Lakes in southern Chile, 246-247.
Landowners, class of great, in Chile, 220-221;
in Argentina, 331-333;
absence of a middle class of small, in South America, 532-533.
La Paz, 121, 141, 144;
population, 168;
the approach to, 168-169;
site called Our Lady of Peace, 170;
choice of singular site of, 170-171;
altitude of, 171;
effects on strangers of altitude, 172-174;
streets, churches, houses, and people, 174-176;
fascination of strange scenes and scenery at, 176-178;
museum at, 178;
legislative session at, 178-179;
contrast between Santiago and, 217.
La Plata, University of, 575.
La Raya, pass of, 85.
Larden, Walter, work by, 588.
Las Cuevas, 257, 267, 269.
La Serena, town of, 211.
Las Heras, Colonel, 280.
Latin America and Teutonic America, 490.
_See_ Americas.
Lautaro, Araucanian chief, 184, 235.
Lemaire, Neveu, work by, cited, 191.
Leopoldina Railway, 386-390.
Lignite coal near Punta Arenas, 300.
Lima, ancient importance of, 46-47;
situation, 47;
streets and houses, 47-48;
square and cathedral, 48-50;
notable buildings, 49-50;
University of, 50;
climate, 50-51;
gaiety and social enjoyment at, 51-52;
Spanish air retained by, 52-53;
lack of evidences of the past and lack of progress at, 53;
contrast between Santiago and, 217;
society in, for the protection of the Indians, 470 n.
Limon, Bay of, 6, 20.
Linseed, production of, in Argentina, 336.
Literature, of ancient Peruvians, 155-156;
place of, in Argentina, 344;
influence of the French on South American, 518-519;
comparative smallness of output, 576;
outlook for, 578-580.
Llai Llai, station of, 251.
Llamas, Peru, 65, 77, 81, 86, 92, 94;
droppings of, used as fuel, 121;
at La Paz, 169, 176, 177.
Loa River, 202.
Locks, Panama Canal, 22, 23, 24, 31 n.
Locusts, plagues of, 333-334, 557.
Long Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293, 295.
Lopez, Francisco Solano, 465 n., 525, 545, 584.
Los Patos Pass, 268.
Lota, town of, 227, 286;
garden at, 227-228.
Lowell, James Russell, quoted, 283.
Lumbering on the Amazonian plain, 559-560.
_Lusiad_, Camoens', 416.
Lynch, Patricio, 230.
Lynching practically unknown in South America, 480.
M
Macchu Pichu, ruins at, 113.
_Machete_, cutlass-like knife, 7, 385.
Madre de Dios River, 194.
Magellan, Ferdinand, remarkable voyage of, 282, 291-292, 305, 486;
discovery and exploration of Straits of Magellan by, 284-286,
297-298, 299;
great geographical importance of voyage of, 307.
Magellan, Straits of, discovery, 282-286;
Francis Drake's passage of, 286;
account of trip from Lota, Chile, to, 286-290;
entrance to, from the west, 290-291;
English names of headlands, bays, and channels of, 292-293;
mountains along the, 293, 295-297;
First and Second Narrows, 304-305;
general physical character of, 305-307.
Maine, Sir Henry, work on Popular Government by, 524-525.
Maize, on central plateau of Peru, 120;
in Argentina, 336;
in Uruguay, 351.
Maize Mother in Peruvian mythology, 157.
Malarial fever, Guayaquil, 40.
Malthusian theory, question of correctness of, 554.
Mamelucos, half-breeds called, 407.
Manaos, town of, 559.
Manco Capac, Inca sovereign, 108, 137, 138.
Manufacturing, small amount of, in Argentina, 336.
Mapoche Indians, 233, 236, 238.
_See_ Araucanian Indians.
Maranon River, 86.
Markham, Sir C., works on South America by, 147 n., 587.
Marriage between races, 471, 480.
_See_ Intermarriage.
Marriage fees imposed on Indians, 461.
Maule River, 225.
Maya Indians, 13.
Meat-packing, Argentina, 336;
Uruguay, 354.
_Médanos_, sand hills, 58-59.
Medina, José Torribio, historian and bibliographer, 221.
Megillones, 202, 210-211.
Mendoza, Spanish governor, 249.
Mendoza, town of, 249, 250, 253, 256, 261, 280;
location and growing importance of, 261-262;
description of, 261-263;
beauty of scenery at, 265-266.
Mendoza River, 262.
Merced, church of, Cuzco, 98-99.
Mercedario, Mt., altitude of, 260 n.
Mestizos, half-breeds of Spanish and Indians, 90-91;
position of, regarding Indians, 186;
proportion of, in population of Mexico, Peru, and South America
generally, 458-460;
social status of, 472-473;
forceful leaders found among, 477;
estimated total number of, in the continent, 564;
numerical predominance of (excepting in Argentina and Uruguay), 565;
rate of increase of, 566;
predominance of the white element in, 566-567.
Mexican War, suspicions of South America against United States
aroused by, 447, 497, 508.
Mexico, ruins in Peru contrasted with those in, 106, 113;
the qualities of a true nation possessed by, 441;
proportion of Indians in population of, 458;
secret idol worship in, 466;
characteristics of Indians of, 474;
to be grouped with South America rather than North, 490;
impossibility of existence of a real democracy in, 539;
suitability of Diaz' autocratic form of government for, 542-543.
Military school, University of La Plata, 575.
Minas Geraes, state of, Brazil, 370.
_Minas Geraes_, battleship, 396-399.
Mineral springs, Aguas Calientes, 87.
Mines, silver and copper, Peru, 42.
Mining, at Oruro, Bolivia, 189;
condition of, in Argentina, 336;
evils to early Spanish America resulting from, 493-494.
Miraflores, Isthmus of Panama, 22, 27.
Misti, volcano, Peru, 56-57, 60, 61, 63, 81, 82, 392.
_Mita_, personal service rendered landlords by Indians, 462.
Mitla, comparison of ruins of, with ruins at Cuzco, 106.
Mitre, _Historia de San Martin_ by, 281.
Mochica Indians, 457.
Mochica language, 44, 183.
Mollendo, town of, 54-55, 187, 215.
Monolithic gateway at Tiahuanaco, 146-147.
Monroe Doctrine, 508-510.
Montaña, district called the, 75.
Montevideo, 314;
description of, 351-354;
population, 352;
University of, 575;
expense of living in, 589.
Moon, Island of, Lake Titicaca, 131-132.
Moon, worship of, by Peruvians, 157.
Morgan, English buccaneer, 12, 15-16, 17.
Moses, Bernard, works by, quoted and cited, 463-464, 587.
Mosquitoes, preventive measures against, in Canal Zone, 28-29.
Mountain climbers, Andes considered from viewpoint of, 272.
Mountains, Isthmus of Panama, 7-8;
Andes, 38, 39, 42, 47;
Western Cordillera of Andes, 55-58, 60, 61, 63, 77-87, 198, 203;
Coast Range, 81, 224, 225, 297;
Cordillera Real, 127, 141-143;
attitude of aborigines toward, in the way of names, 142-143;
Eastern Cordillera, 188;
along Straits of Magellan, 293, 295-297;
Brazilian Coast Range, 368;
about Rio de Janeiro, 379-381, 384-386.
_See also_ Andes.
Mountain sickness, 83, 172.
Mulattoes, estimated total number of, in the continent, 564;
predominance of the white element in, 566-567.
Mummies, Peruvian, 107, 157.
Museum, at La Paz, 178.
Museums, inferiority of South American, 376.
Mussulmans, negroes of Brazil as, 409 n.
Mutiny on battleships at Rio de Janeiro, 395-400.
Mythology of primitive Peruvians, 156-159.
N
Napoleon III, theories of, concerning the "Latin" peoples, 512 n.
Nassau Bay, 293.
Nations, the division of Spanish America into, 422-424;
question of what constitutes, 424-426;
lines of old administrative divisions a primary factor in
determining territorial limits in Spanish America, 427-428;
influence of geographical position in differentiating, 429-430;
influence of physical environment, 430-431;
effect of presence of aboriginal tribes, 432-434;
effect of War of Independence and later civil wars, 434-436;
effect of conditions of industrial and commercial life, 437;
position of different Spanish-American countries as true
nations, 438 ff.;
judged by the test of possessing a distinctive national character
and a strong national sentiment, 439-443;
test of creative activities in art, science, and letters applied to
South American republics, 443;
question concerning the sense of a common Hispano-American
nationality, 444 ff.
Naval harbour of Talcahuano, Chile, 226-227.
Navies of South American countries, 449.
Negroes, West Indian, as labourers on Panama Canal, 26 n.;
living in Peru, 66;
in Uruguay, 355;
in state of São Paulo, 376;
in Bahia, Pernambuco, and other cities, 401;
in Brazil, 401, 404-405, 408, 456;
status of, as compared with coloured race in United States, 414-415,
472-475, 479-480;
influence of, felt as a race factor, 433-434;
numbers of, in all South America, 459 n., 564.
New Granada, Republic of, 17.
New South Wales, decrease in birth-rate of, 563 n.
Newspapers, Argentine, 344.
Nictheroy, town of, 378, 390.
Nitrates, deposits of, 42, 202, 206;
account of work in fields, 207-208;
export duties on, 209;
question of benefits of this natural wealth, 209-210.
Nombre de Dios, 5, 14, 15.
North Americans at La Paz, 179.
_See under_ Americas.
Norway, scenery of Straits of Magellan compared with that of, 296.
Novo Friburgo, town of, 389.
Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, convent of, Arequipa, 69.
O
Oca, grown on central plateau of Peru, 120.
Ocean currents, 489.
O'Higgins, Bernardo, 230.
Oil wells, Piura, 41.
Ollague, Mt., 198, 199.
Ollantay, drama of, 156.
Ollantaytambo, ruins at, 113.
Ornate, volcano of, 63, 64 n.
Ona tribe of Patagonian Indians, 303-304, 478.
Orchids, Isthmus of Panama, 7;
in Brazilian forests, 393.
Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgãos), 381, 384-385.
Oribe, General, 357.
Oriental quality in Spanish-American cities, 65-66.
Oruro, town of, 168, 183, 189-190.
Osorno, town of, 224, 239.
Our Lady of Peace, original name given to La Paz, 170.
Overpopulation, the danger of, 552-554;
partial solution of problem of, by intensive cultivation,
developments of chemical science, and decline in birth-rate,
554-555;
South America viewed as a means of postponing menace of, 555 ff.
P
Pachacamac, Earth God of Peruvians, 156.
Pachacamac, Peru, excavations at, 153-154.
Pacific Steam Navigation Company, 54.
Paganism, among Andean tribes, 158, 467.
Palace of the Inca Roca, Cuzco, 104-105.
Palace of the Viceroys, Lima, 49.
Palace of the Virgins of the Sun, Koati, 132.
Palacios, Dr., _Raza Chilena_ by, cited, 531.
Palenque, comparison of ruins of, with ruins at Cuzco, 106.
Palermo, park at Buenos Aires, 318-319.
Pampaconas River, ruins on the, 113 n.
Pampa of Peru, 58-59;
of Argentina, 262, 266.
Pampas of Argentina, 324-325;
horses and cattle on the, 327;
Gauchos on the, 328;
agricultural possibilities of, 333-334;
monotony of scenery, 334-335.
Panama, city of, 9, 11, 12, 15-16, 19.
Panama, Isthmus of, 1-36.
Panama, Republic of, 14, 18-19, 503.
Panama Canal, 4-5;
French attempts to construct, 18;
enterprise taken over by United States, 18-19;
length, breadth, and width, 20;
description of the four sections, 20-23;
the Culebra Cut, 20-22, 23, 24-26;
the Gatun dam, 23-24;
labourers and conditions of labour, 26 ff.;
mortality rate, 29;
importance of sanitation of Canal Zone, 30;
cost of canal, 32;
fortifying of, 32-33;
effect of, on international trade, 33-35;
the last of large changes in earth's surface, 35-36.
Panama Railway, 5-9, 12, 17-18.
Pan Americanism, 488.
Pan American Union, 511 n.;
publications issued by, 588.
Pan de Azucar, Rio de Janeiro, 380.
Pando, General, 179.
Paraguay, question of true national qualities of, 441;
despotisms of Francia and Lopez in, 465;
social relations of white and Indian races in, 470-472.
Paraguay River, 326.
Parahyba River, 386, 387;
scenery along the, 388-389.
_Paramo_, bleak regions between valleys in Peru, 79 n.
Paraná, state of, 403.
Paraná River, 167, 316, 326, 429.
Paris, the Mecca of South American pleasure-seekers, 519.
Patagonia, 284;
aborigines of, 303-304, 327.
Paterson, William, 16.
Patriotism of Argentines, 346.
Payne, E. J., chapters on Peru by, 587.
Payta, Peru, 40-42, 54.
Pearl Islands, 10, 37.
Pedrarias, Spanish viceroy, 11, 14.
Pedro I of Brazil, 410;
statue of, 376.
Pedro II of Brazil, 384, 410.
Pedro Miguel, Isthmus of Panama, 22.
Pelucon, the word, 232 n.
"Penitentes" in the Andes, 259-260.
Peons in Argentina, 332.
Peru, coast of, 37 ff.;
coast towns, 44;
ruins, 44-45, 152 ff.;
mountains of Western Cordillera, 55-58;
great inner plateau of, 58-60;
central Peru, 77 ff.;
height of central plateau, 77;
area and population, 78;
plateau surrounding Lake Titicaca, 119-124;
distinction between Bolivia and, purely arbitrary, 121-122;
antiquity of the semi-civilization of, 149-151;
disadvantages of isolated position of, as to civilization, 151;
reasons for importance of prehistoric remains in, 152-153;
discussion of religion, mythology, and semi-civilization of
primitive inhabitants of, 152-165;
true national qualities possessed by, 441;
proportion of Indians in population of, 458;
not a country for immigrants to turn toward, 555.
Peruvian Corporation, the, 80.
Petrels seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287.
Petropolis, 384, 385.
Philip II of Spain, 4, 36.
Pichu Pichu, Mt., 56, 60, 62.
Pigafetta, Magellan's chronicler, 284, 285;
quoted, 285-286, 303.
Pilar, Cape (Magellan's Cabo Deseado), 290, 291.
Pinzon, Martin Alonso, 96, 367, 494.
Pisac, ruins at, 113.
Piura, town of, 41.
Piura, valley of, ancient population, 44.
Pizarro, Francisco, 11-12, 37, 39, 44, 46, 47, 60, 96, 97, 102, 103 n
., 192, 307, 494;
assassination of, 49;
massacre of Atahuallpa's followers by, 98.
Pizarro, Gonzalo, 96, 170, 494.
Plata, Rio de la, 167, 284, 316, 486;
advantages to Montevideo from the, 351-352.
Plaza, La Paz, 175.
Plaza de Armas, Lima, 48-49.
Plazas, Cuzco, 96-97.
Politics, interest in, in Chile, 221;
in Argentina, 344;
in Uruguay, 358-359.
Polo-playing, Valparaiso, 214-215.
Poncho, dress of Gauchos, 328.
Poopo, Lake, 124, 126, 190-191, 488.
Population, growth of, of cities, 322-323;
questions raised by the growth of, 552 ff.;
forecasts of growth of, in South America, 562-565;
estimates of total number of whites, Indians, negroes, mestizos,
and mulattoes, 564-565;
of the future will be white rather than negro or Indian, 567-569.
_See_ Races.
Porteños and Campos, Argentina, 323.
Porter, R. P., _Ten Republics_ by, 588.
Port Louis, Falkland Isles, 312.
Port St. Julian, 303.
Port Stanley, Falkland Isles, 308-309, 313.
Portuguese, in Uruguay, 349, 350;
explanation of possession of Brazil by, 366-367.
Potatoes, raised on central plateau of Peru, 120, 122.
Potosi, 168;
silver mining at, 192.
Pottery, Peruvian, 106.
Prehistoric monuments at Tiahuanaco, 144-148.
_See_ Ruins.
Protection, economic issue of, in Brazil, 413.
Protector of the Indians, office of, 237.
Puente del Inca, 258-259.
Puerto Bello, 5.
Puerto Montt, 206.
Pulucayo, mine at, 195.
_Puna_, mountain sickness, 172.
Puno, port on Lake Titicaca, 84, 125.
_Puno_, the, 77, 84.
Punta Arenas (Sandy Point), 284, 300;
the commercial centre of southern South America, 300-301.
Q
_Quebradas_, narrow glens, of the Andes, 224.
Quichua Indians, 90, 101-102, 110, 121;
one of the two divisions of Indians found by Spanish, 183-184;
present condition of, 460-462;
isolated social position of, 474-475.
Quinoa, grown on central plateau of Peru, 120.
_Quipus_, knotted strings of various colours used by primitive
Peruvians, 160.
R
Races, mixture and numbers, in Brazil, 407-410, 414-415;
discussion of relations between, in South America generally,
452-483;
difference in relations between, in South America and United
States, 470-475;
conclusions on relations of the, 480-483;
favourable or unfavourable results of commingling of, 530-531;
total population of the continent according to, 564-565;
questions as to their respective increase, as to continuation of
their intermingling, as to which type predominates in persons
of mixed race, and as to ultimate outcome of the mixture,
566-567.
Rafts of _Totora_, Lake Titicaca, 125, 141.
Railways: Panama Ry, 5-9, 12, 17-18;
in Peru, 41, 54, 55-56, 59;
Southern Railroad of Peru, 80-86, 125;
Bolivian, 168-169, 186-187, 191-192, 193-194;
Chilean, 223-224, 244, 588;
Transandine line, 249-261;
Argentine, 264, 329, 337, 588;
British capital invested in, 337, 372-373, 517;
Uruguayan, 354, 588;
line from Santos to São Paulo, 372-373;
São Paulo-Rio Janeiro line, 377-378;
Leopoldina Railway, 386-390;
facilities for travel by means of, 588.
Rainfall, Isthmus of Panama, 3;
absence of, on coast of Peru, 45;
in Chile, 224;
at Punta Arenas, 301;
on the Pampas of Argentina, 325;
smallness of, in Argentina, 333.
Reds and Whites, parties called, in Uruguay, 357-359.
Religion: of primitive Peruvians, 156-159 (_see under_ Indians);
open attacks on, in Uruguay, 363-364;
of Indian population, 462-466;
a matter for women and peasants only, 582-584.
Religious toleration in Argentina, 342-343.
Republics, division of Spanish America into, 422 ff.;
lack of success of South American countries as, 524-526;
impossibility of real democracies existing in Spanish-American
states, 539.
Revolutions, Lima, 51-52, 53;
in Brazil, 410-411;
frequency of, in early South American republics, 524-525;
breaking the habit of, by a growing sense of order, 546.
Rimac River, 47.
Rinihue, Lake, 244, 246-247.
Rio Blanco, station of, 270.
Rio Branco, Baron do, 416.
Rio de Janeiro, 216 n.;
description of, 378 ff.;
harbour, 378-379;
mountain landscapes about, 379-381, 382-383;
settlement, and growth in population, 383-384;
comparisons of, with ancient and modern European cities, 394-395;
account of mutiny on battleships at, 395-400.
Rio Grande do Sul, state of, 370, 403, 405.
Rivera, General, 357.
Roads, of the Incas, 161;
scarcity of modern, for driving, 588.
Rock of the Sun and the Wild Cat, shrine of, island of Titicaca, 126.
Rodadero, the, at Cuzco, 111.
Romero, Dr., _Los Lagos de los Altiplanos_ by, 191 n.
Root, Elihu, common Court of Justice for Spanish-American countries
set up through efforts of, 448;
speech by, 506 n.
Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 327, 329, 477, 544-545, 584.
Rosas Pata, ruins at, 113.
Ross, Sir James, Antarctic Expedition of, 310.
_Rotos_, Chilean peasants, 208, 232 n., 253, 502.
Rubber, production of, on Amazonian plain, 75-76, 403, 559;
cruelties perpetrated upon Indians by gatherers of, 75, 458, 559.
Ruhl, Arthur, _The Other Americans_ by, 588.
Ruins, of cities on coast of Peru, 44;
of Chimu, 44;
of walls at Cuzco, 103, 105-106;
of Sacsahuaman, 106 n., 107-112, 118;
of Ollantaytambo, Pisac, Macchu Pichu, and Rosas Plata, 113;
on Island of the Moon, Lake Titicaca, 131-132;
Island of the Sun, 132-133;
at Tiahuanaco, 144-151;
summing up and conclusions on subject of, 151-165.
Runaway nun, romance of the, 69-74.
_Rurales_ organized by Diaz, 542.
S
Sacred Isles, Lake Titicaca, 130-134.
Sacred lake, a, 85-86.
Sacred tree of Araucanian Indians, 238.
Sacsahuaman, fortress hill of, Cuzco, 97;
walls of, 106 n., 107-112, 118.
Sahama, Mt., 188.
St. Dominick, church and convent of, Cuzco, 105.
St. George, Cape, 289.
St. Paul, Indian village of, Lake Titicaca, 141.
St. Paul, volcano of, 201-202, 203.
St. Peter, village of, 141.
St. Peter, volcano of, 201-202, 203.
St. Philip, fort of, Callao, 46.
St. Thomas, legends of presence of, in South America and Mexico, 138.
Salt marsh on plateau of southern Bolivia, 196-198.
Salvador, Republic of, 503.
San Bias, church of, Cuzco, 99.
San Bias, Colombia, Indians of, 13-14.
San Cristobal, hill of, Valparaiso, 220.
Sanctuary of the Rock, Lake Titicaca, 135.
Sand hills, plateau of Peru, 58-59.
San Francisco, church of, La Paz, 174-175.
San Francisco, plaza of, Cuzco, 97.
San Isidro, 299.
San Martin, General José de, 49, 281;
statue of, 262;
leads army across the Andes, 268;
account of passage of the Andes, 280-281;
tribute to character and achievements of, 281, 522;
form of republican government favoured by, 538, 540.
Santa Catharina, state of, 370, 403.
Santa Cruz (de la Sierra), 168, 193.
Santa Lucia, hill of, Santiago, 218-220.
Santa Rosa, village of, Peru, 85.
Santa Rosa de los Andes, 251, 252, 280;
hotel at, 589.
Santiago, capital of Chile, 216 ff.;
striking position of, 216-217;
description of, 217-218;
hill of Santa Lucia at, 218-220;
predominating influence of, in the nation, 220, 221;
social life of, 220-221;
horse-racing at, 221-222;
an election in, 223;
rainfall and height of Coast Range at, 224;
San Martin's march upon, 280;
university in, 575.
Santissima Virgen de la Candelaria, image of, 129-130.
Santo Domingo, position as a separate political entity determined by
its geographical situation, 429.
Santos, town of, 371-372;
coffee exported from, 372.
São Paulo, city of, 216 n., 372;
description of, 374-377.
São Paulo, state of, 370, 403, 405.
_São Paulo_, battleship, 396-399.
Sarmiento, Mt., 299, 300.
Schools, inadequate provision for, in Uruguay and South America
generally, 365;
elementary, in state of São Paulo, 376.
Science and learning, forecast concerning, in South America, 577-581.
Scots, settlement of, Isthmus of Panama, 16;
ubiquity of Aberdonians, 190;
on Falkland Isles, 310.
Sculptures, prehistoric, at Tiahuanaco, 145-148, 154.
Sea-birds, coast of Peru, 43;
seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287-288.
Seals on coast of Falkland Isles, 311.
Sea Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293.
Seat of the Inca, Cuzco, 111-112.
Seebey, F., cited, 344 n.
Selvas (woodlands), 168, 369;
as a field for development by immigration, 555, 558, 560-562;
area and surface features, 558;
vegetation on, 558-559;
Indians of the, 559;
production of rubber on, 559;
timber trees on, 559-560.
Serra do Mar (Sea Range), 372;
trees of the, 390-394.
Serra dos Orgãos, 381, 384-385.
Setebos, discussion of the word, 303.
Shakespeare, material found by, in account of Magellan's voyage, 303.
Sheep, farming of, in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, 300-301;
on Falkland Isles, 310;
numbers of, in Argentina, 336 n.
Shrines, about Lake Titicaca, 126, 129-130.
Sicuani, town of, 88-92.
Silver, mines of, in Peru, 42;
mining of, in Bolivia, 189, 190, 192;
existence of, a misfortune to Spanish America, 493.
Slavery, in Brazil, 404-405, 456.
Smyth's Channel, 288, 291, 292.
Snowy Range, 143.
Soldier's Leap, the, 254.
Songs of Peruvians, 155.
Sorata, Mt. _See_ Illampu.
Sorata, village of, 141, 142;
Spanish city at, destroyed by Peruvian Indians, 467.
_Soroche_, mountain sickness, 83, 172.
Southern Railroad of Peru, 80, 125.
Spain, restrictions placed on South American trade by, 326, 513;
relations of Spanish Americans with, 513-516;
literature not supplied to her colonies by, 576.
Spaniards, in Panama, 14-17, 35;
atrocities practised by, at Cuzco, 92, 115-117;
fewness of, at La Paz, 179;
in Buenos Aires, 321-322;
in Argentina, 338;
immigration of, to Uruguay, 355;
treatment of aboriginal population by, 454-456;
decrease of Indians under régime of, 457.
Spencer, Herbert, popularity of, among philosophically inclined South
Americans, 581 n.
Spirit worship among Indians, 63, 157, 185, 466, 529.
Squier, _Travels in Peru_ by, cited, 467, 587.
Stars, worship of, by Peruvians, 157.
Staten Island, Argentina, 293.
State socialistic propaganda in Uruguay, 363-364.
Statues, absence of, of the Conquistadores, 515-516.
Steamboats, Lake Titicaca, 125;
on Rio Bueno, 242.
Steamship lines, west coast of South America, 42, 54;
running south from Chile, 288-289;
Pacific Steam Navigation Company's line through Straits of
Magellan, 308 n.;
between Buenos Aires and Italian ports, 516;
activity of Germans in running, to South America, 517.
Stock exchange, Valparaiso, 215.
Straits, interest attached to, geographically and commercially, 1-2.
Subterranean passages, reports of famous, 110-111.
Sucre (Chuquisaca), 193-194.
Suez Canal, comparisons and contrasts between Panama Canal
and, 2-4, 23;
competition between Panama route and, 34.
Sugar, production of, in Argentina, 336;
region where produced, in Brazil, 403;
labour on plantations of, 404-405.
Sugar Loaf, the, Rio de Janeiro, 380.
Sun, Island of the, Lake Titicaca, 132-140.
Sun, worship of, by aborigines, 113, 157.
Superstitions of primitive Peruvians, 158-159.
Swamps, Isthmus of Panama, 6, 9.
Switzerland, solidarity of government of, despite its three races,
424-425, 531 n.
Syrian immigrants to Brazil, 407.
T
Talcahuano, 210, 225, 226-227.
_Taquia_, use of, as fuel, Peru, 121.
Tarapaca, province of, 42.
Tehuelche Indians, 303.
Temple of the Sun, Cuzco, 105, 113, 114.
Temuco, 231, 235.
Teutonic America _vs._ Latin America, 490.
Tiahuanaco (Tihuamacu), ruins at, 144-151, 154;
builders at, antedated the Incas, 149-150.
Tibet, comparisons between Peruvian plateau and, 119, 122.
Tierra del Fuego, 300-304.
Tijuca, Mt., 382.
_Times_, London, South American Supplements, 588.
Tin mining, Bolivia, 189, 190, 192.
Tiquina, Straits of, 141.
Tirapata, town of, 84, 194.
Titicaca, Lake, 54, 82, 84, 86, 488;
altitude of, 119;
area and shape, 120;
coasts, depth, waters, fauna and flora, 124-125;
purity of water, 126;
native craft on, 125;
steamboats on, 125;
shrines about, 126;
colour of, 126-127;
Sacred Islands in, 130-140;
evidence of waters of, receding, 144.
Titicaca Island, illiteracy of Indians on, 181.
Titi Kala, Sacred Rock, at Lake Titicaca, 135-140.
Titles of nobility in Latin America, 502 n.
Tocantins River, 558.
Toledo, Francisco de, 115;
census of Peruvian Indians taken by, 457.
Tolls, Panama Canal, 33, 34.
Tolorsa, Mt., 268-269.
_Totora_, water plant on Lake Titicaca, 125;
native craft made of, 125, 141.
Trade, effect of Panama Canal on international, 33-35.
Trade restrictions imposed by Spain, 326, 513.
Transandine railway line, 249-261;
effect of, on traffic _via_ Straits of Magellan, 301.
Travel, facilities for, in South America, 588-589.
_See_ Railways, Steamship lines, _etc._
Trees, Isthmus of Panama, 5-6;
of the Montaña, 75, 76;
on central plateau of Peru, 120;
of southern Chile, 244-246;
Brazilian, 390-394;
of the Selvas, 558-560.
Tres Montes, headland of, 289.
Trevelyan, G. M., work by, cited, 358 n.
Trolley ride down the Andes, 270-271.
Trumajo, town of, 242.
Truxillo, town of, 44;
ruins of Chimu city near, 153-154.
Tuberculosis, among Araucanian Indians, 237;
among the Onas, 478.
Tucuman, town of, 326, 330, 478.
Tumbez, town of, 39.
Tunnel through the Andes, 251, 256.
Tupac Amaru, last of the Inca line, 92, 115, 466-467, 514.
Tupac Amaru, a second, 92, 116.
Tupiza, 191.
Tupungato, Mt., 254, 268, 392;
altitude and description, 260.
Tussock grass, Falkland Isles, 310.
U
Ubinas, volcano of, 64 n., 82.
Ucayali River, 86.
Ulloa, Antonio, 463 n.
Ulloa, Juan, quoted on Indians of Peru and Ecuador, 463.
Underground passages, legends of, 110-111.
United States, people from, in Buenos Aires, 321;
suspicious watch kept on actions of, by South American countries,
447, 497;
influence of, used to avert hostilities between South American
states, 449-450;
difference in relations between races in South America and, 470-475;
causes of differences between South American republics and, traced
from early settlement, 488 ff.;
little change in relations resulting from achievement of
independence by both South America and, 496-497;
complete divergence of fortunes of, and causes, 497-500;
sole point of resemblance to-day their location in New World, 501;
states-system of, has been the same as South American republics',
502-503;
departure of, from original policy in conquering the Philippines
and annexing Pacific islands, 502;
sympathy of, extended to Spanish colonies in revolt against
Spain, 507, 524;
Constitution of, taken as a model by new republics in Spanish
America, 508, 538;
present South American view of Monroe Doctrine of, 508-510;
general attitude of South Americans toward, 510-512.
Universities in Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile, 50, 100-101, 323, 575.
Urcos, lake of, 111.
Urubamba River, 86.
Uruguay, 52;
history of, leading up to independence, 349-350;
area and character of country, 350-351;
economic outlook for, 354;
people of, 355 ff.;
revolutions in, 356-360;
Red and White factions, 357;
growth in wealth and population, despite revolutions, 362-363;
schemes tending toward state socialism in, 363-364;
an attractive country, whose political conditions need remedying,
364-365;
true national qualities possessed by, 441;
lacking in Indian population, 459;
fitness of, for immigration, 556-557;
University of Montevideo in, 575.
Uruguay River, 316, 354.
Urus, Indian tribe, 121, 183.
Uspallata, plain of, 260-261, 267.
Uspallata Pass, 250, 280.
Uyuni, 168, 183, 191, 194-197.
V
Valdez, Dr., 156.
Valdivia, Pedro de, 218-219, 229;
statue of, 220, 516;
invasion of Araucanians' country by, 234.
Valdivia, town of, 224, 228-230.
Valley of Desolation, the, 261, 267.
Valparaiso, 39;
harbour of, 212;
description of, 212-214;
flourishing commerce of, 215-216;
comparison of Germans and English at, 215-216.
Valverde, Vicente de, 97-98.
Van Dyck, paintings attributed to, 67, 97.
Van Dyke, _The Desert_ by, 196 n.
Vega, Garcilaso de la, 117.
Vegetation, in southern Chile, 241-247;
on the Selvas, 558-560.
Venezuela, question of true national qualities of, 442.
Vespuccius, Americus, 367 n.;
the naming of the two Americas for, 484-487.
Viacha, railroad junction, 169, 170, 186, 187.
Viceroys, despotic power of Spanish, in South America, 535.
Victoria, Australia, decrease in birth-ate of, 563 n.
Victoria, Mt., 298.
Vicuñas, 82; rugs from wool of, at La Paz, 178.
Vilcamayu River, 86, 92, 94, 180;
ruins along valley of the, 113.
Vilcañota, Sierra of, 85, 93, 121.
Vina del Mar, suburb of Valparaiso, 214-215.
Vinamarca, Lake, 141, 143.
Vines, Mr., ascent of Aconcagua by, 258;
of Tupungato, 260 n.
Vineyards, at Mendoza, 263;
in Uruguay, 351.
Viracocha, Inca sovereign, 91 n., 95.
_Viracocha_, Indian name for white man of superior station, 91.
Virgenes, Cape, 284, 305, 308.
Virgin of the Light, shrine of, Copacavana, 126.
Virgins of the Sun, Palace of the, Koati, 132.
Volcanoes: El Misti, 56-57, 60, 61, 63, 81, 82, 392;
Omate, 63, 64 n.;
Ubinas, 64 n., 82;
below Sicuani, 93;
of Western Cordillera, 200-201.
Voyages of Columbus, Da Gama, and Magellan compared, 282-284.
W
Walls, ruins of, at Cuzco, 103, 105-106;
of Sacsahuaman, 106 n., 107-112, 118;
on island of Koati, 131;
at Titi Kala, 136-137.
_See also_ Ruins.
War, prospects and possibilities of, in South America, 448-451,
569-570.
War of Independence, the, 166, 327;
influence of, on awakening of national life, 434-436.
Waterfalls, Parahyba River, 387, 389.
Wealth, hope for political progress in increase of, 546-547.
Western Cordillera, 55-58, 198, 203.
West Indian negroes, as labourers on Panama Canal, 26 n.
Westminster Hall, island of, 292.
Whales, coast of Peru, 43.
Wheat, production of, in Argentina, 336, 351.
Wild Indians, 460, 470, 478, 530 n.
William III of England, 16.
Wine, made at Mendoza, 263, 336.
Women as priests among the Araucanians, 238.
Wool, trade in, at Punta Arenas, 300-301;
production of, in Uruguay, 354.
Y
Yahgan tribe of Fuegians, 294.
_Yareta_ moss as fuel, 121, 200.
Yellow fever, on Isthmus of Panama, 3;
measures taken against, 28-29;
in city of Guayaquil, 40;
former inroads of, at Santos, 371-372;
extinction of, at Rio de Janeiro, 384;
general freedom from, 589.
Yunca Indians, 457.
Yungas, region called the, 177.
Yupanqui, Francisco Tito, 129.
Yura, village of, Peru, 81.
Z
Zambos, half-breeds of Indians and negroes, 66;
estimated total number of, 564.
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] All things tend naturally towards non-existence. So in the original
statutes of Oriel College, Oxford (founded in A.D. 1327).
[2] All that comes into being deserves to perish.
[3] The trade to the Philippines crossed the Continent at Tehuantepec.
[4] The reader will find at the end of the volume a small map which may
help him to understand the topography of the region.
[5] The highest point of excavation at Gold Hill is 534 feet above sea
level and the highest elevation of the original surface of the ground
along the centre line of the Canal was 312 feet above sea level. The
vertical depth of the cut on the centre line is thus 272 feet, the
bottom of the cut being 40 feet above sea level.
[6] The unskilled labourers employed are mostly West Indian negroes
from Jamaica and Barbadoes, with some Spaniards, but no Chinese. The
skilled men are from the United States. Many Chinese were here in the
French days and died in great numbers.
[7] Among the white population of the Zone, excluding the cities of
Panama and Colon, the rate was higher, viz. 16.47 for 1910 and 15.32
for 1911, the part of the population not under official control being
less careful to observe health rules.
[8] Fascinated by the example of Suez, and not realizing how greatly
the problem of construction was affected by the difference between the
very wet climate of Panama and the absolutely dry climate of Suez, the
French engineers originally planned a sea-level canal. To have carried
out that plan would have added enormously to the cost, for the Culebra
cutting must have been not only eighty feet deeper, but immensely
wider. Few who examine the spot seem now to doubt that the decision to
have a lock canal has been a wise one.
[9] The last estimate presented puts the amount at $375,000,000. The
fortifications are expected to cost about $12,000,000 more.
[10] London to Sydney via Suez 11,531 miles, via Panama 12,525; London
to Auckland via Suez 12,638 miles, via Panama, 11,404.
[11] Since our visit Coropuna has been ascended by my friend Professor
Hiram Bingham of Yale University (U.S.A.). The average of his
observations gives it a height of 21,700 feet. A very interesting
account of his long and difficult snow climb may be found in _Harper's
Magazine_ for March, 1912.
[12] The Harvard Observatory Report gives it as 7550.
[13] Quoted in the learned notes to Mr. Bandelier's valuable book,
_Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, p. 161, from a MS. in the National
Archives at Lima. Omate is probably the volcano now usually known as
Ubinas.
[14] Chapter XVI.
[15] _Paramo_ is the name applied to these bleak regions between the
valleys.
[16] This is the term of respect by which an Indian usually addresses a
white man of superior station. The word was in Inca mythology the name
of a divine or half-divine hero--it was also the name of one of the
Inca sovereigns.
[17] Above this valley, nearly a hundred miles away to the northeast,
rises the splendid peak of Salcantay, whose height, said to approach
22,000 feet, will some day attract an aspiring mountain climber.
[18] It is fair to say that when the conquest was once accomplished,
Valverde seems to have protested against the reduction of the Indians
to slavery.
[19] While these pages are passing through the press (April, 1912), I
am informed that a serious effort is about to be made to lay drains in
and generally to clean up Cuzco.
[20] The name "Inca" properly belongs to the ruling family or clan in
the Peruvian monarchy, of whose ethnic relations to its subjects we
know very little, but I use it here to denote not only the dynasty,
but the epoch of their rule, which apparently covered two centuries
(possibly more) before the arrival of Pizarro. The expression "The
Inca" means the reigning monarch.
[21] A patient archæologist might be able by examining and
photographing specimens of each style to determine their chronological
succession and thus throw some light on the history of the city. The
oldest type appeared to be that of the Inca Roca wall, very similar to
that of the Sacsahuaman walls to be presently described.
[22] Good specimens of all these things may be seen in the American
Museum of Natural History of New York.
[23] Some of the granite blocks in the fortress at Osaka in Japan are
even larger, but these belong to the time of Hideoshi, early in the
seventeenth century. There is some reason to think that the city or
at least the neighbourhood of Cuzco may have been inhabited from very
remote times.
[24] Such as that at Choqquequirau described by my friend Professor
Bingham in his book entitled _Across South America_. He discovered, in
1911, an Inca building at a place on the river Pampaconas fifteen days'
journey north of Cuzco and only two thousand feet above sea-level. It
was not previously known that their power had extended so far in that
direction.
[25] Dr. Sven Hedin gives the height of Tso Mavang as 15,098 feet above
sea level.
[26] In some parts of Mexico the Indians use the seeds of a species of
_Chenopodium_ for food. Civilized man has not yet troubled himself to
enquire what possibilities of development there may be in some of the
plants which primitive or barbarous man turned to account.
[27] Dr. Uhle has suggested that the so-called seats may have been
places on which to set images. Mr. Bingham thinks they were more
probably spots on which priests stood to salute the rising sun by
wafting kisses with their hands, a Peruvian practice described by
Calancha, who compares the book of Job, chap. xxxi, v. 27.
[28] Lake Titicaca was originally, it would seem, called the lake of
Chucuito, from an ancient town on its western shore.
[29] St. Thomas, according to an early legend, preached the Gospel on
the coast of Malabar, so the Spanish ecclesiastics when they came to
Mexico and Peru and heard tales of a wise deity or semi-divine teacher
who had long ago appeared among the natives, concluded this must have
been the Apostle, the idea of the connection of Eastern Asia with these
new Western lands being still in their minds.
In the ancient city of Tlascala in Mexico I have seen a picture
representing St. Thomas preaching to the natives in the guise of the
Mexican deity Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Snake. St. Thomas is depicted
as half serpent, half bird, but with a human head.
[30] Sir M. Conway gives the height of the higher peak Ancohuma (Hanko
Uma) at 21,490. The loftiest summits in Peru seem to be Huascaran (some
way N.N.E. of Lima), about 22,150 feet, and Coropuna (see p. 57),
21,700 feet. Aconcagua in Chile is the culminating point of the Andes
and the whole Western World (see p. 260).
[31] _Climbing and Exploration in the Bolivian Andes_, 1901.
[32] See Bandelier, _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, ch. I, and notes.
[33] They have some likeness to the carved stone found at Chavin in
northern Peru, figured in Sir C. Markham's _The Incas of Peru_, p. 34.
There was also found lately in a grave near Lima a textile fabric with
a pattern resembling this.
[34] The arrow point may however have been brought from the
northeastern shores of Titicaca. Mr. Bingham tells me that such
obsidian tips are sometimes found in auriferous gravels there.
[35] The primitive inhabitants of the Canary Isles, who were apparently
of Berber stock, also preserved their dead as mummies.
[36] Abundant evidence on this subject may be found in Mr. J. G.
Frazer's _Golden Bough_. In Cornwall and Ireland sacred wells still
receive offerings. I once met a French peasant who believed in
were-wolves and knew one; and I remember as a boy to have been warned
by the peasants in the Glens of Antrim to beware of the water spirit
who (under the form of a bull) infested the river in which I was
fishing.
[37] It is, however, probable that the early Spanish accounts of the
excellence of the roads were exaggerated, for few traces of them can be
discerned to-day.
[38] See note III at end of book.
[39] It is not clear how much territory this enumeration covered and it
was probably only a rough estimate; still, the fact that the population
was far larger in the middle of the sixteenth than it was in the
eighteenth century seems beyond doubt.
[40] A vast deal still remains to be done both in Mexico and Peru,
perhaps even more in the latter than in the former, to examine
thoroughly both the accounts given by the early Spanish writers and the
existing remains of buildings and graves and the objects found in or
near them, so as to lay a foundation for some systematic account of the
ancient native civilizations.
[41] Its habitual use may have contributed to give the Aymarás that
impassive dulness which characterizes the race.
[42] Mr. Bandelier (_Islands of Titicaca and Koati_) gives an
interesting description of such a ceremony.
[43] Mountain Spirit.
[44] This line has now (December, 1912) been completed.
[45] I take these details from Dr. Romero's _Los Lagos de los
Altiplanos_, translated from the French of Dr. Neveu Lemaire.
[46] The name _Cholo_ properly means the offspring of a mestizo and an
Indian, but it seems to be currently used to describe a peasant with a
marked Indian strain.
[47] An admirable study of desert scenery may be found in a book by Mr.
Van Dyke of Rutgers College (in New Jersey), entitled _The Desert_.
[48] Pronounced Oyawe.
[49] It is called Yareta, and reminds one a little (though it is larger
and harder) of the _Cherleria sedoides_ of the Scottish Highlands.
[50] In the thirty years from 1880 to 1909 the Chilean treasury
received £82,637,000 (about $412,000,000) in export duties on nitrates.
[51] Buenos Aires, Rio, and São Paulo are the three larger cities.
[52] It is sometimes said that one hundred families rule Chile.
[53] A distinguished Chilean officer whose presence added greatly to
the pleasure of the trip was detailed to accompany us.
[54] Except when Spanish ships of war bombarded Valparaiso in 1866.
[55] The word _roto_ seems originally to have been a term of
disparagement; it meant 'a broken man.' Now it merely denotes one of
the poorer class, and is opposed to _pelucon_, one of the upper class
(literally a wig wearer).
[56] The Yaquis of Sonora in Northwestern Mexico have never been
subdued, but they are a small tribe dwelling in mountain fastnesses
difficult of access.
[57] This is the form of the name that was given to me at Temuco.
Others call them Moluche or Maluche.
[58] First part written in Chile, where he was fighting, in 1558, and
published in 1569.
[59]
Ἀλλ' ἀεὶ Ζεφυροῖο λιγυπνείοντας ἀήτας
Ὠκεανὸς ἀνίησιν ἀναψύχειν ἀνθρώπους.
--_Odyss._ IV.
[60] _Thuja gigantea._
[61] Many cattle are exported from Argentine to Chile, but these can
here, as in the passes of southern Chile, be driven over the top of the
ridge, though many now go by rail.
[62] An account of the ascent and of all this region will be found in
Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald's _High Andes_, the author of which was prevented
by illness from reaching the summit.
[63] This name is in the Andes usually applied to the sharp little
peaks of ice that stand up, like the pyramidal points of seracs, on the
surface of Andean glaciers, and it suits them better, because penitents
wear white garments. The similarity of form has however caused it to be
applied to these black towers also.
[64] It was first ascended by Mr. Vines in 1897. The measurements of
Aconcagua vary from 23,200 to 22,425 feet. Mercedario is given at
22,300 and Tupungato at 22,015.
[65] The finest representation I have ever seen is a twelfth-century
mosaic figure of Christ in the apse of the Norman cathedral at Cefalu
in Sicily.
[66] The distant view of Badrináth and Trisul from the heights above
Naini Tal in Kumaon is also quite as imposing as anything we saw in the
Andes.
[67] Whether the discovery of India was his original aim, a point
recently brought into question, there is no doubt that he thought after
his first voyage that he had found some part of eastern Asia.
[68] Unless Magellan had got farther to the west than the rest of the
narrative would imply, three days seems a short time for the boats to
proceed to the western opening and back again.
[69] Cape Horn was discovered in 1616 by Van Schouten and Le Maire
sailing from the East.
[70] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America._
[71] It is hardly necessary to refer for information regarding the
Fuegians to the classic book of Charles Darwin, the _Voyage of the
Beagle_, in which the genius for observation and speculation of that
great man was first made known to the world.
[72] _Fagus_ (or _Nothofagus_) _betuloides_, or _Fagus antarctica_.
[73] He is called Settaboth in the record of Sir Francis Drake's
voyage (_The World Encompassed_, p. 487, Hakluyt Society Edition). (I
take this reference from Robertson's edition of Pigafetta.) "Sycorax
my dam," "the foul witch Sycorax," does not appear in Pigafetta, and
comes from somewhere else: the name sounds Greek. As to Caliban and the
Patagonians, see the notes to Dr. H. H. Furness's monumental edition of
the _Tempest_, p. 379. Every one remembers Robert Browning's _Caliban
upon Setebos_, or _Natural Theology in the Island_. The Settaboth
mentioned in Drake's voyage is probably a mere repetition from Eden,
for the Indians to whom Fletcher (in narrating that voyage) refers
were encountered on the Chilean coast in lat. 38° S., a different set
of people altogether. Fletcher's account is in many points hardly
credible. See Barrow's _Life of Sir Francis Drake_, p. 121.
[74] The guanaco is the only large wild quadruped of these regions.
He belongs to the same genus (_Auchenia_) as the llama, alpaca, and
vicuña, but is bigger than any of them. Pigafetta describes him as
having "the head of a mule, the body of a camel, the feet of a stag,
and the tail of a horse."
[75] The steamers of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company began to run
through the Straits about 1840.
[76] The enormous herds of fur seals which existed a century ago in the
islands of South Georgia, the South Orkneys, and the South Shetlands
have vanished. 300,000 are said to have been killed within five years
in the South Shetlands alone.
[77] I reckon Oakland and Berkeley as, for this purpose, parts of San
Francisco.
[78] The population of the Republic is about 7,000,000, and that of
Buenos Aires 1,300,000.
[79] The English, adopting this term, talk of the rural parts of
Argentina as "the Camp," an expression which at first puzzles the
visitor.
[80] There were, in 1911, 30,000,000 cattle, 68,000,000 sheep, and
7,500,000 horses.
[81] The total amount of British capital invested in Argentine
railroads, tramways, banks, and land was, in 1910, £295,000,000.
In writing about a country which attracts the world chiefly by its
material development it is impossible to avoid figures, but I wish to
give the reader no more than are absolutely needed.
[82] There is, however, a small population of mixed Indian and colonial
stock in the plateau of the Andean northwest adjoining Bolivia.
[83] 844,000 were from Italy, 424,000 from Spain.
[84] Some remarks upon this obscure question will be found in Chapter
XCII of the author's _American Commonwealth_ (edition of 1910). The
problem is rather simpler here than in the United States because the
recently injected elements are here less various.
[85] I was told that many of the street police are Indians from the
north of the country.
[86] They have a mass of readers near at hand and a revenue from
advertisements comparable to those which are found in the United States
and Australia, but are not found in Spanish America outside Buenos
Aires.
Mr. F. Seebey states that, in 1903, 212 periodicals were published
in Buenos Aires in various languages or dialects, including Basque,
Catalan, and Genoese.
[87] The account of the origin of the red shirt given by Mr. G. M.
Trevelyan in his interesting book, _Garibaldi and the Defence of
Rome_, is not quite the same as that which I heard in Uruguay, but not
incompatible therewith.
[88] Such legal or quasi-legal questions have arisen several times in
Central America.
[89] This question is involved with that relating to the voyages, real
or alleged, of Americus Vespuccius in 1497, and is too intricate to be
discussed here.
[90] See Chapter XVI, _post_.
[91] Opposite the Montanvert at Chamouni.
[92] See page 368.
[93] The tops range from 4500 to 7000 feet.
[94] _Sequoia gigantea_ of the Mariposa and Calaveras groves.
[95] _Sequoia sempervirens._
[96] John White.
[97] Chapter XVI.
[98] How many Indians there are nobody knows, but the common (probably
exaggerated) estimate puts them at nearly 2,000,000, half of these
pagans in the Amazonian forests, while the mixed race is calculated at
1,700,000.
[99] Sir H. H. Johnson (_The Negro in the New World_) conjectures the
pure blacks at about 2,720,000 and the mulattoes and quadroons at about
5,600,000. The rest of the population, that which may be described as
white because it bears no conspicuous marks of any infusion of color,
may approach 8,000,000. The Indians and half-breeds (Indian and white)
would make up the rest of the non-European population. Of the pure
blacks, from 20,000 to 30,000, living on the northeast coast, are
either Mussulmans or heathen fetichists.
[100] M. Georges Clémenceau in his _South America of To-day_.
[101] Brazil would make a seventeenth, but it was in 1808 a possession
of Portugal. The three island republics, Cuba, Hayti, and Santo
Domingo, bring up the total number of independent Latin-American states
to twenty.
[102] Whether the same can be said of some of the Central American
republics may be doubted.
[103] See above, Chapter IX.
[104] Though, no doubt, there is between the inhabitants of southern
Mexico and their neighbours, the men of Guatemala and Honduras, no
marked difference, just as there is not much between the men of
Northern Peru and their neighbours in Ecuador.
[105] However, a North American friend tells me that he can usually
tell a Venezuelan from a Colombian.
[106] Steps have recently been taken for smoothing down this
controversy, and diplomatic relations between Chile and Peru seem
likely to be now resumed. (Note to edition of February, 1913.)
[107] Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the United States,
Belgium, Holland, and Portugal.
[108] The more usual estimates (_e.g._ that in the Statesman's Year
Book for 1912) give 19 per cent of pure Spaniards, 43 per cent
mestizos, and 38 per cent Indians, but enquiries made from many
well-informed people in Mexico led me to believe that the proportion of
Indians is much larger, and probably about that stated in the text.
[109] Brazil is believed to have nearly two millions of aborigines,
most of them savages, Argentina perhaps fifty thousand, Chile one
hundred twenty thousand (including the Fuegians). For the four northern
republics and for the five of Central America no figures exist, but the
bulk of their population, which may be roughly taken at nine millions,
is Indian, and pure whites constitute a small minority, which is
probably largest in Costa Rica, Colombia, and Panama.
[110] There are also eight or nine millions of negroes and mulattoes
(nearly all in Brazil).
[111] Chapters III-V.
[112] See Chapter V, p. 180.
[113] _Noticias Secretas de America_, p. 353. This remarkable book,
published by David Barry in 1826, quarto (Taylor, London), from a
manuscript which he obtained in Madrid, gives a frightful description
of the cruelties and oppressions practised on the Indians. It does not,
however, seem to have led to any efforts at reform. It is accepted
as authentic by good authorities. I owe the reference to the book of
Professor Bernard Moses, _South America on the Eve of Emancipation, The
Southern Colonies_.
[114] _Noticias Secretas_, _ut supra_, p. 343.
[115] Half the population of Paraguay perished in the war of the
younger Lopez, the third of the line of dictators that ruled the
country from 1818 to 1870.
[116] _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, quoted in Chapter IV.
[117] _Travels in Peru_, p. 305 _sqq._
[118] _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, p. 40 _sqq._ This learned
student of Indian customs thinks that the drinking may have originated
in the ceremonial offerings of chicha to the spirits. Its continuance
needs no explanation.
[119] There has been formed in Lima a society for the protection of the
Indians, but I could not learn that it has been able to do much in the
parts of Peru that lie far from the capital.
[120] The sense of membership in a concrete community (a Visible
Church) consisting of persons of whatever race who participate in
the same sacraments is stronger in the Roman than in the Protestant
churches; and as a member of a lower race who has been ordained a
priest is thereby raised to a position which is in a sense above that
of any layman, the race itself is raised in his person.
[121] An infusion of negro blood, sometimes met with in the coast towns
of Peru, is regarded with less favour than a like infusion of Indian
blood, for while the first negro ancestor must have been a slave, the
Indian ancestor may have been an Inca.
[122] A few years ago in northern Mexico a truck carrying a load of
dynamite for use at a mine was suddenly discovered to be on fire at a
village station. The risk was imminent, so the driver of a locomotive
engine picked the truck up and ran it away into the country at all the
speed he could put on. He bade the brakeman jump off and save himself,
adding, "I go to my death." When he had got a mile away, the dynamite
exploded. Every window in the village was broken, and he was blown to
atoms, but the inhabitants were saved. He was a pure-blooded Indian.
[123] Some of these now come south to work on Argentine farms.
[124] Though doubt has lately been thrown upon the letter of Toscanelli
and upon the received belief that it was India that Columbus was
seeking, he clearly believed on his return to Spain that it was India
he had found.
[125] The question as to the truth of Amerigo Vespucci's account of his
voyages, and especially of the first one (1497) in which he claimed to
have discovered a new land 1000 leagues west southwest of the Canary
Islands is still the subject of controversy among learned men, but the
prevalent opinion seems to be that the account is unworthy of credence.
The letters were translated into Latin and ran through several editions.
The name "Americus, Amerigo" is an Italianized form of Amalrich, a name
borne by some of the Gothic kings mentioned by Jordanes, and also by
two of the Latin kings of Jerusalem in the twelfth century. It is the
German Emeric and the French Amaury.
[126] Each has, moreover, other currents of somewhat less climatic
importance: the Japan current on the Pacific and the Arctic current on
the Atlantic coast of North America, as well as the equatorial current
on a part of the east coast of South America.
[127] Teutonic may appear to be no satisfactory term, considering not
only the French-speaking population of eastern Canada, but also the
large Celtic, Italic, and Slavonic elements within the United States.
Nevertheless, the general social type of that country and of Canada is
Teutonic, as are also their institutions and their language.
[128] Although one-fifth of the produce was, as a rule, transmitted to
the government at home.
[129] See as to Peru, which was only the central part of that Empire,
the figure of 8,000,000, given for 1575, after the great slaughter of
the Spanish Conquest (pp. 162-163).
[130] Had the Slave States succeeded in dissociating themselves from
the northern and western Free States in the Civil War of 1861-1865,
there would have been at least three. It may be suggested that if there
had been neither steamships nor railroads, the Pacific slope of North
America (California, Oregon, and Washington) might possibly have become
the home of yet another independent nation.
[131] Chapter XII.
[132] There are no titles of nobility in use in Latin America, except
in Brazil, where a very few families still have the titles of Viscount
and Baron.
[133] One question exists which might possibly create friction between
Argentina and Brazil, but there is reason to believe that any collision
will be avoided.
[134] One is told, but I had no means of verifying the statement, that
Scotchmen and Irishmen and Germans get on rather better with the Latin
Americans.
[135] In a remarkable speech made in New York in 1909, a speech which
shewed his comprehension of the good points of Spanish-American
character, Mr. Root deplored the fact that the North American press
was apt to indulge in criticisms of Spanish Americans displeasing to
the latter, the effect of which their authors, accustomed to criticise
their own fellow-countrymen freely, did not realize.
[136] In some of the colonies the revolt was at first rather on behalf
of the Spanish king against the Napoleonic government in Spain, but the
movement everywhere soon passed into one for independence.
[137] Mr. Hiram Bingham in _Across South America_, published in
1911. Mr. Bingham adds in the same connection: "The number of 'North
Americans' in Buenos Aires is very small. While we have been slowly
waking up to the fact that South America is something more than 'a
land of revolutions and fevers,' our German cousins have entered the
field on all sides. The Germans in southern Brazil are a negligible
factor in international affairs, but the well-educated young German
who is being sent out to capture South America commercially is a power
to be reckoned with. He is going to damage England more truly than
dreadnoughts or airships." See also the judicious remarks of Mr. Albert
Hale in his book, _The South Americans_, pp. 303-309.
[138] The idea of bringing all American republics together in
congresses to discuss matters of common interest, was started by
Bolivar with the view of organizing joint resistance to any action
by the Holy Alliance against the new republics. At his instance such
a gathering met at Panama in 1826. Delegates met again in 1883 at
Caracas and Buenos Aires, but accomplished nothing. In 1899 a more
largely attended gathering assembled at Washington, the chief result
of which was the establishment there of an institution, now called the
Pan-American Union, which under its zealous and energetic director
collects, publishes, and distributes information, chiefly statistical
and commercial, regarding the various republics. Similar congresses
have been subsequently held at Mexico, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos
Aires, at which friendly sentiments have been interchanged, but no
encouragement has been given to suggestions proceeding from the United
States for reciprocal "Pan-American" trade preferences.
[139] In the days when Louis Napoleon was trying to establish for
France a hegemony over the Romance-speaking peoples of Europe, the
days when his _Life of Julius Cæsar_ was published and his expedition
to Mexico despatched, this term first came into common use. It was the
fashion for his literary court to represent the French people as the
heirs of ancient Rome, the modern perpetuator of her spirit and her
greatness. Yet in reality the character and the conduct of the English
government during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries bear a closer
resemblance than ever did the French, both in their strong and in their
weak points, to the government of the Roman republic.
[140] Cortes tortured him to compel the disclosure of treasure.
[141] Though Francia had been created dictator for life.
[142] The wild tribal Indians, _Indios bravos_, have, of course, no
votes.
[143] The Magyars of Hungary, the Finns of Finland, and the Basques of
the western Pyrenees.
[144] Dr. Palacios in his interesting book _Raza Chilena_.
[145] Remembering Switzerland with its three languages, one cannot make
the proposition absolute. But in Switzerland the three races are, as
respects intelligence and education, practically on a level, whereas in
South America the Indians stand far below.
[146] This was ceasing, under the rule of Diaz, to be true of Mexico.
[147] Though much more ought to have been done towards the solution of
land questions and for the promotion of education. [Mexico seems to
have now relapsed into a condition as bad as that from which Juarez and
Diaz rescued her. Note to edition of 1914.]
[148] There would seem to have been more in Europe within the last
fifty years than in any preceding period of equal length since the
seventeenth century.
[149] The small cultivator in Argentina is under this disadvantage that
a severe drought or a swarm of locusts may ruin him, whereas the large
farmer with more capital can bear the loss of one season's crop.
[150] This is Manaos in Brazilian territory. Higher up, in Peruvian, is
the smaller town of Iquitos. Ocean-going steamers ply as far as Manaos.
[151] See _ante_, p. 76. The evil is widespread and horrible.
[152] I include English, Dutch, and French Guiana.
[153] In Victoria the annual rate of increase per cent of population
which in 1871 was 3.07 per cent was in 1901 only .48 per cent. In New
South Wales it was in 1871, 3.7 per cent, in 1901, 1.8 per cent.
[154] The Italians are chiefly in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern
Brazil.
[155] There are also some East Indian coolies in Guiana, perhaps
100,000.
[156] The negroes are almost all in Brazil, but a few exist on the
coasts of Peru, Colombia, Panama, and Venezuela.
[157] The United States census returns do not attempt to discriminate
between mulattoes, quadroons, and octoroons; all are reckoned as
coloured; and no doubt a certain number of quadroons and octoroons pass
as white.
[158] The country which has of late years produced most good poetry is,
I believe, Colombia. Argentine writers have distinguished themselves
chiefly in the sphere of theoretical jurisprudence and international
law.
[159] One is told that the European books most popular among the few
who approach abstract subjects are those of Mr. Herbert Spencer, whose
influence was always greater in the South European countries and in
Russia than in England or the United States. Those few are unwilling
to believe that he is not deemed in his own country to be a great
philosopher.
Transcribers' Notes:
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not
changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.
Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.
Some instances of "Argentine" perhaps should be "Argentina"; none were
changed here.
"de iure" was printed that way twice.
Text uses both "Musulman" and "Mussulman", "fetish" and "fetich".
Index was minimally checked for accuracy of page references and
consistency with spellings in referenced pages.
Page 154: "or fly clamping them" likely is a misprint for "by".
Page 255: "Märjelen See" was printed that way, not as "Märjelensee".
Page 258: The anchor for footnote 62 (originally "1") was missing from
this and several other editions of the book, but was inserted by the
Transcriber based on the context of the text.
Page 330: "pastural" was printed that way. The book uses "pastoral"
several times, but "pastural" may be intentional in this case, and has
not been changed.
Page 338: "bought back" probably should be "brought".
Transliteration of Greek text in Footnote 59:
All aei Zephuroio ligupneiontas aêtas
Ôkeanos aniêsin anapsuchein anthrôpous.