds that God alone
is the prime cause of everything. The world, its objects, life, death,
happiness, misery, all have their source in his omnipotence. None is
associated with Him in this. When man comes to recognise this, he has no
fear of anything, but puts his trust in God alone. But Satan tempts him
by misrepresenting the agencies of the inorganic and organic worlds as
potent factors independent in the shaping of his destiny.
Think first of the inorganic world. Man thinks that crops depend on
rain descending from clouds, and that clouds gather together owing to
normal climatic conditions. Similarly his sailing on the sea depends
on favourable winds. Without doubt, these are immediate causes, but
they are not independent. Man who in the hour of need calls for God’s
mysterious help, forgets Him and turns to external causes as soon as he
finds himself safe and sound. “So, when they ride in ships, they call
upon Allah, being sincerely obedient to Him, but when he brings them safe
to land, they associate others with Him. Thus they become ungrateful
for what we have given them, so they might enjoy: but they shall soon
know”.[76] If a culprit, whose death sentence is revoked by the king,
looks to the pen as his deliverer, will it not be sheer ignorance and
ingratitude? Surely, the sun, the moon, the stars, the clouds, in fact,
the whole universe is like a pen in the hand of an omnipotent dictator.
When this kind of belief takes hold of the mind, Satan is disappointed
in covertly tempting man, and uses subtle means, insinuating thus:
“Do you not see that the king has full power either to kill or favour
you, and though the pen, in the above simile, is not your deliverer,
the writer certainly is”? As this sort of reflection led to the vexed
question of free will, we have dealt with it already at some length.
At the outset, let us point out that just as an ant, owing to its limited
sight will see the point of the pen blackening a blank sheet of paper
and not the fingers and hand of the writer, so the person whose mental
sight is not keen will attribute the actions to the immediate doer
only. But there are minds, which, with the searchlight of intuition,
expose the lurking danger of wrongly attributing power to any except the
all-powerful omniscient being. To them every atom in the universe speaks
out the truth of this revelation. They find tongues in trees, books in
the running brooks, sermons in stones. The worldling will say: Though we
have ears, we do not hear them. But asses also having ears do not hear.
Verily there are such ears which hear words that have no sound, that are
neither Arabic nor any other language, known to man. These words are
drops in the boundless unfathomable ocean of divine knowledge: “If the
sea were ink for the words of my Lord, the sea would surely be consumed
before the words of my Lord are exhausted.”[77]
THE LOVE OF GOD AND ITS SIGNS[78]
Love of God is the highest stage of our soul’s progress and her summum
bonum. Repentance, patience, piety, and other virtues are all preliminary
steps. Although rare these qualities are found in true devotees and the
commonality, though devoid of them, at any rate believe in them. Love
of God is not only very rare: the possibility of it is doubted, even by
some Ulamas who call it simply service. For, in their opinion love exists
amongst species of the same kind, but God being ultra-mundane and not
of our kind, His love is an impossibility and hence the much talked of
ecstatic states of the “true lovers of God” are mere delusions. As this
is far from truth and impedes the progress of the soul, by spreading
false notions, we shall briefly discuss the subject. First we shall quote
passages from the Quran and the Hadith testifying to the existence of
the love of God.
“O you who believe, whosoever from among you turns back from his
religion, then Allah will bring a people: He shall love them, and
they shall love him, lowly before the believers, mightily against the
unbelievers, they shall strive hard in Allah’s way and shall not fear the
censure of any censurer: this is Allah’s grace, He gives it to whom He
pleases and Allah is ample-giving, knowing.”[79]
“And there are some among men who take for themselves objects of worship
besides Allah, whom they love. Allah and those who believe are stronger
in love of Allah.”[80] These passages not only refer to the existence of
the love of God but point to the difference in degree. The Prophet has
taught us that the love of God is one of the conditions of faith. “None
among you shall be a believer until he loves Allah and his apostle more
than anything else.”[81]
True, as the Quran says “If your fathers and your sons and your brethren
and your mates and your kinsfolk and property which you have acquired and
trade, the dullness of which you fear, and dwellings which you like, are
dearer to you than Allah and His apostle and striving in His way, then
wait till Allah brings about His command, and Allah does not guide the
transgressing people.”[82]
A man came to the Prophet and said: “I love thee, O Apostle of God”.
“Be ready for poverty.” replied the Prophet. “And I love Allah”, said
the man. “Prepare to face tribulations”[83] replied the Prophet. The
following tradition is narrated by the Khalif Omar: The Prophet one day
saw Masah, son of Umair coming to him with a lambskin round his loins.
“Look” said the Prophet to his companions, “how God has illumined his
heart. I have seen him living in ease and well provided by his parents
but now the love of Allah and His apostle has wrought a change in
him.”[84]
The Prophet used to pray thus: “My God, give me thy love and the love of
him who loves thee and the love of that action which will bring me nearer
to thee and make thy love sweeter than cold water to the thirsty”.[85]
“Verily Allah loves those who repent and those who purify
themselves.”[86] Say “If you love Allah, then follow me. Allah will love
you and forgive you your faults, and Allah is forgiving, merciful”.[87]
We have said before that love means yearning towards a desired object
and that beneficence and beauty, whether perceived or conceived, equally
attract our hearts. But in using the word love for God, no such meaning
is possible as it implies imperfection. God’s love towards men is the
love of His own work. Someone read the following verse of the Quran: “He
loves them and they love him” in front of Shaikh Abu Said of Mohanna,
who interpreted it saying: “He loves Himself because he alone exists.
Surely an author who likes himself; his love is limited to his self.”
God’s love means the lifting the veil from the heart of His servant, so
that he might gaze at Him. It also means drawing him close to Himself.
Let us give an illustration. A king permits some of his slaves to
approach his presence, not because he requires them but because the
slaves possess or are acquiring certain qualities which are worthy of
being displayed before the royal presence. This privilege, this lifting
of the veil, brings us nearer to the conception of God’s love. But it
must be remembered that approaching the divine presence should entirely
exclude the idea of space, for then it would imply change in Him, which
is absurd. Divine proximity means the attainment of godly virtues by
abstaining from the promptings of the flesh and hence it implies approach
from the point of view of quality and not of space. For example, two
persons meet together either when both of them proceed towards each other
or one is stationary and the other starts and approaches him. Again a
pupil strives to come up to the level of his teacher’s knowledge who is
resting in his elevated position. His uphill journey towards knowledge
keeps him restless, and he climbs higher and higher till he catches a
glimpse of the halo which surrounds his master’s countenance. The nature
of divine proximity resembles this inward journey of the pupil; that
is, the more a man acquires insight into the nature of things, and by
subjugating his passions leads the life of righteousness, the nearer
will he be coming to his lord. But it must be remembered that a pupil
may equal his teacher, even be greater than he, but as regards divine
proximity, no such equality is possible. God’s love means that which
purifies the heart of his servant in a manner that he may be worthy of
being admitted before his holy presence.
It may be asked: “How can we know that God loves a certain person?” My
answer is that there are signs which bear testimony to it. The Prophet
says: When God loves his servant, He sends tribulations, and when He
loves him most he severs his connection from everything. Some one said
to Jesus: “Why do you not buy a mule for yourself”? Jesus answered: “My
God will not tolerate that I should concern myself with a mule”. Another
saying of Mohammed is reported thus: When God loves any of His servants
He sends tribulations, if he patiently bears them, he is favoured, and if
he cheerfully faces them, he is singled out as chosen of God. Surely it
is this joyous attitude of his mind whether evil befalls him or good,
that is the chief sign of love. Such minds are providentially taken care
of in their thoughts and deeds and in all their dealings with men. The
veil is lifted and they live in wrapped communion.
As for the signs of a man’s love for God, let it be borne in mind
that every body claims His love, but few really love Him. Beware of
self-deception; verify your statement by introspection. Love is like a
tree rooted in the ground sending its shoots above the starry heaven; its
fruits are found in the heart, the tongue and the limbs of the lover—in
fact his whole self is a witness to love just as smoke is a sure sign of
fire burning.
Let us, then, trace the signs which are found in the true lover.
Death is a pleasure to him, for it removes the barrier of body and lets
the fluttering soul free to soar and sing in the blissful abode of his
beloved. Sufyan Thauri and Hafi used to say: “He who doubts dislikes
death, because a friend will never dislike meeting a friend”.[88]
A certain Sufi asked a hermit whether he wished for death, but he gave
no answer. Then the Sufi said to him: “Had you been a true hermit you
would have liked death. The Quran says: If the future abode with Allah
is especially for you to the exclusion of the people, then invoke death
if you are truthful. They will never wish it on account of what their
hands have sent on before, and Allah knows the unjust”.[89] The hermit
replied: “But the Prophet says: ‘Do not wish for death’”. “Then you are
suffering”, said the Sufi, “because acquiescence in divine decree is
better than trying to escape it”.
It may be asked here: Can he who does not like death be God’s lover? Let
us consider first the nature of his dislike. It is due to his attachment
to the worldly objects, wife, children, and so forth, but it is possible
that with this attachment, which no doubt comes in the way of his love
of God there may be some inclination towards His love, because there
are degrees of His love. Or it may be that his dislike is due to his
feeling of unpreparedness in the path of love. He would like to love
more so that he might be able to purify himself just as a lover hearing
of his beloved’s arrival would like to be given some time for making
preparations for a fitting reception. For these reasons if a devotee
dislikes death, he can still be His lover, though of inferior type.
He should prefer, both inwardly and outwardly, God’s pleasure to his
desires. For he who follows the dictates of his desires is no true
lover, for the true lover’s will is his beloved’s. But human nature is
so constituted that such selfless beings are very rare. Patients would
like to be cured but they often eat things which are injurious to their
health. Similarly, a person would like to love God but very often
follows his own impulses. Naaman was a sinner, who being repeatedly
excused by the Prophet was at last flogged. While he was being flogged a
certain person cursed him for his iniquity. “Do not curse him”, said he
“he has a regard for God and his apostle”.
Experience tells us that he who loves loves the things connected with his
beloved. Therefore another sure sign of God’s love is the love of his
creatures who are created by and are dependent on him; for he who loves
an author or poet, will he not love his work or poem? But this stage is
reached when the lover’s heart is immersed in love and the more he is
absorbed in Him, the more will he love His creatures, so much so that
even the objects which hurt him will not be disliked by him—in fact the
problem of evil is transcended in his love for him.
It may be objected here that it follows that he loves the evil-doers and
sinners. But a deep insight into the nature of such love shows that he
loves them as creatures of God, but at the same time hates their actions
which are contrary to the command of his beloved. If this point is lost
sight of, people are apt to be misguided in their love or hatred of His
creatures. If they show their love towards any sinner, let it be in pure
compassion, and not any sense of taking the sin lightly. Similarly their
hatred should proceed from the consciousness of His stern law and justice
and not from ruthless bigotry.
In one of the Hadisi-Qudsi[90] God has said: “My saints are those who cry
like a child for my love, who remember me like a fearless lion at the
sight of iniquities”.
A reverent attitude of mind is another sign of his love. Some hold that
fear is opposed to love, but the truth is that just as the conception
of beauty generates love, the knowledge of his sublime majesty produces
the feeling of awe in us. Lovers meet with fears which are unknown to
others.[91] There is the fear of being disregarded. There is fear of the
veil being drawn down. There is the fear of their being turned away. When
the Sura Hud was revealed, in which the awful doom of the wicked nations
is narrated,: “Away with Samood, away with Midian,” the Prophet heaved a
sigh and said: “This Sura has turned me into an old man.” He who loves
His nearness will feel acutely the fear of being way from Him. There is
another fear of remaining at a particular stage and not rising higher,
for the ascending degrees of His nearness are infinite. A true lover is
always trying to draw nearer and nearer to Him. “A thin veil covers my
heart,” says the Prophet, “then I ask for His forgiveness seventy times
in day and night.”[92] This means that the Prophet was always ascending
the scales of his nearness, asking for His forgiveness at every stage
which was found lower than the next one.
There is another fear of over confidence which slackens the efforts and
mars progress. Hope with fear should be the guide of love. Some Sufis
say that he who worships God without fear is liable to err and fall;
he who worships him with fear turns gloomy and is cast off, but he who
lovingly worships him with hope and fear is admitted by him and favoured.
Therefore lovers should fear him and those who fear him should love him.
Even excess of his love contains an inkling of fear: it is like salt in
food. For human nature cannot bear the white heat of His love, if it is
not chastened and tempered by the fear of the Lord.
Keeping love secret and giving no publicity to it is another sign of His
love. For love is the beloved’s secret: it should not be revealed nor
openly professed. However, if he is over-powered by the force of his
love, and unwittingly and without the least dissimulation his secret
is out, he is not to be blamed. Some Sufis say: He who is very often
pointing towards Him is far from Him, because he feigns and makes a show
of his love of Him. Zunnun[93] of Egypt once went to pay a visit to one
of his brother Sufis, who was in distress, and who used to talk of his
love openly. “He who feels the severity of pain inflicted by Him,” said
Zunnun, “is no lover.” “He who finds no pleasure in such pain,” returned
the Sufi, “is no lover.” “True,” replied Zunnun, “but I say to you that
he who trumpets his love of Him is no lover.” The Sufi felt the force of
Zunnun’s words and fell down prostrate before God and repented and did
not talk again of his love.
It may be objected: Divine love is the highest stage, it would be better
to manifest it, where is the harm? No doubt love is good and if of itself
it is evident, there is no harm, but those who give themselves trouble to
make it known are blameable. Let our hearts speak, let our deeds proclaim
it, but not our tongue. Nay, he should always aim at making it evident
before his beloved. The gospel says: “Take heed that ye do not give your
alms before men to be seen: otherwise ye have no reward of your Father
which is in heaven. Therefore, when thou doest thine alms do not sound
a trumpet before thee as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the
streets, that they may have the glory of men. Verily I say unto you they
have their reward. But when thou doest alms let not thy left hand know
what thy right hand doeth. That thine alms may be in secret, and thy
Father which seeth in secret himself shall reward thee openly. Moreover
when ye fast, be not as the hypocrites, of sad countenance: for they
disfigure their faces, that they may appear unto men to fast. Verily I
say unto you they have their reward. But thou, when thou fastest, anoint
thine head and wash thy face, that thou appear not unto men to fast, but
unto thy Father which is in secret; and thy Father which seeth in secret
shall reward thee openly.”[94]
The essence of religion is love; some signs of which have been enumerated
above. The love of God may be of two kinds. Some love him for his
bounties, others for his perfect beauty irrespective of bounties. The
former love increases according to the bounties received, but the latter
love is the direct result of the contemplation of his perfect attributes
and is constant even in tribulations. “These are His favoured few,” says
Junaid of Baghdad.[95] But there are many who pose as his lovers and
with much talk of his love lack the signs of true love. They are deluded
by the devil, slaves of their passions, seeking a hollow reputation,
shameless hypocrites who try to deceive the omniscient Lord their
creator. They are all enemies of God, whether they are revered as divines
or Sufis. Sahl of Taster who used to address everyone as “Friend”, was
once asked by a person the reason of his doing so, as all men could not
be his friends. Sahl whispered in his ear saying: “He will either be a
believer or a hypocrite; if he is a believer, he is God’s friend; if a
hypocrite, the devil’s friend.”
Abu Turab Nakshabi has composed some verses describing the signs of love.
Their translation is as follows:
Do not profess your love. Hearken to me: These are the signs of his
love. The bitterness of tribulations is sweet to him, he is happy for
he believes that everything proceeds from him; for praise or censure
he cares not, the will of his beloved is his will. While his heart is
burning with love his countenance is radiant with joy. He guards the
secret of love with all his might, and no thought save of his beloved
enters into his mind. Yahya bin Maaz Razi[96] adds some lines: “Another
sign is that he is up and ready like a diver at the bank of a river; He
sighs and sheds tears in the gloom of night, and day and night he appears
as if fighting for the sacred cause of his love. He entrusts his whole
self to his love and gladly acquiescing abides in his love.”[97]
“RIZA” OR JOYOUS SUBMISSION TO HIS WILL[98]
Riza is the quintessence of love and is one of the highest stages of the
favoured few. But some doubt its existence, saying, How can man be joyous
for what is against his own will. He may submit to God’s will, but it
does not follow that he also shares the feeling of joy. We shall discuss
the nature of Riza and prove its existence.
Let us first turn to the Quran and the Hadis. “Allah has promised to
the believing man and the believing women gardens, beneath which rivers
flow, to abide in them, and goodly dwellings in gardens of perpetual
abode and best of all is Allah’s goodly pleasure—that is the grand
achievement”.[99] In this passage God’s pleasure (Rizwan) is described
as best of all blessings. In another passage this blessing is also
bestowed on those who joyfully submit to his will, “Allah is well pleased
with them and they are well pleased with him; that is for him who fears
his Lord.”[100] “Who fear the beneficent God in secret and come with a
penitent heart, enter it in peace that is the day of abiding. They have
therein what they wish _and with us is more yet_.” Some commentators
while commenting on the words in italics say that three gifts will be
given in paradise: (i) a rare gift of which “no soul knows (in this
world) what is hidden for them of that which will refresh the eyes”.[101]
(ii) The salutation as mentioned in the Quran: “Peace (Salam) a word
from the merciful Lord”.[102] (iii) His goodly grace and pleasure as
mentioned in “wa Rizwanumminallahi akbar” (and best of all is Allah’s
goodly pleasure).
The Prophet once asked some of his companions to point out the signs of
the faith which they professed. “O apostle of God,” said the companions,
“we are patient in tribulations, grateful in felicity and pleased with
what is ordained”. “Ye are Muslims” said the Prophet. Again the Prophet
said: “Ye who are poor be pleased with what God has put you in and then
you shall have your reward”.
Let us discuss the nature of Riza. Those who deny the existence of Riza,
saying that man can be patient in sufferings but joyous submission to
His will is not possible, really deny the existence of love and its
all-absorbing nature. A lover always loves his beloved’s actions. Now
this love of actions is of two kinds: (1) Redemption from the experience
of pain caused in mental or physical suffering.
Experience shows that many warriors while enraged do not feel the pain
of their wounds, and know it only when they see blood gushing from them.
Even when a man is engaged in some action which absorbs his attention,
the pain of a thorn pricking him will not be felt. If then in such
cases—and there are many such—pain is not felt, will it not be possible
that a devotee who is absorbed in him does not feel pain, which in his
belief is inflicted by his beloved?
Or (2) although pain is felt, he would desire it just as a patient who
feels the pain caused by the surgeon’s lancet is glad to be operated
upon and is pleased with the surgeon’s action. Similarly he who firmly
believes that tribulations are like God-sent curatives will be pleased
with them and be thankful to God. Anyone who ponders over the nature of
the above mentioned kinds and then in the light of them reads the lives
and the sayings of the lovers of God, will, I believe, be convinced of
the existence of Riza.
Saint Basher, son of Harith, narrates the story: In the Sharkia Lane of
Baghdad, I saw a man who received a thousand stripes, but did not cry
in his agony. He was then sent to prison and I followed him. “Why have
you been punished so mercilessly?” I asked. “Because they have found out
the secret of my love”. “But why were you so strangely quiet while you
were punished so severely”, I asked in astonishment. “Because”, answered
the poor fellow with a sigh, “She was looking at me from her balcony”.
“Oh that you might see the true Beloved”, I murmured. Hearing this, his
colour at once changed, and with a loud cry he fell dead.
The same saint tells another story: “While I was a student of Sufiism I
went to Jazirai Abbadan,[103] where I saw a blind epileptic leper, lying
on the ground while worms were eating his flesh. I sat by his side and
placed his head on my lap and spoke gently to him. When he came to his
senses, he spoke: ‘Who is this stranger who comes between me and my
Lord. Even if each and every limb is severed from my body, I will love
Him.’ That scene of Riza, says the saint, I shall never forget; it is a
life-long lesson for me.”
It is said that Christ once saw a blind forlorn leper who was praying:
“Blessed art thou, O Lord, who hast saved me from such maladies which
have overtaken many of us”. “Art thou not in misery” asked Christ, “Tell
me which is that malady which has not overtaken thee”. “Thank God”, cried
the leper, “I am not like him who does not know God”. “You are right”,
said Christ, “Give me your hand”. And the breath of Christ instantly
healed the leper, and he became one of his followers.
The Prophet’s companion Said bin Wakas,[104] lost his eyesight in old
age, and resigning his post returned to Mecca. People flocked to him for
blessing as he was known to be one whose prayers were always heard. Says
Abdullah bin Said: “I was then a mere boy; I too went to pay my respects
to the venerable Said. He spake kindly to me and blessed me. Then I said:
‘Uncle, how is it that you who are praying for everybody would not pray
for the restoration of your eyesight?’ ‘My son’, answered Said with a
smile, ‘to be pleased with His sweet will is better than eyesight’”.
Some people went to see Shibli[105] at Maristan, where he was imprisoned.
“Who are you?” asked the saint. “Friends”, they all replied with one
voice. Hearing this Shibli fetched some stones and began to throw them at
them, and they all fled calling him a madman. “What’s this”, exclaimed
Shibli, “You call yourselves my friends but if you are sincere, bear
patiently what ye receive from me,” and then he sang: “His love has
turned my brain. Have you ever seen a lover who is not intoxicated with
love!”
These narratives point out that Riza or joyous submission to God’s will
is possible and is one of the highest stages to which the souls of true
devotees could aspire. People believe in eccentricities of Cupid’s
votaries but give no ear to the ecstasies of the true lovers of God.
Perhaps they have no eyes to look at the manifestation of His beauty; no
ears to listen to the music of His love, no heart to gaze at and enjoy
His sweet presence. Perhaps they are proud of their learning and think
too much of their good deeds but they have no idea of humble and broken
hearts.
A certain nobleman of Bustam, comely in appearance and lordly in bearing,
used to attend the sermons of saint Bayazid of Bustam.[106] One day he
said to the saint: “For thirty years I have been keeping fasts waking
for the whole night and offering my prayers, but still I do not find in
me the animating force of what you teach, although I believe in it and
cherish love for you.” “Thirty years”: ejaculated the saint: “Why for
three hundred years if you do as you have done till now you will not have
a bit of it.” “How is that?” asked the astonished nobleman. “Because”
answered the saint “the veil of your egotism has fallen heavily on your
mind’s eye”. The chief then asked the saint to tell him of some remedy,
but he declined saying that the chief would not like to take it. “But do
tell me”, entreated the nobleman, “And I will try my best to follow your
kind advice”. “Listen then”, calmly answered the saint, “This very moment
go to the barber, get your head and beard shaven, take off this apparel,
and gird your loins with a piece of blanket; gather children round you
and tell them that whosoever gives you a slap with the hand will get a
walnut; pass through the throngs in all the bazars, followed by those
children and then show yourself to your intimate friends”.
“Subhan Allah” exclaimed the chief, “Do you say that to me”. “Hold thy
tongue”, retorted the saint, “thy Subhan Allah is blasphemy.” “How is
that”, asked the chief. “Because,” replied the saint, “you uttered Subhan
Allah not for any reverence for the Holy Being but out of respect for
your own vain self”. “Well”, said the chief, “tell me some other remedy,
please”. “Try this remedy first”, continued the saint. “I cannot do so,”
rejoined the chief. “There you are”, spoke the saint finally, “Did I not
tell you that you would not like the remedy.”
Our egoistic tendencies impede the progress of our souls towards higher
virtues, and hence some of us go the length of denying the possibility of
their existence. Let the lives of the true lovers of God be our guide.
FOOTNOTES
[1] D. B. Macdonald: _Muslim Theology_ London 1903. p. 215. This book
gives the best account of Al Ghazzali’s work yet available in English.
[2] ibid. p. 240.
[3] Quoted in E. G. Browne: _Literary History of Persia_ 1903. Vol. I. p.
294.
[4] ibid. p. 293.
[5] I. Goldzieher: _Vorlesungen uber den Islam_ Leipzig 1910. p. 185. See
translation in the Indian Philosophical Review by the present writer:
Vol. 1. pp. 260-6.
[6] Op. cit. pp. 238-40.
[7] From Al Munqidh min ad’-Dalal.
[8] _Gazali._ Paris 1902. pp. 44-45.
[9] See the English translation of the Guide by Friedländer; _The Guide
to the Perplexed_, London, especially pp. 225 ff. Al Ghazzali’s works
were so widely studied that it is hardly possible to suppose that
Maimonides was not influenced by them. The influence may have been
direct, as Maimonides was not only a student in Spain but also physician
in the court of Saladin in Alexandria. Indirectly the influence may have
come through the Jewish poet Yehuda Halevi.
[10] op. cit. p. 179.
[11] This list is taken from _A Chronological List of Muslim Works on
Religion and Philosophy_ which has been for a short time in preparation
at the Seminar for the Comparative Study of Religions, Baroda, by
Professor J. ur Rehman of Hyderabad, and Professor F. S. Gilani of Surat,
Fellows of the Seminar. The list has been compared with that of Shibli in
his Urdu life of Ghazali (Cawnpore 1902) whose classification is followed
with slight modification.
[12] _Ihya_ III. 1.
[13] This word is used both for _Rasul_ and _Nabi_, but the Muslim notion
of _Rasul_ differs from that of _Nabi_. Malachi was a prophet (_Nabi_),
but Moses was more than a prophet (_Rasul_). Thus in _St. Matthew_ XI. 9
we have: “But wherefore went ye out? to see a prophet? Yea, I say unto
you, and much more than a prophet”.
[14] Abuhuraira’s report given in Bokhari and Muslim.
[15] Reported by Abuhuraira in Ahmad’s _Masnav_. Egypt 1300 A. H.
[16] _Quran_ XXXIII. 72.
[17] _Quran_ XVII. 85.
[18] _Ihya_ IV. 5.
[19] It is interesting to note here the following passage from a modern
European author: “If we form a conception of a Perfect or Infinite Mind
it is in this sense that we must speak of such a mind as free. To speak
of choice between alternatives is to suggest that another than the
best might be chosen and this would be inconsistent with the idea of
perfection.
A finite mind, limited in knowledge and power and distracted by desires
other than the will to goodness, may yet have a partial measure of
self-determination which is complete only in the infinite. It is
incompletely determined by forces external to itself. And if it stand—as
it does stand—between the realm of nature and the realm of goodness,
conscious of the good and yet beset by many temptations to fall to a
lower level, then the relative independence or partial spontaneity of
such a mind may be exhibited in the power to direct its own path toward
the goal of goodness or to allow it to lapse into evil. Its freedom
will be neither complete independence of external determination nor
complete agreement with the ideal of goodness; but it will exclude total
subordination to the forces beyond itself, and it will give opportunity
for choosing and serving the good. In spite of its restrictions human
activity will be recognized as possessing a core of spontaneity”. W. R.
Sorley: _Moral Values and the Idea of God_. Cambridge 1918 pp. 446-7.
[20] Ghazzali here anticipated Hume. “Seven hundred years before Hume,
Ghazzali cut the bond of causality with the edge of his dialectic”.
_Journal of the American Oriental Society_ vol. XX. 103.
[21] _Quran_ XLIV. 38, 39.
[22] _Quran_ XXXII. 11.
[23] _Quran_ XXXIX. 42.
[24] _Quran_ LVI. 63.
[25] _Quran_ LXXX. 25-7.
[26] _Quran_ IX. 14.
[27] _Quran_ VIII. 17. This passage refers to the battle of Badr, the
first battle of the Prophet. The Muslims slew the enemy but it is
affirmed that really they did not slay, but it was Allah who slew them;
the meaning apparently being that Allah’s hand was working in the battle,
which is also clear from the fact that three hundred Muslims mostly raw
and equipped with neither horses nor sufficient arms, prevailed against
a thousand of the most renowned warriors who had come to crush the
growing power of Islam. “And Thou didst not smite when thou didst smite”.
Ghazzali points out that negation and affirmation for one and the same
action throw new light on the nature of causation. Negation affirms God
as the efficient and real cause; affirmation establishes man’s free-will
faithfully executing divine order.
Whose branches are ever shaken by the wind,
And whose fruit is showered on the sleeper’s heads.
Fatalism means sleeping amidst highwaymen.
Can a cock who crows too soon expect peace?
If ye cavil at and accept not God’s hints,
Though ye count yourselves men, see, ye are women.
The quantum of reason ye possessed is lost,
And the head whose reason has fled is a till.
Inasmuch as the unthankful are despicable,
They are at last cast into the fiery pit.
If ye really have trust in God, exert yourselves,
And strive in constant reliance on the Almighty.
(Translation by E. Whinfield. _Masnavi._
2nd ed. 1898. Bk. I, pp. 19-20.)
[28] _Quran_ XCV. 4-6. Whether man is by nature good or bad is a question
which has vexed great thinkers from ancient times. Various answers have
been suggested, which are summed up in three distinct theories:
1. Evil is innate. Education simply muzzles the brute in man.
Civilisation is mere veneering process. This cynical view of human nature
is the religion of despair.
2. Man is neither good nor bad. Mind is a _tabula rasa_. Good or bad
actions leave their impression. Thorns and roses are alike gathered by it.
3. Good and evil are mixed up in man. He has an angelic as well as a
satanic nature. The development of this double nature depends on the
force of external circumstances and surrounding influences. Good and evil
are like two seeds: whichever is sown and taken care of will grow into a
tree.
The Quranic expression: “we created man in the best make” emphasises
the purity of his nature. He is born with good and for good, but has to
preserve and to develop his goodness to his full capacity in the struggle
of life. He has but one seed which is good if it grows and bears fruit it
is called goodness; if it be crushed or nipped in the bud it is called
evil. Evil, therefore has no separate entity in him, it is simply a
negative which will lose his soul and reduce him to the lower depths.
[29] It is interesting to note a parallel passage from the _Masnavi_ of
Jal al uddin Rumi, who was born in 1207 A.D. ninety-seven years after the
death of Al Ghazzali:
When a master places a spade in the hand of a slave,
The slave knows his meaning without being told
Like this spade, our hands are our Master’s hints to us;
Yea, if ye consider, they are his directions to us
When ye have taken to heart His hints,
Ye will shape your life in reliance on their direction;
Wherefore these hints disclose His intent,
Take the burden from you, and appoint your work,
He that hears it make it hearable by you.
He too is able to make it within your ability.
Accept his command and you will be able to execute it
Seek union with Him, and you will find yourselves united.
Exertion is giving thanks for God’s blessings;
Think ye that your fatalism gives such thanks;
Giving thanks for blessings increases blessings
But fatalism snatches those blessings from your hands
Your fatalism is to sleep on the road; sleep not
Till ye behold the gates of the King’s palace.
Ah! sleep not, unreflecting fatalists,
Till ye have reached that fruit-laden Tree of Life.
E. Whinfield, trs, _Masnavi_.
[30] _St. Matthew_ XIV. 55-31. “And in the fourth watch of the night
he came unto them, walking on the sea. And when the disciples saw him
walking on the sea, they were troubled saying, It is an apparition and
they cried out for fear. But straightway Jesus spake unto them, saying:
Be of good cheer, it is I, be not afraid. And Peter answered him and
said: Lord, if it be thou, bid me come unto thee upon the water. And
Peter went down from the boat and walked upon the waters to come to
Jesus. But when he saw the wind he was afraid, and beginning to sink he
cried, saying,: Lord, save me. And immediately Jesus stretched forth his
hand, and took hold of him and said unto him: O thou of little faith,
wherefore didst thou doubt?”
[31] Comp. _Quran_ XLII. 11: Nothing is like a likeness of Him. He is the
hearing, the seeing.
[32] Comp. _Genesis_ I. 27.
[33] _Exodus_ III. 14.
[34] _Quran_ XX. 12. It is generally supposed that Moses was ordered to
take off his “leather shoes” out of respect for the sacred place. But
Razi in his Commentary calls it an idiom and says that the Arabs used the
word Na’al (shoe) for wife and family. The command to put off the shoes
is therefore a metaphorical expression for making the heart vacant from
care of family. See _Tafsir-i-Razi_ vol. VI. 19. Stamboul edition.
[35] _Quran_ XXXIX. 97. The full text runs: And they have not honoured
Allah with the honour due to him: and the whole earth shall be in his
grip on the day of resurrection and the heavens rolled up in his right
hand; glory be to him and may he be exalted above what they associate
with him.
[36] Ghazzali has dealt with the question fully in his work entitled
‘Iljamal awam’. He says that every object has four stages of existence.
To use a figure: “Fire” is (1) written on paper: (2) pronounced as Fire
(3) burns; and (4) is perceived by the mind to be inflammable. The first
two are purely conventional but have an educational value. Similarly the
anthropomorphism of the passages of the Scriptures should be studied in
the light of the above stages.
[37] _Quran_ XXIX. 69.
[38] See Section vi of this book.
[39] _Ihya_ III. 9.
[40] _Quran_ IV. 172.
[41] _Quran_ XXV. 7, 8; 21.
[42] _Quran_ XLIII. 31. “And they say: why was not this Quran revealed to
a man of importance in the two towns.” (Mecca and Taif).
[43] _Quran_ XVIII. 28.
[44] Ibn Abbas.
[45] Trimizi: Abu Huraira’s report.
[46] Comp. _Matt_ VI. 24 “No man can serve two masters for either he will
hate the one and love the other; or else he will hold to the one and
despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon”.
[47] _Matt_ V. 3.
[48] _Quran_ XVIII. 32-46.
[49] _Ihya_ 115; IV. 7.
[50] _Quran_ III. 102.
[51] Tibrani and Abu Daud.
[52] Muslim.
[53] Bokhari and Muslim.
[54] _Quran_ XVIII. 5.
[55] Nasai and Bokhari.
[56] Adu Mansur.
[57] Rumi has beautifully described this story of Nasuh in _Masnavi_ Bk.
V.
[58] _Ihya_ IV. 6.
[59] Bukhari and Muslim.
[60] _Quran_ LXXVI. 1-3.
[61] Ghazzali’s remark should not be confounded with either egoistic or
universalistic hedonism. See his remark on the affinity of souls (pages
95 ff).
[62] Muslim.
[63] From uncanonical sayings of Christ.
[64] _Quran_ XXXVIII. 71, 72.
[65] See Bukhari _Haddis Qudsi_.
[66] Al Ghazzali condemns all such expressions which are called by
Cardinal Newman “eccentricities of the saints.” He is aware of their
liability to abuse and points out their error in a manner which six
hundred years later took the form of Bishop Butler’s dictum that reason
cannot abdicate its right of judging obvious improprieties in religious
doctrines and persons. “Ibn Allah”, (Son of God) refers to the orthodox
Christian view of Jesus. “Anal Haq” (I am the truth, i.e. God) refers
to the expression of Husain bin Mansur al Hallaj, who in 309 A.D. was
crucified in Bagdad for his blasphemy. The poet Hafiz says of him:
“Jurmash an bud ki asrar huwaida bikard.” (His crime was that he revealed
the secrets.)
[67] _St Matthew_ XXII 35-57. “And one of them, a lawyer, asked him a
question, tempting him,: Master, which is the great commandment in the
law? And he said unto him: Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy
heart and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind.” In the above passage
the law referred to is _Deuteronomy_ VI. 5, where instead of mind, the
word might is used.
[68] Daran, a village near Damascus, where he died in 215 A.H.
[69] A famous Muslim woman saint of Basrah, considered to be an authority
on Sufiism. She died in 801 A. D.
[70] _Quran_ LVII. 20 and III. 14-16.
[71] Compare Descartes’: _Cogito ergo sum_.
[72] Compare _Quran_ XXIV. 35. “Allah is the light of the heavens and the
earth: a likeness of his light is a pillar on which is a lamp, the lamp
is in a glass (and) the glass is as it were a brightly shining star lit
from a blessed olive tree, neither eastern nor western, the oil whereof
almost gives light though fire touches it not (heads daffor.) Allah
guides to his light whom he pleases, and Allah sets forth parables for
men and Allah is cogniscant of all things.” Al Ghazzali has written a
separate treatise called _Mishkat ul Anwar_ dealing exhaustively with the
above passage. An excellent summary of his views is given by Razi in his
Commentary, vol. VI. 393-408. (Stamboul edition). In the above parable
Islam is represented as a likeness of the divine light, a light placed
high on a pillar so as to illumine the whole world, a light guarded by
being placed in a glass so that no puff of wind can put it out, a light
so resplendent that the glass itself in which it is placed is as a
brilliant star. Just as a fig tree stands for a symbol of Judaism (see
_St. Matthew_ XXI. 19) the olive stands for Islam, which must give light
to both the East and the West, and does not specifically belong to either
one of them.
The doctrine of _Fana_ is misunderstood by many Western scholars.
Tennyson puts it:
“That each, who seems a separate whole,
Should move his rounds and fusing all
The skirts of self again, should fall
Remerging in the general soul,
Is faith as vague as all unsweet.”
(_In Memoriam_ XLVII.)
Ghazzali’s vivid description is neither vague nor unsweet. To him _Fana_
is “a prayer of rapture”. “In that state man is effaced from self, so
that he is conscious neither of his body nor of outward things, nor of
inward feelings. He is rapt from all these, journeying first to his Lord
and then in his Lord, and if the thought that he is effaced from self
occurs to him, that is a defect. The highest state is to be effaced from
effacement”. E. Whinfield: _Masnavi_, Introduction p. xxxvii.
[73] _Ihya_ IV. 5.
[74] Usually _Fana_ is translated as “annihilation,” but Al Ghazzali here
means what is implied in the statement: “To live, move, and have our
being in Him”.
[75]
“And thou shalt one day, if found worthy, so defined
See thy God face to face, as thou dost now.”
Byron _Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage_. CLV.
[76] _Quran_ XXIX. 65-66.
[77] _Quran_ XVIII. 109. Compare Jalal-ud-Din Rumi:—
Air, earth, water, and fire are God’s servants.
To us they seem lifeless, but to God living.
In God’s presence fire ever waits to do its service,
Like a submissive lover with no will of its own.
When you strike steel on flint fire leaps forth;
But ’tis by God’s command it thus steps forth.
Strike not together the flint and steel of wrong,
For the pair will generate more, like man and woman.
The flint and steel are themselves causes, yet
Look higher for the First Cause, O righteous man!
For that Cause precedes this second cause.
How can a cause exist of itself without precedent cause?
That Cause makes this cause operative,
And again helpless and inoperative.
That Cause, which is a guiding light to the prophets,
That, I say, is higher than these second causes,
Man’s minds recognise these second causes,
But only prophets perceive the action of the First Cause.
E. Whinfield: _Masnavi_, 2nd ed. 1898. p. 16.
[78] _Ihya_ IV. 6.
[79] _Quran_ V. 54.
[80] _Quran_ II. 165.
[81] Bukhari and Muslim.
[82] _Quran_ IX. 24.
[83] Tirmizi.
[84] Abu Naim.
[85] Tirmizi.
[86] _Quran_ II. 222. Repentance is the first step towards God. Comp.
_St. Matthew_ III. 2.
[87] _Quran_ III. 30. Keeping God’s commandments revealed through his
holy prophets constitutes love of Him. Comp. _St. John._ XV. 10 “If
ye keep my commandments ye shall abide in my love; even as I keep my
Father’s commandments and abide in his love”.
[88] A Sufi of great renown: died at Baghdad in 840 A.D.
[89] _Quran_ II. 94-95.
[90] Hadisi Qudsi is that kind of tradition in which God is himself
reported to speak.
[91] Comp:
Let knowledge grow from more to more,
But more of reverence in us dwell;
That mind and soul, according well,
May make one music as before,
But vaster. We are fools and slight;
We mock thee when we do not fear;
But help Thy foolish ones to bear,
Help Thy vain worlds to bear, thy light.
Tennyson.
[92] See Bukhari.
[93] Called the “father of Sufiism”. He founded a sect of Sufis in Egypt.
He died in 860 A.D.
[94] St. Matthew VI. 1-4; 16-18.
[95] A celebrated Sufi called Syed Uttaifa (chief of the sect). He died
at Baghdad in 911 A.D.
[96] A theologian and Sufi of Ray in Persia. He died in 871 A.D.
[97] Comp:
Good shepherd, tell this youth what ’tis to love.
It is to be all made of sighs and tears;
It is to be all made of faith and service;
It is to be all made of fantasy,
All made of passion and all made of wishes;
All adoration, duty, and observance,
All humbleness, all patience and impatience,
All purity, all trial, all observance.
Shakespeare: As you like it. _Act_ V.
[98] _Ihya_ IV. 6.
[99] _Quran_ IX. 72.
[100] _Quran_ XCVIII. 8.
[101] _Quran_ XXXII. 17.
[102] _Quran_ XXXVI. 58.
[103] In Tigris.
[104] He conquered Persia in the time of the Khalifa Omar.
[105] The Arabs address elders in this way.
[106] One of the most renowned of the early Sufis. His grandfather was a
Magian who accepted Islam. He was born in 777 A. D. and died at a great
age in 878 A. D.
_Some Preliminary Announcements_
_of_
THE GAEKWAD STUDIES
IN
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
_Edited by_
ALBAN G. WIDGERY M.A.,
_Professor of Philosophy and the Comparative Study of Religions, Baroda._
This Series is established with the sanction and financial support of the
Government of His Highness the Maharajah Gaekwad of Baroda. The aim is
to provide an opportunity for the publication of works on religious and
philosophical subjects. Some of the volumes will be more popular and some
more technical in nature. Only books written in the tolerant spirit of
genuine scholarship will be included.
_The Manager_,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
THE GAEKWAD STUDIES IN RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
_First issues:_
Personality and Atonement. By the Editor.
Human Needs and The Justification of Religious Beliefs. By the Editor.
The Heart of the Bhagavatgita. By Lingesha Mahabhagavat.
Zoroastrian Ethics. By M. A. Buch.
Kant and Sankaracharya. Prof. C. G. Bhate, Poona.
Selections from Al-Ghassali. By Professor Syed Nawab Ali.
The Doctrine of Karma. A Volume of Essays by various writers.
Immortality and Other Essays. By the Editor.
The Comparative Study of Religions. By the Editor.
A Buddhist Bibliography. By various scholars.
A Chronology and Bibliography of Muslim Literature on Religion and
Philosophy. By Professor M. Jamil ur Rehman and F. S. Gilani, M. A.
Some Modern Religious Movements. By various writers.
Jesus. By the Editor.
Goods and Bads: Outlines of a Philosophy of Life. By the Editor.
HUMAN NEEDS AND THE JUSTIFICATION OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
_The Burney Prize Essay Cambridge 1909_
and
PERSONALITY AND ATONEMENT
_Essays in the Philosophy of Religion._
by
ALBAN C. WIDGERY
Cloth: Six Rupees
THE HEART OF THE BHAGAVAD-GITA
BY
His Holiness Sri Vidya Sankara Bharati Swami, Jagadguru Sankaracharya of
Karvir Pitha.
In this book one of the most enlightened leaders of Modern Hindu
religious life discusses the important and ever interesting question:
“What is the value of the Gita as a guide to practical life?” It should
be read by all educated Hindus and by all non-Hindus who wish to know the
religious attitude of a prominent Hindu scholar and devotee.
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
IMMORTALITY AND OTHER ESSAYS
BY ALBAN G. WIDGERY
Paper covers: Two rupees
Cloth: Three rupees.
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
THE CONFUTATION OF ATHEISM
Translated by
VALI MOHAMMED CHHAGANBHAI MOMIN.
This short treatise which comes down from the sixth Imam, Hazrat Imam
Jafar-us-Sadak, should prove of great interest to all Muslims. It will
attract others also by the beauty of its style and the remarkable
likeness it bears to the arguments of Bishop Butler in his _Analogy of
Religion_.
_Fourteen annas, post free._
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
BY
MAGANLAL A. BUCH M. A.,
_Fellow of the Seminar for the Comparative Study of Religions, Baroda._
CONTENTS
Introduction.
Bibliography.
Part I
I. The Available Zoroastrian Literature.
II. The Historical and Social Conditions.
III. Psychological Conceptions.
Part II
IV. The General Moral Attitude.
V. The Value of Life: Industry and Indolence.
VI. Truthfulness and Deceit: Purity and Impurity.
VII. The Ethics of Sex Relations.
VIII. Benevolence: other Vices and Virtues.
IX. The Ethical in Legal References in Zoroastrian Literature.
X. Theological and Metaphysical Conceptions.
Index.
_Paper covers: Two Rupees._
_Cloth covers: Three Rupees._
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
_In the Press_
THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RELIGIONS
A Systematic Survey
By
ALBAN G. WIDGERY M A.,
_Professor of Philosophy and the Comparative Study of Religions, Baroda._
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION: Scientific Theology and the Comparative Study of Religions.
I. The Sources and Nature of Religious Truth.
II. Supernatural Beings, Good and Bad.
III. The Soul: its Nature, Origin, and Destiny.
IV. Sin and Suffering: Salvation and Redemption.
V. Religious Practices.
VI. The Emotional Attitudes and Religious Ideals.
Appendices; Maps; Illustrations; Bibliography; and Index.
This volume is meant to be a systematic introduction to the subject.
Much of the technical detail being in the form of notes the book is thus
adapted to the general reader as well as to the needs of students.
Cloth, superior paper Rs. 12.; 15s. 0d.
Cloth, ordinary paper Rs. 10.; 12s. 6d.
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
_In preparation_
An important volume of Essays on
THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
By
Representatives of the different great religions.
The purpose of the volume is to present for comparison the views of
certain writers of distinction from the different religions upon the
theory that the suffering and happiness of the individual is due solely
to his own action, past or present.
_Some Contributors_
Shams-ul-Ulama J. J. Modi, C. I. E., Ph. D.
The Very Rev. Hastings Rashdall, D. Lit; D.C.L.
S. Khuda Buksch, M. A., B. C. L., (Oxon.)
Champat Rai Jain, Author of _The Key of Knowledge_
Israel Abrahams, D. Lit.
Alban G. Widgery M. A. (Cantab.)
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.
_In preparation by Various Scholars_
A BUDDHIST BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONTENTS
_Preface._
_Introduction._
BOOK I.
I. Buddhist Literature in Pali with translations, Commentaries, and
References to specific works in European Languages.
II. Buddhist Literature in Sanskrit with translations, Commentaries, and
References to specific works in European Languages.
III. References to Buddhism in non-Buddhist Sanskrit Literature.
IV. Buddhism in General with special References to Buddhist Doctrine and
Practice in European Languages.
BOOK II.
I. Buddhism in India (works in European Languages only).
II. Buddhism in Ceylon.
III. Buddhism in Burma.
IV. Buddhism in Malay and Java.
V. Buddhism in Siam and Cambodia.
VI. Buddhism in Himalayan Tracts.
VII. Buddhism in Tibet.
VIII. Buddhism in Central Asia and Mongolia.
IX. Buddhism in China. X. Buddhism in Korea.
XI. Buddhism in Japan.
Appendices, Maps, Indices.
The Manager,
THE COLLEGE, BARODA.