1. Repentance.
2. Patience and Thanksgiving.
3. Hope and Fear.
4. The Poor and the Hermit,
5. Unity of God, and Dependence on Him.
6. On Love, Ecstasy, and Joyous Submission to His will.
7. On Intention, Sincerity and Truth.
8. Meditation.
9. Contemplation and taking a Warning.
10. On Death and the After-Life.
Against the philosophers he argued for the belief in the reality of the
divine attributes and against the view of the eternity of the world. He
contended against the theory that there would be no physical punishments
and rewards hereafter, maintaining, as he did, the doctrine of the
resurrection of the body. He virtually denied that there is real causal
connection in events as experienced by us: but only sequence: in this he
adumbrates the theory of Hume. For Ghazzali, God is the only efficient
cause. From the scepticism to which his consideration of philosophy led
him he turned to the acceptance of revelation, this as found in the
mystic experience and in the words of saints and prophets, especially the
Prophet Muhammed.
The knowledge of moral principles Ghazzali conceived as coming not
through rational reflection but by immediate intuition of the divine
character revealing itself. Moral truths come especially through moral
and religious teachers, as the most fit persons for the transmission of
these revelations. He possessed great skill in psychological analysis
of moral conditions, and passages in illustration of this have been
included here, treating of pride and vanity, friendship and sincerity. As
almost all great practical moral and religious teachers, Ghazzali makes
considerable use of apt stories, and of striking sayings from the saints
and prophets. He continually harks back to the time of the Prophet and
his “Companions”.
Ghazzali’s abandonment of his academic position at Baghdad, his
retirement to mosques and journeyings on pilgrimage, are sufficient
evidence that he recognised that the truth of mysticism could not be
tested by theoretical reflection but only by an attempt at practice.
Only the experience itself could prove its own reality. He appears
to have held that for the attainment of the condition of ecstasy the
means of asceticism and meditation should be used. But it does not
seem quite correct to suggest as does Carra de Vaux that Ghazzali did
not recognise the fact of divine “grace”, though he did not use a
corresponding term. The beatific vision of the mystic certainly depended
in part, for Ghazzali, on God’s mercy in removing the veil. How far he
himself was successful in attaining the bliss of the mystic vision it is
impossible to tell: in this direction he gained no such reputation as
did several other Sufis. He taught that repentance, a moral conversion,
is a necessary preliminary to the mystic life, and he fought against a
common tendency of mystics towards antinomianism. Similarly he tried to
avoid the danger of interpreting the union of the soul with God as its
identification with God in a pantheistic view of the universe. Goldzieher
says he differed from the Sufis generally in the rejection of their
pantheistic aims and low estimate of religious ordinances.[10]
A LIST OF WORKS BY AL GHAZZALI[11]
A: CANON LAW.
_Title._ _Subject._ _Place and date
of publication._
_K. Wajiz_ (_Compendium_). Canon Law. Cairo 1317 A. H.
_Risalat-ul-Qudsiyya._ (Transcendence of God)
included in Ihya as the
3rd section of the 2nd
Chapter of its Book 1.
_Anqud ul Mkhtasir._ Summary of Jowim’s
Mukhtasar.
_Ghait ul Ghor fi Masail Divorce.
il dor._
_Gaur ul Durar._
_Qanun ul Rasul._ The Canon Law of the
Prophet.
B: JURISPRUDENCE.
_Al Mustafa._ Jurisprudence. Boulac 1322 A. H.
_Al Manhul wal Muntahal._ Doctrines falsely
attributed to others
and falsely claimed
by some. Jurisprudence.
_Wajiz fil Furu._ Jurisprudence. Egypt 1305 A. H.
_Khulasat ul Fikh_ Jurisprudence.
(Quintessence of
Jurisprudence).
_Al-durr ul Manzum fi An Exposition of
sirr il Muktum Wasit._ Shafite Jurisprudence.
C: LOGIC.
_Mizan ul Amal._ Logic. Cairo 1328 A. H.
_Mihakkul Nazar fil Logic. Cairo
Mantaq._ (Whetstone of
reflection).
_Maayar ul Ilm._ Logic.
_Al Maarif ul Aqliyyah Discourses on Logic.
wal Allahiyyah Al
Mutaqid._
_Mayar ul Ilm Fannil On Logic. Cairo 1329 A. H.
Mantaq._ (the weighing
scale of the science).
D: PHILOSOPHY.
_Ihya u-Ulum-id-Din._ (The most important Cairo 1322,
book for his philosophy). 1324 A. H.
Egypt 1282 ”
Lucknow 1281 ”
Meerut 1280 ”
_Maqasid ul Falasafa._ Cairo 1326 ”
(The aims of the
philosophers).
_Maznun bihi ala Ghairi Exposition of Ghazzali’s ” 1328 ”
Ahlihi._ own views.
_Kitab-ul-Arbain._ Abridgement of Ihya. ” 1328 ”
_Risalat ul Luduniyya._ Knowledge (Ilham and Wahi) ” 1328 ”
_Al-Kashfu-wat-Tabyin fi On the delusion of men in ” 1324 ”
Ghurur il khalqi Ajmain._ general. (On the margin of
As-Shurain’s Tanbihal
Mughtarrin.)
_Faysalut-Tafriqa baynal Refutation of Atheists. Cairo 1325 A. H.
Islami-wa-z Zandiqah._
_Al Fikratu al Ibrah._ Meditation and Contemplation.
_Tahafat ul Falasafa._ Destruction of the ” 1321 ”
Philosophers.
_Iljam ul Awam._ Abbreviation of the Ihya.
_Al-Imla-u-’ an Statements on disputed In the margin of
ishkalat-il-Ihya._ passages of Ihya. 1334 edition of
Ihya.
_Mustazhiry._ A guide for novices.
_Al Hikmat-u-fi- Wisdom of God. Cairo 1326 A. H.
Makhluq-i-Ilahi._
_Hakikat ul Ruh._ On Soul.
E: ETHICS.
_Badayat ul Hidayah._ Ethics. Cairo 1317,
1326 A. H.
_Kimiya i Saadat._ Ethics. ”
_Tibr ul Masbuk._ An ethical mirror for ” 1317 ”
princes. A letter.
_Ayyuh al Walad._ A letter of faith and ” 1328 ”
conduct.
F: THEOLOGY: EXEGETICAL AND DOGMATICAL.
_Al durr ul Fakhira._ On eschatology. ” 1322 ”
_Yaqut ul Tawil fi Tafsir A commentary on the Quran
il Tanzil._ in 40 vols. Not found.
_K. Iqtisad fil-I’tiqad._ Exposition of Faith. Cairo
_Fadhaih ul Abahiya._ The exposure of the
Doctrines of the
Free-thinkers
_Al Quistas ul Mustaqim._ (No Imam is necessary ”
except the Prophet
himself).
_Al Qual ul Jamil fil Criticism of those who
Raddi Ala man Ghayyar have changed the text
al Injil._ of the Bible.
_Haqiqat ul Qualain._ An Exposition of truth
of two sayings.
_Tadlis Iblis._ The intrigue of the devil.
_Jawahir ul Quran._ A collection of the best ” 1329 A. H.
verses of the Quran.
_Risalat ul Wahdah A brief letter on preaching
wal-I’tiqad._ and Belief.
_Risalat-ul-’Aqaid._ Doctrines of Islam and Cairo 1325 A. H.
the duties of rulers.
_Al Maqasid ul Khilaf Different theories of
fi fan il Kalam._ Kalam.
G: SUFIISM.
_Al-Adab-fid-din._ (Fitting behaviour in ” 1328 ”
religion).
_Al-Qawaid ul-Ashara._ (A very brief summary ” 1328 ”
of general advice of
religious matters).
_Maqasid ul Hasana Sharh An exposition of Divine ” 1322 ”
Asma i-illahi’l Husna._ names.
_Minhaj ul Abidin._ The path of the devout. Cairo 1313 A. H.
(Said to be the last of
his work).
_Nasihat-ul Talmiz._ An Epistle. ” 1295 ”
_Kitab Asrar al Anwar._
_Madkhal ul Suluk ila A Guide for kings.
Manazil il Muluk._
_Al Munqid min ad Dalal._ Autobiographical statement ” 1303,
(Deliverer from error). of his spiritual progress. 1320 A. H.
_Tajrid fil-Kalimat il Exposition of Kalima. ” 1325 ”
Tauhid._
_Murshid ul Talibin._ A Guide for novices.
_Mishkat ul anwar fi Esoteric exposition of the ” 1325 ”
Lataif il Akhbar._ verse “God is the light of
(Niche for the lights). heaven and earth.”
_Kitab ul-Madnun-i-Saghir._ Esoteric exposition of Cairo 1328 A. H.
the verse “Then shaped
him and breathed of His
Spirit into him.”
_Makashifat-ul-Qulub._ (Abridgement of a work Boulaq & Cairo
of doubtful authorship 1360 A. H.
ascribed to Al Ghazzali). Cairo 1306 A. H.
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS OF AL GHAZZALI
THE NATURE OF MAN[12]
Though man shares with the other animals external and internal senses, he
is at the same time also endowed with two qualities peculiar to himself,
knowledge and will. By knowledge is meant the power of generalisation,
the conception of abstract ideas, and the possession of intellectual
truths. By will is meant that strong desire to acquire an object which
after due consideration of its consequences has been pronounced by reason
to be good. It is quite different from animal desire, nay, it is often
the very opposite of it.
In the beginning children also lack these two qualities. They have
passion, anger, and all the external and internal senses, but will
finds its expression only later. Knowledge differs according to the
capacity for it, according to the latent powers in a man. Hence there
is a variety of stages amongst Prophets,[13] the Ulamas, the Sufis and
the Philosophers. Further progress is possible even beyond these stages,
for divine knowledge knows no bounds. The highest stage is reached by
one to whom all truths and realities are revealed intuitively, who by
virtue of his exalted position enjoys direct communion and close relation
with the Most Holy. The real nature of this position is known only to
him who enjoys it. We verify it by faith. A child has no knowledge of
the attainments of an adult; an adult is not aware of the acquisitions
of a learned man. Similarly, a learned man is not cogniscant of the
holy communion of the saints and the prophets, and of the favours
bestowed on them. Although the divine blessings descend freely, those
are fit recipients of them, whose hearts are pure and wholly devoted to
Him. “Verily,” says the Hadis, “the desire of the virtuous is to hold
communion with me, and I long to look at them”. “He who approaches me a
span, I approach him an arm”.[14] The divine favours are not withheld,
but hearts bedimmed by impurity fail to receive them. “Had it not been
that the devils hover round the hearts of men, they would have seen the
glories of the Kingdom of the Heaven”.[15]
The superiority of man consists thus in his being cogniscant of divine
attributes and actions. Therein lies his perfection; thus he may be
worthy of admission to God’s presence.
The body serves as a vehicle for the soul, and the soul is the abode
for knowledge which is its fundamental character as well as its
ultimate object. The horse and the ass are both beasts of burden, but a
superiority of the former is found in its being gracefully adapted for
use in battle. If the horse fails in this it is degraded to the rank of
mere burden bearing animals. Similarly with man. In certain qualities
man resembles a horse and an ass, but his distinguishing trait is his
participation in the nature of the angels, for he holds a middle position
between the beast and the angel. Considering the mode of his nourishment
and growth he is found to belong to the vegetable world. Considering his
power of movement and impulses he is a denizen of the animal kingdom. The
distinguishing quality of knowledge lifts him up to the celestial world.
If he fails to develop this quality and to translate it into action he
is no better than a grunting pig, a snarling dog, a prowling wolf, or a
crafty fox.
If he wishes for true happiness, let him look upon reason as a monarch
sitting on the throne of his heart, imagination as its ambassador,
memory as treasurer, speech as interpreter, the limbs as clerks, and the
senses as spies in the realms of colour, sound, smell, etc. If all these
properly discharge the duties allotted to them, if every faculty does
that for which it was created—and such service is the real meaning of
thanksgiving to God—the ultimate object of his sojourn in this transitory
world is realised.
Man’s nature is made up of four elements, which produce in him four
attributes, namely, the beastly; the brutal, the satanic, and the divine.
In man there is something of the pig, the dog, the devil, and the saint.
The pig is the appetite which is repulsive not for its form but for
its lust and its gluttony. The dog is passion which barks and bites,
causing injury to others. The devil is the attribute which instigates
these former two, embellishing them and bedimming the sight of reason
which is the divine attribute. Divine reason, if properly attended to,
would repel the evil by exposing its character. It would properly control
appetite and the passions. But when a man fails to obey the dictates of
reason, these three other attributes prevail over him and cause his ruin.
Such types of men are many. What a pity it is that these who would find
fault with those who worship stones do not see that on their part they
worship the pig and the dog in themselves: Let them be ashamed of their
deplorable condition and leave no stone unturned for the suppression
of these evil attributes. The pig of appetite begets shamelessness,
lust, slander, and such like; the dog of passion begets pride, vanity,
ridicule, wrath and tyranny. These two, controlled by the satanic power
produce deceit, treachery, perfidy, meanness etc. but if divinity in man
is uppermost the qualities of knowledge, wisdom, faith, and truth, etc.
will be acquired.
Know then that mind is like a mirror which reflects images. But just as
the mirror, the image, and the mode of reflection are three different
things so mind, objects, and the way of knowing are also distinct. There
are five reasons which may prevent the object from being reflected in the
mirror. 1. There may be something wrong with the mirror. 2. Something
other than the mirror may prevent the reflection. 3. The object may
not be in front of it. 4. Something may come between the object and
the mirror. 5. The position of the object may not be known, so that
the mirror may be properly placed. Similarly, for five reasons, the
mind fails to receive knowledge. 1. The mind may be imperfect, like the
child’s. 2. Sin and guilt may bedim the mind and throw a veil over it. 3.
The mind may be diverted from the real object. For example, a man may
be obedient and good, but instead of rising higher to the acquisition
of truth and contemplation of God is contented with bodily devotions
and acquirement of means of living. Such a mind, though pure, will not
reflect the divine image for his objects of thought are other than this.
If this is the condition of such mind, think what will be the state of
those minds which are absorbed in the gratification of their inordinate
passions. 4. An external screen, may as it were, come before the objects.
Sometimes a man who has subjugated his passions still through blind
imitation or prejudice fails to know the truth. Such types are found
amongst the votaries of the Kalam. Even many virtuous men also fall a
prey to it and blindly stick to their dogmas. 5. There may be ignorance
of the means for the acquisition of truth. Thus for illustration, a man
wants to see his back in a mirror: if he places the mirror before his
eyes he fails to see his back; if he keeps it facing his back it will
still be out of sight. Let him then take another mirror and place one
before his eyes and the other facing his back in such a position that the
image of the latter is reflected in the former. Thus he will be able to
see his back. Similarly the knowledge of the proper means is a key to the
knowledge of the unknown from the known.
The divine dispensation is liberal in the distribution of its bounties,
but for reasons mentioned above, minds fail to profit by them. For human
minds partake of the nature of the divine and the capacity to apprehend
truth is innate. The Quran says: “Surely we offered the trust to the
heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they declined to bear it
up and were afraid of it and man took it up. Surely he is not just (to
himself) and is ignorant”.[16] In this passage the innate capacity of man
is hinted at and refers to the secret power of knowing God, latent in
human minds by virtue of which they have preference over other objects
and the universe. The Prophet says: “Every child is born in the right
state (Fitrat) but his parents make him a Jew, a Christian, or a Magian.”
And again: “Had it not been that evil spirits hover round the hearts of
the sons of Adam they would have seen the kingdom of heaven”. Ibn Umar
reports that the Prophet was once asked as to where God is found either
on earth or in heaven. “He is in the hearts of his faithful servants”,
replied the Prophet.
It will not be out of place to throw some light here on the following
terms which are often vaguely applied while dealing with the question of
human nature.
1. Qalb (heart) has two meanings. (_a_) a conical shaped piece of
flesh on the left side of the chest, circulating blood, the source of
animal spirits. It is found in all animals. The heart thus belongs to
the external world and can be seen with the material eyes. (_b_) A
mysterious divine substance which is related to the material heart like
the relation between the dweller and the house or the artisan and his
implements. It alone is sentient and responsible.
2. Ruh (spirit) means (_a_) a vapoury substance which, issues from the
material heart, and quickens every part of the body. It is like a lamp
which is placed in a house and sheds its light on all sides. (_b_) The
soul which is expressed in the Quran as ‘divine commandment’[17] and is
used in the same sense as the second meaning of Qalb, mentioned above.
3. Nafs (self) which means (_a_) the substratum for appetite and passion.
The Sufis call it the embodiment of vices. (_b_) The ego which receives
different names in accordance with the qualities acquired from changes
in its conditions. When in subjugating passions it acquires mastery
over them and feels undisturbed, it is called _the peaceful self_
(Nafsi mutmainna). The Quran says: “Nafs that art at rest. Return to
thy Lord well pleased with Him, well pleasing.” When it upbraids man
for his actions it is called _conscience_ (Nafsi lauwama). When it
freely indulges in the gratification of his passions, it is called _the
inordinate self_ (Nafsi ammara).
HUMAN FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY[18]
Actions are either voluntary or involuntary. The difference between them
is not of kind but of degree. Analyse the process of an involuntary
action and you will find that if, for example, a man intends to thrust
a needle in your eye or draws a sword to strike on your head, your eye
in the former case will at once close and in the latter your hand will
suddenly be raised up to shield your head. This prompt action on the
part of your eye and hand is due to your consciousness of the evil to
be evaded, and this gives rise to volition which moves the eye and the
hand without the least delay. There are, however, cases the desirability
or rejection of which needs meditation, but the moment mind decides,
the decision is carried out as promptly as in the above example. This
meditation translated into choice or rejection constitutes will. Now will
makes its choice between two alternatives and takes its cue either from
imagination or reason. For example, a man may be unable to cut his own
throat, not because his hand is weak or a knife is not available, but
because will is lacking which would give the stimulus to suicide. For
man loves his own life. But suppose he gets tired of his life, owing to
having harrowing pains and unbearable mental sufferings. He has now to
choose between two alternatives which are both undesirable. A struggle
commences and he hangs between life and death. If he thinks that death
which will put an end to his sufferings quickly is preferable to life
with its lingering intolerable pains, he will choose death although he
loves his life. This choice gives rise to will, the command to which,
communicated through proper channels, would then be faithfully executed
by his hand in the manner of suicide. Thus, though the process from the
commencement of mental struggle for the choice between too alternatives
down to the stimulus to physical action is uniformly determinate there is
at any rate a sort of freedom traceable in the will.
Man holds the balance between determinism and freedom. The uniform
succession of events is on the lines of determination but his choice
which is an essential element of will is his own. Our Ulamas have
therefore coined a separate phrase: _Kasb_ (acquisition), distinguishing
it from _Jabr_ (necessity) and _Ikhtiyar_ (freedom) They say that
fire burns of necessity (Jabr) but man may acquire fire through the
appropriate methods, while in Almighty God is the ultimate cause of fire
(_Ikhtiyar_). But it must be noted that when we use the word Ikhtiyar for
God, we must exclude the notion of choice, which is an essential element
of will in man. Let it be here recognised once for all as a general
principle that all the words of man’s vocabulary when used for God’s
attributes are similarly metaphorical.[19]
The question may be asked: If God is the ultimate cause why should there
be a causal connection in the orderly succession of events? The answer
to this lies in the correct understanding of the nature of causation.
Nothing causes anything. Antecedents have consequents.[20] God alone is
the efficient cause, but the ignorant have misunderstood and misapplied
the word _power_. As to the orderly succession of events, let it be
understood that the two events are conjoined like the relation between
the condition and the conditioned. Now certain conditions are very
apparent and can be known easily by people of little understanding, but
there are conditions which are understood only by those who see through
the light of intuition: hence the common error of miscalculating the
uniformity of events. There is a divine purpose linking the antecedents
to the consequents and manifesting itself in the existing orderly
succession of events, without the least break or irregularity. “Verily”,
says the Quran. “We did not create the heavens and the earth and what is
between them in sport. We did not create them both but with truth, but
most of them do not know”.[21]
Surely, there is a set purpose pervading the universe. The uniform
succession of events is not at random. There is no such thing as chance.
Here again it may be asked: If God is the efficient cause, how will
you account for actions attributed to man in the scriptures? Are we to
believe that there are two causes for one effect? My answer to this will
be that the word cause is vaguely understood. It can be used in two
different senses. Just as we say that the death of A was caused by (1)
B. the executioner, and (2) C the king’s order. Both these statements
are correct. Similarly God is the cause of actions as He has creative
power and efficiency. At the same time man is the cause of actions as he
is the source of the manifestation of uniform succession of events. In
the former case we have a real causal connection, while in the latter
a relation of the antecedent to the consequent after the manner of the
connection between the condition and the conditioned. There are passages
in the Quran where the word cause is used in different senses.
“The angel of death who is given charge of you shall cause you to die:
then to your Lord you shall be brought back”.[22] “Allah takes the souls
at the time of their death”.[23]
“Have you considered what you sow?”[24] “We pour down the water, pouring
it down in abundance. Then we cleave the earth; cleaving it asunder. Then
we cause to grow therein the grain”.[25]
“Fight them: Allah will chastise them by your hands and bring them to
disgrace”.[26] “So you did not slay them, but it was Allah who slew
them, and thou didst not smite when thou didst smite, but it was Allah
who smote, that he might confer upon the believers a good gift from
himself”.[27]
These passages show that the word, cause, signifies creative power, and
must be applied to God alone. But as man’s power is the image of God’s
power the word was applied to him figuratively. Yet, just as the death of
a culprit is caused by the actual killing by the hand of the executioner
and not the king’s order, so the word cause actually applied to man is
contrary to fact. God alone is the real efficient cause, and the word
must be applied to him in its root sense of power.
It may be asked then, why man should be rewarded for his good actions and
punished for his misdeeds. Let us consider first the nature of reward
and punishment. Experience tells us that things have natural properties
and that physical laws operate in a uniform manner. Take, for example,
the science of medicine. Certain drugs are found to possess certain
qualities. If a man swallows poison of his own accord he has no right
to ask why poison kills him. Its natural property has simply operated in
his system and caused his death. Similarly actions make an impression on
mind. Good and bad actions are invariably followed by pleasure and pain
respectively. A good action is its own reward of pleasure and a bad one
of pain. The former works like an elixir; the latter like poison. The
properties of actions have been discovered, like discoveries in medicine,
but by the physicians of the heart, the saints and the prophets. If you
will not listen to them you must suffer the consequence. Now hear a
parable:
A certain king sent a horse, a robe of honour, and travelling expenses to
one of his suzerains in a distant land. Although the king had no need of
his services, the royal gift was a favour shown to his suzerain, so that
he might come to the king’s court and be happy in his presence. If the
suzerain understands the king’s intention from the nature of the gift and
utilizes it properly with a grateful heart, he will wait on the king and
live happily, but if he misuses the gift or takes no heed of it, he will
prove an ungrateful wretch.
It is thus that the boundless mercy of the omnipotent and omniscient
God bestowed on us the gift of life, providing us with bodily organs,
mental and moral faculties, so that we uplift ourselves by utilizing
them properly, and be worthy of being admitted into his holy presence.
If we misuse them or pay no regard to them, surely we shall be (Kafirs)
(literally “ungrateful”) for his blessings bestowed on us for our good,
and thus be doomed.
“Verily,” says the Quran, “we created man in the best make. Then we
render him the lowest of the low. Except those who believe and do good,
so they shall have a reward never to be cut off”.[28].[29].
_The Allegory of the Pen_
A certain devotee who was on the way to illumination saw a piece of paper
with lines written on it. “Why”, said the devotee, “hast thou blackened
thy bright face?” “It is not fair to take me to task”, replied the
paper, “I have done nothing. Ask the ink why she has sallied forth from
the inkstand where she was quite at ease, and forcibly blackened my
face”. “You are right” said the devotee. Then he turned to the ink and
enquired of her. “Why do you ask me”, she said, “I was sitting still in
the inkstand and had no mind to come out but this truculent pen rushed at
me, drew me out and scattered me over the page. There you see me lying
helpless, go to the pen and ask him”. The devotee turned to the pen and
interrogated him about his high-handedness. “Why do you trouble me”,
answered the pen, “Look, what am I? an insignificant reed. I was growing
by the banks of silvery streams amidst shady green trees, when lo: a
hand stretched at me. It held a knife, which uprooted me, flayed me and
separated my joints, hewed me, cleaved my head then, chopped it off. I
was sent headlong towards the ink, and have to serve abjectly. Do not add
insult to my injuries, go to the hand and ask him”. The devotee looked
at the hand and said: “Is it true? Are you so cruel?” “Do not be angry,
Sir” replied the hand “I am a bundle of flesh, bones, and blood. Have you
ever seen a piece of flesh exerting power? Can a body move of itself?
I am a vehicle used by one called vitality. He rides on me and forces
me round and round. You see, a dead man has hands but cannot use them
because vitality has left them. Why should I, a mere vehicle, be blamed?
Go to vitality and ask him why he makes use of me.” “You are right”, said
the devotee, and then questioned vitality. “Do not find fault with me”,
answered vitality, “Many a time a censurer himself is reproved, while
the censured is found faultless. How do you know that I have forced the
hand? I was already there before he moved, and had no idea of the motion.
I was unconscious and the on-lookers were also unaware of me. Suddenly
an agent came and stirred me. I had neither strength enough to disobey
nor willingness to obey him. That for which you would take me to task I
had to do according to his wish, I do not know who this agent is. He is
called will and I know him by name only. Had the matter been left to me I
think I should have done nothing.” “All right”, continued the devotee, “I
shall put the question to will, and ask him why he has forcibly employed
vitality which of its own accord would have done nothing”. “Do not be in
too great a hurry”, exclaimed will, “perchance I may give you sufficient
reason. His majesty, the mind, sent an ambassador, named knowledge,
who delivered his message to me through reason, saying: ‘Rise up, stir
vitality’. I was forced to do so, because I have to obey knowledge and
reason, but I know not why. As long as I receive no order I am happy, but
the moment an order is delivered I dare not disobey. Whether my monarch
be a just ruler or a tyrant, I must obey him. On my oath, as long as
the king hesitates or ponders over the matter I stand quiet, ready to
serve, but the moment his order is passed my sense of obedience which is
innate forces me to stir up vitality. So, you should not blame me. Go
to knowledge and get information there”. “You are right,” consented the
devotee, and proceeding, asked mind and its ambassador, knowledge and
reason, for an explanation. Reason excused himself by saying he was a
lamp only, but knew not who had lighted it. Mind pleaded his innocence
by calling himself a mere _tabula rasa_. Knowledge maintained that it was
simply an inscription on the _tabula rasa_, inscribed after the lamp of
reason had been lighted. Thus he could not be considered the author of
the inscription which may have been the work of some invisible pen. The
devotee was puzzled by the reply, but collecting himself, he spoke thus
to knowledge: “I am wandering in the path of my enquiry. To whomsoever
I go and ask the reason I am referred to another. Nevertheless, there
is pleasure in my quest, for I find that everyone gives me a plausible
reason. But pardon me, Sir if I say that your reply, knowledge, fails to
satisfy me. You say that you are a mere inscription recorded by a pen. I
have seen pen, ink, and tablet. They are of reed, a black mixture, and of
wood and iron, respectively. And I have seen lamps lighted with fire. But
here I do not see any of these things, and yet you talk of the tablet,
the lamp, the pen and the inscription. Surely you are not trifling with
me?” “Certainly not”, returned knowledge, “I spoke in right earnest. But
I see your difficulty. Your means are scanty, your horse is jaded, and
your journey is long and dangerous. Give up this enterprise, as I fear
you cannot succeed. If, however you are prepared to run the risk, then
listen. Your journey extends through three regions. The first is the
terrestrial world. Its objects pen, ink, paper, hand etc. are just what
you have seen them to be. The second is the celestial world, which will
begin when you have left me behind. There you will come across dense
forests, deep wide rivers and high impassable mountains and I know not
how you would be able to proceed. Between these two worlds there is a
third intermediary region called the phenomenal world. You have crossed
three stages of it, vitality, will, and knowledge. To use a simile: a man
who is walking is treading the terrestrial world: if he is sailing in a
boat he enters the phenomenal world: if he leaves the boat and swims and
walks on the waters, he is admitted in the celestial world. If you do
not know how to swim, go back. For, the watery region of the celestial
world begins now when you can see that pen inscribing on the tablet of
the heart. If you are not of whom it was said: ‘O ye of little faith,
wherefore didst thou doubt?’[30] prepare thyself. For, by faith you shall
not simply walk on the sea but fly in the air”. The wondering devotee
stood speechless for awhile, then turning to knowledge, began: “I am in
a difficulty. The dangers of the path which you have described unnerve
my heart, and I know not whether I have sufficient strength to face
them and to succeed in the end”. “There is a test for your strength”,
replied knowledge, “Open your eyes and fix your gaze on me. If you see
the pen which writes on the heart, you will in my opinion, be able to
proceed further on. For he who crosses the phenomenal world, knocks at
the door of the celestial world, then sights the pen which writes on
hearts”. The devotee did as he was advised, but failed to see that pen,
because his notion of pen was no other but of a pen of reed or wood.
Then knowledge drew his attention, saying: “There’s the rub. Do you not
know that the furniture of a palace indicates the status of its lord?
Nothing in the universe resembles God,[31] therefore his attributes are
also transcendental. He is neither body nor is in space. His hand is not
a bundle of flesh, bone, and blood. His pen is not of reed or wood. His
writing is not from ink prepared from vitriol and gall. But there are
many who ignorantly cling to an anthropomorphic view of Him, there are
few who cherish a transcendentally pure conception of Him, and believe
that He is not only above all material limitation but even above the
limitation of metaphor. You seem to be oscillating between these two
views, because on the one hand you think that God is immaterial, that His
words have neither sound nor shape; on the other hand you cannot rise to
the transcendental conception of His hand, pen and tablet. Do you think
that the meaning of the tradition “Verily God created Adam in His own
image”[32] is limited to the visible face of man? Certainly not: it is
the inward nature of man seen by the inward sight which can be called
the image of God. But listen: You are now at the sacred mount, where
the invisible voice from the burning bush speaks: “I am that I am;”[33]
“Verily I am thy Lord God, put off thy shoes”.[34] The devotee, who
listening with rapture, suddenly saw as it were a flash of lightning,
there appeared working the pen which writes on hearts-formless. “A
thousand blessings on thee, O knowledge, who hast saved me from falling
into the abysm of anthropomorphism (Tashbih). I thank thee from the
bottom of my heart. I tarried long, but now, adieu”.
The devotee then resumed his journey. Halting in the presence of the
invisible pen, politely he asked the same question. “You know my reply”
answered the mysterious pen, “You cannot have forgotten the reply given
to you by the pen in the terrestrial world”. “Yes, I remember,” replied
the devotee, “but how can it be the same reply, because there is no
similitude between you and that pen”. “Then it seems you have forgotten
the tradition: Verily God created Adam in his own image”. “No, Sir”,
interrupted the devotee, “I know it by heart”. “And you have forgotten
also that passage in the Quran: “And the heavens rolled up in his right
hand.”[35] “Certainly not”, exclaimed the devotee, “I can repeat the
whole of the Quran by rote”. “Yes, I know, and as you are now treading
the sacred precincts of the celestial world I think I can now safely
tell you that you have simply learnt the meaning of these passages from
a negative point of view. But they have a positive value, and should be
utilised as constructive at this stage.[36] Proceed further and you will
understand what I mean”. The devotee looked and found himself reflecting
upon the divine attribute omnipotence. At once he realised the force
of the mysterious pen’s argument, but goaded by his inquisitive nature
he was about to put the question to the holy being, when a voice like
the deafening sound of thunder was heard from above, proclaiming: “He
is not questioned for his actions but they shall be asked”. Filled with
surprize; the devotee bent his head in silent submission.
The hand of the divine mercy stretched towards the helpless devotee; into
his ear were whispered in zephyr tones: “Verily those who strive in our
way we will certainly show them the path which leads to us”[37]. Opening
his eyes, the devotee raised his head and poured forth his heart in
silent prayer. “Holy art thou, O God Almighty: blessed is thy name O Lord
of the universe. Henceforth I shall fear no mortal: I put my entire trust
in thee: thy forgiveness is my solace: thy mercy is my refuge.”
(Light may be thrown on the matter by consideration of the unity of
God.[38])
PRIDE AND VANITY[39]
When a man feels a superiority over others and with this a sort of
inward elation, this is called pride. It differs from vanity in as much
as vanity means consciousness of one’s elation while pride requires
a subject, an object and a feeling of elation. Suppose a man is born
solitary in the world, he may be vain but not proud, because in pride
man considers himself superior to others for certain qualities of his
self. He allots one position to his self and one to another, and then
thinks that his position is higher and is therefore elated. This “puffed
up” feeling which imparts a sense of “touch me not” is called pride. The
Prophet says: “O God save me from the puffing up of pride”. Ibn Abbas
says that the sentence in the Quran “And they have pride in their hearts
and will fail to reach it” means that the thought of inward greatness
will be denied to them. This thought is the source of inward and outward
actions, which are so to speak the fruits of it.
A proud man will not tolerate any other to be on equal terms with
himself. In private and in public he expects that all should assume a
respectful attitude towards him and acknowledging his superiority treat
him as a higher being. They should greet him first, make way for him
wherever he walks; when he speaks everyone should listen to him and
never try to oppose him. He is a genius and people are like asses. They
should be grateful to him seeing that he is so condescending. Such proud
men are found especially among ulamas. Sages are ruined by their pride.
The Prophet says: “He who has an atom of pride in his heart will fail
to enter paradise.” This saying requires explanation, and should be
carefully listened to. Virtues are the doors of Paradise, but pride and
self esteem lock them all. So long as man feels elated he will not like
for others what he likes for himself. His self esteem will deprive him
of humility, which is the essence of righteousness. He will neither be
able to discard enmity and envy, resentment and wrath, slander and scorn,
nor will he be able to cultivate truth and sincerity, and calmly listen
to any advice. In short, there is no evil which a proud man will not
inevitably do in order to preserve his elation and self-esteem. Vices
are like a chain of rings linked together which entangle his heart.
Therefore, an atom of pride is Satan’s spark, which secretly consumes the
nature of the sons of Adam.
Know then that pride is of three kinds: 1. Against God; 2. Against
prophets and saints; 3. Against fellowmen.
1. Against God. It is due to mere foolishness when a biped creature
considers himself as if Lord of the universe. Namrud and Pharoah were
such types, who disdained to be called God’s creatures on earth: “Verily,
Verily,” says the Quran, “the Messiah does by no means disdain that he
should be a servant of Allah, nor do the angels who are near to Him,
and whoever disdains His service and is proud He will gather them all
together to Himself.”[40]
2. Against prophets and saints. It is due to unwarranted self esteem when
one considers obedience to any mortal being as lowering his own position.
Such a person either fails to reflect on the nature of prophetship
and thereby feels proud of himself and does not obey the prophet, or
refuses to consider the claims of prophetship as being derogatory to
his elated self and therefore pays no regard to the prophet. The Quran
quotes the words of such persons:—“And they say: what is the matter with
this Apostle that he eats food and goes about in the markets, why has
not an angel been sent down to him so that he should have been a warner
with him. Or (why is not) a treasure sent down to him or he is made to
have a garden from which he should eat”. And those who do not fear our
meeting, say: “Why have not angels been sent down to us, or (why) do we
not see our Lord? Now certainly they are too proud of themselves and have
revolted in great revolt.”[41]
Our Prophet Mohammed was an orphan and had scanty means of livelihood, so
the Koraishite chief Walid bin Moghera and Abu Masood Sakfi used to speak
contemptuously of him.[42] And when people believed in him and accepted
Islam, the proud Koraishites used to say: Mohammed is surrounded by poor
men, let him send them off and then we of the aristocracy of Mecca will
listen to him. But God spoke to Mohammed “And withhold thyself with those
who call on their Lord morning and evening, desiring His good will, and
let not their eyes pass from them, desiring the beauties of this world’s
life, and do not follow him, whose heart we have made unmindful to our
resemblance, and he follows his low desires, and his case is one in which
due bounds are exceeded.”[43]
3. Against fellowmen. A proud man considers himself a superior being
and would like to see everybody humbled before him. He is therefore
quarrelling with God, trying to share with Him His attribute omnipotence.
God is spoken of in the Hadith, as saying: “Omnipotence is my mantle, he
who quarrels with me for it, him will I crush”. Surely men are all His
servants and no servant has a right to treat his fellow servants as their
master. But a proud man in the intoxication of his elation takes himself
as God on earth. He is too haughty to listen to truth from the lips of
any of his fellowmen. Ibn Masud says: “It is enough for sin if a person,
who is advised to fear God answers his advisor: Look to thine own self.”
The consciousness of superiority which begets pride is due to certain
attributes or accomplishments which can be summed up as:
a. Spiritual, divided into (1) knowledge; (2) devotion.
b. Worldly, of five kinds: (3) pedigree; (4) beauty; (5)
strength; (6) wealth; (7) kith and kin.
There are thus seven causes in all, and these need some description.
Knowledge is power. Consciousness of power easily elates a man, who
considers himself superior to others and treats them in a supercilious
manner. If he accepts the greetings or the invitation of his fellowmen
or receives them in audience he thinks they should be thankful to him
for his condescension. People should obey and serve him, for by virtue
of his knowledge he thinks he has a right over them. Such a proud “Alim”
is sorry for the sins of others but unmindful of his own condition.
While he freely distributes Heaven and Hell among his fellowmen, he
claims salvation and Heaven for himself. The question is whether he is
really justified in holding the title of Alim. For an Alim is one who,
knowing himself knows God, who fears the Lord most, who holds himself
more responsible for his actions for he knows good and evil and feels
the awful presence of a mighty and just Being who looks to righteousness
alone.
Let us consider why men of knowledge become proud. There are two main
causes which should be noted. First there is a false conception about
the nature of real knowledge. Devoted to certain sciences and arts such
as mathematics, physics, literature, and dialectics, they think that
proficiency in them makes a man perfect. But real knowledge means the
lifting of the veil from before the eyes of the heart so as to see the
mysterious relation between man and his maker and to be filled with a
sense of awe and reverence in the presence of an omniscient holy Being
who pervades the universe. This attitude of mind, this enlightenment is
real knowledge. It produces humility and repels pride.
Secondly, there is an indifference to moral training during student
life. Wicked habits thus produce bitter fruits of pride. Wahb has well
illustrated this point, when he says: “Knowledge is like rain falling
from above, so pure and sweet but the plants when they absorb it,
embitter or sweeten it, according to their tastes. Man in acquiring
knowledge acquires power, which gives strength to the hidden qualities
of his heart. If he was prone towards pride and paid no attention to
the subjugation of it, he would prove more proud when he acquires
knowledge.” “There will be men,” says the Prophet “who will have the
Quran on their lips but it will not go down their throats. They will
claim knowledge of it, calling themselves learned Qari. They will be
from among you my companions, but woe to them, for they will see the
consequence of it in Hell”.[44]
Warned by their Prophet, his companions lived a life of humility and
their example taught its lesson to their successors. A person came to
Khalif Omar after morning prayers and said: “I should like to give public
sermons”. “My friend”, said the Khalif, “I am afraid you would soon be
puffed up with pride”. Huzaifa, the companion of the Prophet, was a
leader of prayer. One day he said to his congregation: “Brethren, have
another leader, or go and pray alone, for I begin to feel puffed up with
your leadership”.
Thus, the companions of the Prophet lived meekly, the humble servants
of God on earth, keenly watching the changing phases of their Hearts and
promptly seeking the remedy. But we who call ourselves their followers
not only do not try to purify our hearts but do not even think it worth
while to consider the means for their purification. How can we expect
salvation? But we ought not to lose heart. The apostle of mercy for the
worlds (Rahmet ul lilalamin) has said: “Soon a time will come when if any
person will do even one tenth of what you are doing now, he will have his
salvation”.[45]
Devotion and religious service elicit admiration and praise for the
devotee, who finding himself respected by the people is elated. This
elation quietly develops into pride and then the devotee considers
himself a superior being and favoured of God. He despises his fellow men
and calls them sinners, who will be doomed for ever. But he does know
that he himself will be doomed for despising his fellowmen and thinking
too much of himself. The Prophet says: “When you hear any person, saying:
‘Woe to the people they are doomed,’ know that he himself will be doomed
first”.
It is recorded that a certain sinner among the Jews passed by a well
known Pharisee. Struck with the appearance of the Pharisee’s piety and
devotion, the poor sinner sat down by him, believing in the saving grace
of his holy touch. But the proud Pharisee disdainfully spoke out: “Touch
me not thou filthy sinner, and leave my presence”. Whereupon God sent
His word to the prophet of that age: “Go and tell that sinner; thou art
forgiven. As for that Pharisee, his devotion is cast aside and he is
doomed”.
3. People are usually proud of their lineage, and look down on men of low
birth. They refuse to treat them on equal terms, and boastfully speak of
their ancestors in the presence of men, who are treated by them in a
haughty manner. This evil lurks even in the hearts of good and virtuous
men, although their manners and actions throw a veil over it. But in an
unguarded moment of excitement and fury, this demon of pedigree is let
loose from the innermost corner of the heart.
The Prophet’s companion Abuzar says: “I was quarrelling with someone in
the presence of the Prophet when suddenly in a fit of rage I abused the
man; Thou son of a negress!” On this the Prophet coaxingly said to me:
“Abuzar, both the scales are equal. The white has no preference over the
black.” Hearing this I fell and said to the person: “Brother come and
trample on my face and then forgive me.”
It is reported in the Hadith that two men were quarrelling before
the Prophet. One said to the other; “I am the son of such and such
illustrious man, tell me who thy father is?” The Prophet, addressing
the boastful man said; “There were two men in the time of Moses who
boastfully spoke of their pedigree. One said to the other: “Look how
my nine ancestors all in one line were men of renown.” And God said to
Moses: “Tell this man: All thy nine ancestors are in Hell and thou art
the tenth.”
4. Women generally feel proud of their beauty. This leads to finding
fault with others, and this gradually assumes the form of contempt and
disdain. Ayesha, the wife of the Prophet, says: “One day a woman came to
the Prophet and I said to him: ‘Look at this dwarf.’ The Prophet turned
towards me and said: ‘Ayesha, repent of what thou hast said, for it is
slander.’”
5, 6, 7. People feel a sort of elation at the sight of their possessions.
A merchant is elated with his stores, a landowner with his fields and
groves, and a nobleman with his retinue and riches. In short, every
person feels proud of his worldly possessions and looks down on those
who are lacking in them. He believes in riches and worships mammon.[46]
He has no idea of what is meant by: “Blessed are the poor in spirit: for
their’s is the kingdom of Heaven”.[47]
We may quote a parable from the Quran. “And set forth to them a parable
of two men. For one of them we made two gardens of grape vines, and
we surrounded them both with palms, and in the midst of them we made
corn-fields. Both these gardens yielded their fruits and failed nothing.
We caused a river to gush forth in their midst. The man possessed much
wealth and he said to his companion while he disputed with him: I have
greater wealth than you and am mightier in followers. While he entered
his garden he was unjust to himself. He said: I do not think that this
will ever perish. I do not think the hour will come, yet even if I return
to my Lord I shall most certainly find a place better than this. His
companion said to him, while disputing with him: Do you disbelieve in Him
who created you from dust, then from a small germ life, then he made you
a perfect man? But as for me, Allah is my Lord and I do not associate any
one with my Lord. When you entered your garden, why did you not say: It
is as Allah has pleased. There is no power save Allah. If you consider me
to be inferior to you in wealth and children, perhaps my Lord will give
me something better than your garden, and send on it a reckoning from
heaven, so that it shall become even ground with no living plant. Or the
waters may sink into the ground so that you are unable to find them. His
wealth was indeed destroyed, and he began to wring his hands for what he
had spent on it. While it lay there (for it had fallen down from the
roofs) he said: Ah me! would that I had not associated anyone with my
Lord. He had none to help him besides Allah nor could he defend himself.
In Allah, alone is protection, the True One. In the bestowal of reward
and in requital he is best.
Set forth to them also the parable of the life in this world. It is
like the water which we send down from the clouds on account of which
the herbs become luxuriant. Then these become dry, break into pieces
and the winds scatter them. Allah holds power over all things. Wealth
and children are an adornment of the life of this world. The good
works, the ever-abiding, are with your Lord better in reward than in
expectation”.[48]
How fleeting are our worldly gains, and how foolish are we in feeling
proud of them! Let us then, live as meek and humble servants of God on
earth.
FRIENDSHIP AND SINCERITY[49]
Friendship is one of God’s favours, says the Quran. And hold fast by the
covenant of Allah all together and be not disunited, and remember the
favour of Allah on you when you were enemies, then He united your marts
so by His favour you became brethren[50]. The Prophet says: Those amongst
you are my close companions who have good dispositions, are affectionate
and tenderly love each other. And again: “God when He shows His kindness
towards any person gives him a Good friend.”[51] “Verily God will say
on the day of resurrection where are those who loved each other for my
sake; today they shall rest under my shelter when there is no other
shelter.”[52]
“Seven kinds of men will, on the Day of Judgment, rest under His shelter
when there will be no other shelter:—(1) A just Imam, (2) An adult who
is devoted to God, (3) A man who after coming out from the mosque finds
his heart attached to it till he enters again, (4) Two friends who lived
and died in their friendship for God’s sake, (5) He who for fear of the
Lord wept in secret, (6) He whom a beautiful woman of good birth allures
but he replies: I have fear of my Lord, (7) He who gives alms in a manner
that his left hand does not know what is given by his right hand.”[53]
Friendship, then, is God’s favour and should be cultivated for His sake.
But if we shun the company of our fellowmen let it also be for God’s
sake. “The strongest rope of Faith”, says the Prophet, “is love and hate
both for God’s sake.”
Christ says, “Love God by avoiding the wicked; seek His nearness by
shunning their company and please Him by courting their displeasure.”
“With whom should we keep company, O Word of God”, asked the people. And
Christ replied, “Sit with those whose appearance reminds you of God,
whose words add to the stock of your knowledge and whose actions serve as
an incentive for acquiring the kingdom of Heaven.”
God spoke to Moses saying, “Son of Amran be up and find out a friend for
thee and he who would not be with thee for my good will is thy enemy.”
Choose a friend who has five qualities viz: wisdom, good disposition,
abstinence from sin, heresy and greed.
A fool’s company gives no good, it ends in gloom. Good disposition is
necessary in as much as a man may be wise but be subservient to his
inordinate passion and hence unfit for company. And a sinner and a
heretic are to be avoided for the simple reason that they who have no
fear of the Lord and are regardless of committing forbidden actions are
not to be relied on. Besides contagion will secretly spread and he too
will think of sin lightly and gradually lose power of resisting it. And
a greedy worldling is to be avoided because his company will deaden the
heart in the quest of the kingdom of Heaven.
Alkama on his death bed gave a fine description of a friend. “My son”,
said he, “If you wish to keep company try to find out such a friend who,
when you live with him defends you, adds to your prestige, bears the
load of your hardships, helps you in your doings, counts your virtues,
dissuades you from vices, readily responds to your requests, inquires
himself for your needs when you keep quiet, shows his deep sympathy
in your sufferings, bears witness to your sayings, gives good advice
when you intend to do some work and prefers you to his own self when
difference arises between you and him.” This piece of advice gives the
qualities of a friend in a nutshell. When Caliph Mamun the Abbaside heard
of it, he said, “Where should we find such a friend”. And Yahya replied,
“Alkama’s description means that we should live in retirement.”
Imam Jafar ‘Assadiq’ (the veracious) gives a negative description of a
friend. “Do not keep company with five sorts of men viz: a false man who
deceives you like a mirage; a fool who cannot benefit you, (even if he
tries to do so he would do harm through his foolishness;) a miser who
when you need his help the most, severs himself from you; a coward who
will leave you when you are in danger; a wicked sinner who will sell you
for a piece of bread.”
Sahl of Taster says, “Avoid the company of 3 kinds of men, (1) tyrants
who forget God, (2) Ulamas who practise dissimulation, (3) Sufis who are
ignorant.”
It must be remembered here that the above passages serve as an ideal but
for purposes we should look to the present practical conditions and try
to get as much good as may be had from them. For man’s life seems dreary
when he has no friends. And men are like trees. Some are fruit-bearing
and shady, some are shady only and some are mere thorns and thistles.
Similarly some friends are a blessing both here and hereafter; some are
for worldly gain for the world is a shadow, and some are of no good in
this world and the next as if they are scorpions in human form.
“And they were not enjoined anything except that they should serve
Allah, being sincere to Him in obedience, upright, and keep up prayer
and pay the poor rate (zakat) and that is the right religion”.[54]
“Then serve God, being sincere in religion unto Him, Aye, God’s is the
sincere religion”. Musab says that his father Saad was considering
himself superior to other poor and destitute companions of the Prophet.
“God”, said the Prophet, “has helped my people with my poor and humble
followers’ prayer and sincerity.”[55] “Sincere action,” says the
Prophet “even if it be little will suffice for thee.”[56] The following
saying of the Prophet is reported by Abu Huraira: “Three persons shall
be questioned first on the day of resurrection. One will be the learned
man who would be asked as to what he had done with his learning”. “Day
and night,” the learned man will reply “I tried my best to propagate
it, O Lord”. “Thou speakest falsely”, God will answer and the angels
will also join with him. “Thy sole aim was to be called a learned man by
the people, and the title was thine”. The second will be the rich man
who would be asked about his riches. “Day and night”, the rich man will
reply, “I gave it in charity.” “Thou speaker of untruth”, God and his
angels will say. “Thou wishest to be labelled a generous man, and it was
done”. The third will be the martyr who too will be asked about his deed.
“O Lord”, the martyr will reply, “Thou didst command us to wage Holy
war (Jehad), I obeyed thee and fell fighting”. “Thou liest,” God and His
angels will answer. “Thy aim was to be trumpeted as a hero and it was
done”. “Then,” says Abu Huraira, “the Prophet after finishing the sermon
pressed me and said: These three would be the first to be thrown into the
flames of hell”.
In the narratives of the Israelites, a story is told of a certain devotee
who had served God for many years. Once he was informed of the apostacy
of a tribe, which, forsaking the true worship of Yahweh had taken to tree
worship. The hermit filled with the spirit of the “jealous” God took an
axe and set out to level the tree to the earth. But the devil in the
shape of an old man met him on the way and inquired of his intention.
The hermit told him of his determination, whereupon Satan addressed him
thus: “Why on earth are you leaving aside your prayers and vigils and
devoting yourself to other work!” “But this too is a sacred cause”
replied hermit. “No, nor will I allow you to do so” exclaimed the devil.
Whereupon the hermit in the white heat of his pious rage caught hold of
the devil and forcibly held him down. “Spare me Sir”, begged the devil,
“I have something to say to you.” The hermit let him go. Then spoke
Satan; “I think God has not commanded you to do this thing. You do not
worship the tree, you are not responsible for the sins of others. If
God wills it he will send some prophet, and they are so many, who would
carry out his order. So I think it is not your duty, why then trouble
yourself?” “But I belong to the chosen people of Yahweh, and I am in
duty bound to do so”, replied the hermit. Whereupon they again began to
wrestle and eventually Satan was thrown down. “O! I see” cried Satan.
“An idea has just come into my mind; let me go please, and I will tell
you.” Thus obtaining his release, the Evil One addressed him as follows:
“Is it not the case that you are poor and have to live on the alms of
those who are devoted to you? But in your heart of hearts you would like
to shower your bounties on your brethren and neighbours so generous and
compassionate is your nature. What a pity that such a noble soul lives
on alms”. “You have read my mind aright,” quietly responded the hermit.
“May I hope,” said the Evil One entreatingly, “that you will be pleased
to accept two golden dinars which you will find at your bed side every
morning from tomorrow. You will then be relieved of depending on others
and be in a position to do charity to your poor relations and brethren.
As for that wretched tree, what if that be cut down. Surely your poor
needy brethren would get nothing and you would lose the opportunity of
helping them while the tree would grow again”. The hermit pondered over
these words and said to himself “This old man speaks quite reasonably,
but let me think over the pros and cons of the case. Am I a prophet? No,
I am not; therefore I am not bound to cut it down. Am I commanded to do
so? No. Then if I do not do it I shall not be guilty of the iniquity.
Should I accept his proposal? No doubt from the religious point of view
it is more useful. No doubt. I think I should accept it: yes, I must.”
Thus the two pledged their words and the hermit returned. Next morning
he found the two dinars at his bed side and was highly pleased. Another
morning the glittering gold was there, but on the third morning the
hermit searched for them in vain. His fury knew no bounds. He rushed for
his axe, and hurried with it towards the place of idolatry. Satan again
met him in the way as before. “Thou wretch, thou arch-devil”, cried out
the hermit “wilt thou prevent me from my sacred duty?” “You cannot do it,
you dare not do it”, retorted the Evil one. “Hast thou forgotten the
test of my powers”, sharply replied the infuriated hermit and rushed at
him. But to his great discomfort and humiliation the hermit instantly
fell flat on the ground like a dry leaf from a tree. The devil planted
his foot on his chest, holding him by the throat, dictating the following
terms: “Either swear not to touch that tree or be prepared to die”. The
hermit finding himself quite helpless said, “I swear, but tell me why I
am so discomfitured”. “Listen”, answered Satan. “At first thy wrath was
for God’s sake, and zealous vindication of his commandments. Hence I was
defeated, but now thou art furious for thyself, and worldly gain”. The
story illustrates the saying “I will certainly cause them all to deviate
from the way except thy servants from among those who are sincere”. A
devotee cannot be immune from Satan’s temptation except by sincerity and
therefore saint Maaruf of Karkh used to upbraid himself, saying: “If thou
wishest salvation, be sincere”.
Yacub, the Sufi, says: “He who conceals his virtues like vices, is
sincere.” In a dream a man saw a Sufi who was dead and inquired about the
actions of his previous life. “All those actions” said the Sufi, “which
were for God’s sake I was rewarded for, even the least of them. For
example, I had thrown aside a pomegranate’s peel from the thoroughfare.
I found my dead cat but lost my ass worth one hundred dinars, and a
silken thread on my cap was found on the side of iniquities. Once, I gave
something in charity, and was pleased to see people looking at me,—this
action has neither reward nor punishment for me”. “How is it that you
got your cat and lost your ass?” said the man to the Sufi. “Because”,
responded the latter, “When I heard of the death of my ass I said: ‘Damn
it’. I ought to have thought of God’s will”. Saint Sufyan Saori, when he
heard of this dream, said, “The Sufi was fortunate as no punishment was
meted out to him for that charity which pleased him when people watched
him”.
There is a report that a man, putting on a woman’s dress used to frequent
purdah parties in marriage and funeral processions. Once a lady’s pearl
was lost in a party. Everybody was being closely searched, and the man
was very much afraid of the disclosure of his identity, as it would mean
the loss of his life. He sincerely repented in his heart, never to do the
same thing again, and asked God’s forgiveness and help. Then he found
that it was now the turn of himself and his companion to be searched. His
prayer was heard, the pearl being found in his companion’s clothes and he
was saved.[57]
A Sufi narrates the following story: “I joined a naval squadron which was
going on holy war (Jehad). One of us was selling his provision bag, and I
bought it, thinking it would prove useful in the war, and that when the
war was over I might dispose of it with profit. That same night I dreamt
that two angels came down from heaven. One of them said to the other:
Make a complete list of the crusaders. The other began to write down: So
and so goes on a trip; so and so for trading, so and so for reputation;
so and so for God’s sake. Then he looked at me saying: Put this man down
as trader. But I spoke: For God’s sake do not misrepresent me. I am not
going for business. I have no capital, I have simply started for the
holy war. “But Sir”, said the angel “Did you not buy that provision bag
yesterday, and were you not thinking of making some profit?” I wept and
entreated them not to put me down as a trader. The angel looked at the
other, who said: “Well, write thus: This man set out for the holy war,
but on the way bought a provision bag for profiting: now God will judge
the man”.
Saint Sari Saqati says: “Two rakats of prayer offered with sincerity in
seclusion are better than copying seventy or seven hundred traditions
with the complete list of authorities. Some say that one moment’s
sincerity is salvation, but it is very rare. Knowledge is the seed,
practice is the crop, and sincerity is the water nourishing it. Some say
that God’s displeasure is revealed in a person who is given three things;
and is denied the same number. He gets access into the society of the
virtuous, but derives no benefit therefrom. He performs good actions but
lacks sincerity. He learns philosophy but fails to understand truth.”
Says Susi: “God looks to sincerity only, and not to the action of his
creatures”. Says Junaid: “There are some servants of God who are wise,
who act as wise men, who are sincere when they act, then sincerity leads
them to virtue.” Mohammed, son of Said Marwazi, says: “The whole course
of our actions tends towards two principles, viz. (1) His treatment
meted out to thee; (2) thy action for him. Then willingly submit to what
is meted out to thee and be sincere in all thy dealings. If thou art
successful in these two things thou shalt be happy in both the worlds”.
Says Sahl: “Sincerity means that all our actions or intentions—all the
states of our minds whether we are doing anything or at rest, be solely
for God.” But this is very difficult to acquire as it does not in the
least attract the ego itself. Rowim says: “Sincerity means disregard of
recompense for action in both the worlds”. In this he wishes to point
out that the gratifications of our sensuous desires whether in this
world or the next are all insignificant and low. He who worships God in
order to attain joy in paradise is not sincere. Let him act for God’s
“Riza”. This stage is reached by Siddiks (Sincerely devoted to God), and
is sincerity _par excellence_. He who does good actions for fear of hell
or hope of heaven is sincere in as much as he gives up at present his
sensual worldly enjoyment, but wishes for the future, the gratification
of his appetite and passion in paradise. The longing of true devotees
is their Beloved’s Riza. It may be objected here that men’s motive is
pleasure, that freedom from such pleasures is a purely divine attribute.
But this objection is based on misunderstanding. It is true that man
desires pleasure but pleasure has different meanings. The popular view
is gratification of sensuous desires in Paradise but it has no idea of
the nature of higher pleasures of communion and beatitude or the vision
of God, and hence fails to consider them as pleasures. But these are
the pleasures and he who enjoys them will not even look to the popular
pleasures of Paradise for his highest pleasure. His summum bonum is the
love of God.
Tufail says: “To do good for men’s sake is hypocrisy; not to do is
infidelity; sincere is he who is free from both and works for God only”.
These definitions suggest the ideal of sincerity aimed at by noble souls.
Let us now look to the practical side of it for the sake of the average
man.
Actions make an impression on the heart, and strengthen that quality of
it which served as a stimulus for them. For example, hypocrisy deadens
the heart and godly motive leads to salvation. Both of them will gather
strength in proportion to the actions which proceed from their respective
sources. But as they are intrinsically opposed to each other an action
which gets an equal stimulus at one and the same time will be stationary
in its effect on the heart. Now take a mixed action which draws the doer
nearer to virtue, say, by one span, but removes him away by two spans,
the inward result of his progress will be that he would remain where he
was, although he would be rewarded or punished according to his motive.
A man starts for “Haj” but takes with him some articles for trade, he
will get his reward of pilgrimage but if his motive was trade only, he
could not be considered a “Haji”. A crusader who fights for his religion
would have his recompense although he acquires booty, for so long as his
sole motive is to uphold the cause of religion the latent desire of booty
would not come in the way of his recompense. Granted that he is inferior
to those noble souls who are wholly absorbed in Him “who see through Him,
who hear through Him, who act through Him,” (Hadis) He still belongs
to the good and the virtuous. For if we apply the highest standard to
all, religion will be considered a hopeless task, and will ultimately be
reduced to pessimism.
At the same time we must sound a note of warning for those who are
satisfied with the low standard. They are very often deceived. They
consider their motive is purely for God’s sake while in reality they
aim at some hidden sensuous pleasure. Let a doer, after he has
exerted himself and pondered over his motive, be not over-confident
of his sincerity. With the fear of its rejection let him hope for its
acceptance—this is the creed of the righteous who fears the Lord and
hopes from him.
THE NATURE OF LOVE[58]
Experiences are either agreeable and therefore desired or disagreeable
and avoided. Inclination towards a desired object when deeply rooted and
strong constitutes love. Knowledge and perception of the beloved is the
first requisite for love which is consequently divided according to the
division of the five senses each of which is inclined towards its desired
object. Thus the eye apprehends beautiful forms, the ear harmonious
sounds, etc. This kind of experience we share with the animals. There is,
however, one more sense, peculiar to man, which delights the soul. The
prophet has said: “I desire three things from your world, sweet smell,
tender sex, and prayer, which is the delight of my eye”. Now prayer is
neither smelt nor touched—in fact its delight is beyond the scope of the
five senses and yet it has been described as the “delight of my eye”,
which means the inner eye—the soul with her sixth sense. Concepts of this
special sense are more beautiful and charming than sensuous objects—nay,
they are more perfect and strongly attract the soul. Is it not, then,
possible, that One who is not perceived by the five senses may yet be
found and felt attractive by that sense and loved by the soul?
Let us now enumerate the circumstances which excite love. 1. Every living
being first of all loves his own self, that is to say, the desire for
continuity of his existence as opposed to annihilation is innate. This
desire is augmented by the desire of the perfection of his self by means
of sound body, wealth, children, relations and friends. For all of these
serve as a means to the end of the continuity of his self and therefore
he cherishes love for them. Even “unselfish” love of his dear son, if
probed, smacks of love for the continuity of his self, because his son
who is part of his self serves as a living representative of his self’s
continuity.
2. The second cause is the love for one’s benefactor towards whom the
heart is naturally attracted. Even if he be a stranger, a benefactor will
always be loved. But it must be remembered that the benefactor is loved
not for himself, but for his beneficence, the extent of which will be a
dominating factor in determining the degree of love.
3. The third cause is love of beauty. It is generally supposed that
beauty consists in red and white complexions, well proportioned limbs,
and so forth, but we can also say “beautiful writing”, “beautiful
horse”, etc. Hence beauty of an object consists in its possession of
all possible befitting perfections. It will vary in proportion to the
perfections attained. That writing in which all the rules of caligraphy
are properly observed will be called beautiful and so on. At the same
time there can be no one standard for judging the beauty of different
objects. The standard for a horse cannot be the same for, say, writing
or man. It must also be remembered that beauty is not connected with
sensible objects only but is also related to concepts. A person is
not always loved for his external beauty, but often the beauty of his
knowledge or virtues attracts the heart. It is not necessary that the
object of such kind of love be perceived by the senses. We love our
saints, imams, and prophets but we have never seen them. Our love
for them is so strong that we would willingly lay down our lives for
upholding their good name. If we wish to create love for them in young
minds we can produce it by giving graphic accounts of their virtues.
Stories of the heroes of any nation will excite love for them.
“Love looks not with the eyes but with the mind; and therefore
is winged Cupid painted blind”.
4. The fourth cause is a sort of secret affinity between two souls,
meeting and attracting each other. It is what is called “love at first
sight”. This is what the prophet meant when he said “The souls had
their rendezvous: Those who liked each other, then love here; those
who remained strangers then do not join here”. If a believer goes to a
meeting where there are a hundred manafiks (hypocrites) and one momin
(faithful) he will take his seat by the side of the momin. It seems that
likes are attracted by their likes. Malik bin Dinar says: Just as birds
of the same feather fly together two persons having a quality common to
both will join.[59]
Let us now apply these causes and find out who may be the true object
of love. First, man who is directly conscious of his own self in whom
the love for continuity of the self is innate, if he deeply thinks on
the nature of his existence will find that he does not exist of his own
self, nor are the means of the continuity of his self in his power.
There is a being, self-existent, and living who created and sustains
him. The Quran says: “There surely came over man a period of time when
he was not a thing that could be spoken of. Surely we have created man
from a small life germ uniting. We mean to try him, so we have made him
hearing, seeing. Surely we have shown him the way, he may be thankful
or unthankful.”[60] This contemplation will bear the fruit or love for
God. For how could it be otherwise when man loves his own self which is
dependent on Him, unless he be given up to the gratification of his
passions and thereby forgetting his true self and his sustainer.
Secondly, if he thinks over the aim and scope of beneficence, he will
find that no creature can show any purely disinterested favour to another
because his motive will be either 1. praise or self-gratification
for his generosity, or 2. hope of reward in the next world or divine
pleasure.[61] Paradoxical though it sounds, deep insight into human
nature leads us, inevitably to the conclusion that man cannot be called
“benefactor”, in as much as his action is prompted by the idea of gain
and barter. A true benefactor is one who in bestowing his favours has
not the least idea of any sort of gain. Purely disinterested beneficence
is the quality of the All-merciful Providence and hence He is the true
object of love.
Thirdly, the appreciation of inward beauty, that is to say the
contemplation of any attractive quality or qualities of the beloved
causes a stronger and more durable love than the passionate love of the
flesh. However such a beloved will still be found lacking in beauty from
the standpoint of perfection because the three genders are creatures and
therefore cannot be called perfect. God alone is perfect beauty—holy,
independent, omnipotent, all-majesty, all-beneficent, all-merciful. With
all this knowledge of His attributes we still do not know Him as He is.
The prophet says: “My praise of Thee cannot be comprehensive, Thou art
such as wouldst praise Thyself”.[62] Are not these attributes sufficient
to evoke love for him? But beatitude is denied to the inwardly blind.
They do not understand the attitude of the lovers of God towards Him.
Jesus once passed by some ascetics who were reduced in body. “Why are
you thus”? he said to them. And they replied “Fear of hell and hope of
heaven have reduced us to this condition”. “What a pity”, rejoined Jesus,
“your fear and hope is limited to creatures”. Then he went onward and saw
some more devotees, and put the same question. “We are devoted to God and
revere him for his love”, they replied with downcast eyes. “Ye are the
saints” exclaimed Jesus, “you will have my company”.[63]