CHAPTER XVI

SOME REFLECTIONS AND FORECASTS

Whether it is well to rejoice that the population of our planet has

grown so fast during the last century, even as the inhabitants of a

city rejoice when a decennial census reveals a rapid growth in their

city, is a question which may be deemed a branch of the larger one

whether life is worth living. The fact, however, being unquestionable,

raises a practical question. If the present rate of growth should

continue for a few centuries, there presently will be little room left

on the planet. What will then happen? During the nineteenth century

the surface of the earth has been explored sufficiently to enable us

to know how much of it is available for the production of food. Of

that part which was available and unused in 1800 a great deal had

been settled by 1900. In Europe there is no more land to be occupied,

because the waste spaces of southern Russia have now been almost filled

by settlers from the rest of that country. In the temperate parts of

Asia, though there has been considerable Russian immigration into

western Siberia and considerable Chinese immigration into Manchuria,

there still remain in those countries large tracts unoccupied and not

too dry for cultivation. In Australia it is still doubtful how much

of the land whose aridity has discouraged settlement can be turned to

account either for tillage or for pasture. In North America the immense

rush to the West, which began after 1830 with the building of railways,

has now filled nearly the whole of the United States, and a very large

part of Canada, so that another forty or fifty years may see the

country filled up as far as the frozen north. In Africa there are parts

of Tunisia and Algeria which irrigation might reclaim, there are parts

of Morocco which could support a larger population than now dwells in

them, and there is also a limited highland area on the eastern side of

the continent fit to be inhabited by men of European stock. The rest,

including not only the Sahara, but most of the country south of the

Tropic of Capricorn, is either arid desert, or else so hot and humid

that it must be given up to the black races, who have so far shewn no

capacity for settled industry when left to themselves. Thus, if we omit

the tropical countries inhabited by savage peoples (central Africa and

the islands of southeastern Asia), it will appear that, should the

present increase of the civilized peoples be maintained, the rest of

the world will not suffice for their agricultural expansion for more

than a short period, that is to say, a period shorter than the four

centuries which have elapsed since the outward movement of the European

peoples began with the discovery of the New World.

What then of South America? Before dealing with it, let me advert to

two considerations which may modify the conclusions suggested by any

review of the total area now available to meet a continued growth of

population.

May not intensive cultivation and the further developments of chemical

science greatly increase the food-producing power of lands already

occupied? Doubtless they may. They are doing so already. But such an

increase cannot be expected to go on indefinitely. The urgency of the

problem may be postponed, but the problem will remain ahead of us.

May not the rate of increase of the world's population decline, and

perhaps go on declining until an equilibrium between that increase and

food production has been reached? This is possible. Observations made

during the last thirty years have already thrown grave doubts upon

the propositions advanced by Malthus three generations ago which were

for a long time taken as irrefragable. That the signs of decreasing

birth-rate are so far visible only among some of the most advanced

peoples is not a cheering circumstance, for what we must desire in

the interests of mankind at large is that the more highly civilized

races should increase faster than the more backward, so as to enable

the former to prevail not merely by force, but by numbers and amicable

influence. All these considerations, however, regarding birth-rate are

still too uncertain to be allowed to affect any enquiries regarding

future food supply and the regions from which it is to come. Whatever

light the next few decades may throw upon the former question, the

latter deserves to be investigated as a subject of growing significance.

And now we may return to South America, the only continent containing

both a large temperate and a large tropical area capable of cultivation

which still remains greatly underpeopled. It is, therefore, the chief

resource to which the overpeopled countries may look as providing a

field for their emigration, and to which the world at large may look

as capable of reinforcing its food supply. That it has not been sooner

occupied is due partly to the political disorders which have given it a

bad name, partly to its being less accessible than North America. Both

these adverse conditions no longer apply to its temperate regions.

Considered as a field for emigration, South America may be divided

into three sections. There are, first, the tropical and forest-covered

regions of Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, and eastern Brazil; secondly,

the temperate and grassy or wooded regions of Argentina, Uruguay, and

southern Brazil outside the tropics; and lastly, the great central

plain of the Amazon and its tributaries which the Brazilians call the

Selvas (woods). I exclude altogether the mountainous parts of Ecuador,

Peru, and Bolivia, because they are already as well inhabited as they

deserve to be. A very small part of them is fit for stock or for

agriculture, and the climatic conditions (except in a few valleys)

are repellent to persons not accustomed to great altitudes. Not even

Italians can be expected to cultivate fields twelve thousand feet above

sea-level.

The other three sections just mentioned are much underpeopled. The

first is better fitted for negro or Indian labour than for that of

whites, yet there are many parts of it where men of south European

stock can work in the open air and thrive. In an area of about two

millions of square miles, it has about seven and a half million

inhabitants, of whom a small minority are pure whites, the rest Indians

or negroes or mixed. Four or five times that number could easily find

accommodation.

The second section is the one pre-eminently fitted to receive white

men. Its area may be roughly conjectured at a million and a half of

square miles, but so much of the Argentine part of it is desert that

it would not be safe to reckon more than two-thirds of it as available

for settlement. As there are now only twelve millions of people in this

million of square miles, there is evidently plenty of room for more.

This is the part of South America which has drawn most immigrants

during the last sixty years, southern Brazil leading the way, Argentina

and Uruguay following. It is also the region which will chiefly

continue to attract Europeans for many years to come.

In Argentina and most of Uruguay, as in the prairie states of North

America and the Canadian Northwest, there are no trees to be felled, so

the land, extremely fertile, can be brought under crops immediately.

The estates are at present large, but if there were settlers with

enough capital to buy small lots, these could soon be had, and already

some Italians are establishing themselves as peasant cultivators.[149]

It is a country where the labour is at present small in proportion

to the area utilized, partly because much of the land is in pasture,

partly because its flatness makes the use of agricultural machinery

specially easy, partly because the harvests are largely reaped by

migratory Europeans who return home for part of the year. Nevertheless,

after making all allowances, both Argentina and the other tracts I

have referred to are capable, supposing immigration to continue at

the present rate, of providing work and homes for immigrants for at

least sixty or seventy years to come. Locusts are said to destroy the

crop once in three or four years, but this plague is deemed likely

to diminish as settlement and civilization extend northwards to the

regions whence it now comes. The estimate that before the end of the

century Argentina may have fifty, Uruguay ten, and southern Brazil

thirty millions of people (assuming the birth-rate to be maintained)

need not seem extravagant to anyone who knows how rapidly settlement

has advanced in North America and who realizes that before long the

stream of agricultural immigration will cease to flow into the United

States and may slacken in its flow towards Canada.

The cultivable areas of Chile are relatively small; and the Chileans

themselves seem to think they need more land for their national

development. To one who travels through southern Chile there seems,

however, to be still room for a greatly increased population in its

well-watered valleys, which enjoy a delightful climate. The future of

these four countries is assured, so far as the gifts of nature can

assure it. The world will always want what they produce.

Far more doubtful is the future of the third section, the Selvas, or

forest-covered Amazonian plain. It includes nearly all the western half

of Brazil, and the eastern parts of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. An

estimate of its area at 2,300,000 square miles, including the basin of

the Tocantins river, might not be extravagant. It is an almost absolute

level 1200 miles long, from north to south, and 1500 wide. Those parts

which lie along the great river and its larger tributaries are so low

that these rivers when they rise in the rainy season spread out their

waters for from sixty to eighty miles or more on each side, and immense

stretches of country not actually flooded become impassable morasses.

But away back from the rivers there are higher grounds, flat, but

raised sufficiently to be above the inundations; and on its western

margin the great plain is bordered by a stretch of undulating country

before the foot of the Andes is reached. All the country, whether level

or undulating, is covered with forest. The trees grow so close that

there is no way of travelling except by boat along the streams. Intense

heat and abundant moisture combine to make vegetation so profuse and

rank that ground cleared of trees is, after three or four years,

covered thick again.

In this vast area there are, except in a few trading stations along

the river, only one of them a considerable town,[150] practically no

inhabitants, perhaps not a human being to a square mile. The few and

scattered inhabitants outside these stations are Indians, nearly all

savages, most of them heathens. Some are warlike, and skilful in the

use of their bows and of the long blow pipe from which they discharge

poisoned darts, but the greater number are timid and feeble, an easy

prey to the rubber gatherers, who have in some places shewn themselves

more cruel than the wildest Indian.[151] Here and there in Peru and

Bolivia there are a few cultivated districts in the undulating ground

along the base of the Andes, where some sugar, coffee, and cocoa are

raised. But the only product of any commercial importance is rubber,

collected from several kinds of trees, and exported in vast quantities

down the tributary rivers into the Amazon and thence to the sea. The

whole region, however, appears to be of extreme fertility, and to this

the size of the trees, as well as the profusion of the vegetation,

bears witness. Most of it is covered with vegetable soil accumulated

during many thousands of years, and has never been touched by human

hand. As many of the woods are valuable, there might be a considerable

trade in timber, but the cost of getting out great logs is practically

prohibitive, for the trees are of so many different kinds that it is

hard to obtain a large supply of the same kind on any given area, and

there has hitherto been no means of transport, except by water.

Can these Amazonian Selvas, which form the largest unoccupied fertile

space on the earth's surface, be reclaimed for the service of man?

This question is not a practical one for our generation, and I mention

it only because it raises an interesting problem, the solution of which

will one day be attempted, since so vast and so fertile an area cannot

be left forever useless. Since men have begun to make railways through

mountains and deserts, and to build bridges across arms of the sea like

the Firth of Forth, and most of all since the cutting of the Panama

Canal, it has become an accepted doctrine that every work is only a

question of cost.

If ever, when the world is fuller than it is now, it becomes worth

while to attempt the reclamation of this vast region, the process would

probably begin by placing colonists on the more elevated grounds above

the annual inundation and setting them to clear away the wood and

cultivate the soil. Hard work would be needed to keep down the efforts

of Nature to hold her own against man by her tremendous vegetative

power, but those who know the country believe that this could be done,

and that the difficulties of transport through the lower parts of

the forest to the banks of navigable streams might also be overcome.

Hundreds of thousands of square miles might be in this way rendered

habitable and cultivable, assuming that capital and the proper kind

of labour could be obtained. To reclaim the lower land along the banks

of the rivers by constructing embankments or levees like those along

the lower Mississippi would be a more arduous undertaking, and might

involve an expenditure disproportionate to the results.

Whence would come the capital? If the country belonged to some great

and wealthy nation, in which there were many enterprising men seeking

employment for their wealth, the thing might be attempted on a great

scale, perhaps even by the nation itself. Whether capitalists from

other countries will embark on such an enterprise, which could hardly

be carried out except by the aid of a government, is doubtful. If

attempted at all, it must be on a large scale, for such gradual

colonization by settlers coming in small groups, as would be the

natural process in temperate regions, is scarcely possible in a country

where man has so powerful a nature to overcome.

Supposing the capital provided, the question of labour would remain.

Who would do the work? and when the work was done, who would inhabit

and cultivate the lands reclaimed? Thirty years ago the fear of

tropical diseases would have made these regions seem impossible for

white men, even as foremen or overseers. To-day the discovery that

insects are the chief poison carriers of disease has reduced our fears.

But to-day it still remains doubtful whether the men of any European

race can retain health and vigour in a climate so moist and so hot, and

so far away from sea or mountain breezes, as are the central parts of

the Selvas. It is at any rate unlikely that they could do continuous

open-air work there. If white men cannot be employed, what other labour

would be available? As the native Indians are too few and too feeble to

be worth regarding, it would be necessary to bring in some race native

to the tropics which had already formed habits of steady industry. If

the world were to-day what it was a century ago, this would be a simple

matter. Negroes would be kidnapped in Africa and taken up the rivers

to work under white or mulatto overseers. Nowadays, compulsion being

impossible, persuasion alone remains. Negroes abound on the east side

of Brazil, but they have plenty of land there and are masters of the

situation, seeing that the planters are more eager to get them than

they are to work for the planters. Nowhere in South America is there a

problem of the unemployed. Whether Chinese or Indian coolies could be

brought into the Selvas, and whether if brought they would remain under

the control of the white employers who had imported them, are questions

which may one day arise. Nothing is being done now to exploit these

regions except as sources of wild rubber supply. But it seems certain

that coming generations will endeavour to turn to the service of man

the largest unused piece of productive soil that remains anywhere on

the earth's surface.

Leaving this forest wilderness out of account, and confining our view

to the near future, can any estimate be made of the probable growth of

population in South America generally, and of the total it may reach

by the end of the present century?

As respects the temperate regions, there exist some data for a

conjecture: Should the influx of immigrants belonging, as do the

Italians, to a prolific stock be maintained, the countries south of

the Tropic of Capricorn may in A.D. 2000 contain at least one hundred

millions of people.

As respects the equatorial regions, which now receive hardly any

immigrants and in which the natural growth of population is slow,

no such data exist. Considering, however, the material development

which is going on in some, and may be expected in all, of them, they

also may probably increase in population which would bring them from

twenty-eight up to at least forty millions.[152] Were this to happen,

the continent would have by A.D. 2000 a population not far short of

one hundred and fifty millions. At present, with only about forty-five

millions, it has much less than half the population of North America,

now about one hundred and twenty millions. The rapid growth of North

America, likely to continue for two generations at least, may make the

proportion between the two much the same in A.D. 2000 as it is to-day.

All such speculations are, however, subject to the possibility that

the birth-rate, either in the temperate regions, or generally, may

decrease. Such a decrease has, as respects Australia, thrown out the

calculations made forty or fifty years ago.[153]

More important than the quantity of a population is its quality. Any

enquiry as to what that of the South American countries will be when

they are tolerably well filled up at the end of the present century can

profitably address itself to one point only, viz. the several races and

their relations to one another. There are now three races, Whites (of

Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian origin),[154] Indians, of many tribes

speaking different languages, and Negroes. A very rough estimate of

the racial elements in the whole continent[155] might give some such

results as these:--

Whites, 15,000,000 (more than half of them in Argentina and Uruguay).

Indians, 8,000,000.

Negroes,[156] 3,000,000.

Mixed whites and Indians (mestizos), 13,000,000.

Mixed whites and negroes (mulattoes and quadroons), 5,700,000.

Mixed negroes and Indians (zambos) (chiefly in Brazil) perhaps 300,000.

The reader will understand that these figures, based partly on a

comparison of those given in various books and partly on enquiries

addressed to competent observers, are given as only a rough

approximation to the facts. There are no data for any exact estimate,

and the difficulty of drawing any line between those who ought to be

classed as pure whites and those who ought to be classed as mestizos or

mulattoes, would be insuperable even if a regular and careful census

were taken.[157] In arriving at this conjectural estimate, those who

have three-fourths or more of white blood are counted as whites, those

who have less than three-fourths as mestizos, or mulattoes.

If these figures are somewhere near the truth it will be seen that

if we deduct 8,000,000, representing the two purely white republics

of Argentina and Uruguay, we shall find that in the other Spanish

republics, taken together, the mestizo element is much larger, and the

Indian element somewhat larger than the white element. To explain the

practical significance of these figures let me repeat what was said in

an earlier chapter, that the mestizos and whites are, for political and

social purposes, practically one class and that the ruling class, the

Indians being passive, and in a political sense outside the nation.

Even in Paraguay, an almost purely Indian state, the comparatively few

mestizos dominate politically. In Brazil it is the whites who rule, but

many of them are tinged with negro, fewer with Indian, blood.

Four questions may be asked regarding the racial future:--

1. Which of the races is or are increasing?

2. Is the intermingling of races likely to continue?

3. Which type predominates in persons of mixed race?

4. What is likely to be the ultimate outcome of the mixture of races?

1. There are no official figures supplying an answer to this question

as regards the northern and the Andean republics; but the traveller

receives the impression that the Indians are more prolific than the

whites, though their neglect of sanitary conditions gives a high

death-rate, especially among children. It is rare to see an old man

among them. If either they or the mestizos are now increasing, it is

at no rapid rate. The pure whites in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern

Brazil are certainly increasing, and thus the proportion of white to

other blood in the continent as a whole is growing.

2. Everything points to a continuance of the process of race mixture.

It is the rule in all parts of the world, except where religion or

a strong feeling of race antagonism (such as exists in the United

States) prevents it. Neither of these hindrances exists in South

America. In Peru and Bolivia, however, the process is so slow that it

may be centuries before the white and aboriginal elements have been so

completely commingled as to form one race, and leave no pure Indians

remaining.

3. In the mixed race (mestizo or mulatto) the white element seems

usually to predominate. I do not state this as a physiological fact. It

may or may not be so; nobody seems to have investigated the matter.

But it is true as a social fact; that is to say, the mestizo deems

himself a white, wishes to be a white, tries to live and think as a

white, and is practically recognized by others as a white. This is not

equally true of the negro, because he is, physically regarded, further

off the white than is the Indian. But in Brazil, when the negro is able

to take his stand, so far as education and property go, beside the

white, he too thinks and acts like a white man and is so treated.

4. The facts just stated make it probable that the nations likely

to emerge when the process of fusion is complete, perhaps at a very

distant date, will be white much more than Indian nations. Blood is

only one factor, and not the most important factor, in the making

of men. Environment and the influence of the reigning intellectual

type count for more. In the United States the child of the Polish

or Rouman or Italian immigrant grows up as an American. He may be a

more emotional and impulsive, a more violent or more criminal, a more

artistic and sensitive American; but the stamp of the new country is

on him. So apparently will it be, so at any rate it has been, with the

Indian. Tinged however slightly by the blood of the higher race, he

will become a Spanish-speaking man of the colonial kind, which differs

from the European kind at least as much as an English-speaking North

American differs from an Englishman. These mixed nations will, however,

stand nearer, intellectually and socially, to the South European group

of nations than to any other white peoples.

It may seem natural to assume that such mixed nations will, in respect

of their aboriginal blood, be inferior to their European relatives. But

this is a mere assumption. No one has yet investigated scientifically

the results of race fusion. History throws little light on the subject,

because wherever there has been a mixture of races there have been also

concomitant circumstances influencing the people who are the product

of the mixture which have made it hard to determine whether their

deterioration (or improvement) is due to this or to some other cause.

So in these countries there may be reservoirs of dormant strength in

the ancient native races waiting to be opened by conditions better

than fortune has given them since the days of the Conquest. Who knows

whether when the fusion is complete the Bolivian of two or three

centuries hence, who will be nine-tenths, or the Paraguayan, who will

be nineteen-twentieths, of Indian blood, will be inferior to his

neighbours with a smaller aboriginal infusion? The Chilean peasant

to-day, who is at least half Indian, is not inferior to the Argentine

peasant, who is almost pure white.

In speaking of the future South American type as likely to be in the

main "Spanish-colonial," I do not suggest that it will be uniform.

Already there are variations in character between the peoples of the

several republics; and these are more likely to be accentuated than to

disappear. The different extent to which aboriginal elements become

absorbed, and the differences in those aboriginal elements themselves,

will be among the factors which will produce what may be called

national "sub-types" of character. But apart from such causes it seems

to be a general--I will not say universal--law of social growth that an

independent political community, even if originally the same in race,

religion, and habits as its neighbours, tends to draw apart from them,

and to form an individuality of its own, creating a national type and

impressing that type upon its members.

Were there any forces compelling these various republics to close

political alliances, such as the fear of attacks by a Power outside

their continent, they might suppress their jealousies and ally

themselves close with one another and realize better than they do now

all that they have in common. But they are not, and are not likely to

be, so threatened. Holland, France, and England all at one time meddled

in South America, but all three, while each retaining a foothold in

Guiana, have long ago drawn apart and left Latin America to itself.

Politically its republics live in a little world of their own; they

have their own alliances, their own wars and bitternesses, with which

strangers do not intermeddle. Of wars they have had, since 1825, their

full share; nor is the danger of war yet extinct. No states seem likely

to unite with one another of their own free will, but it is possible

that smaller states may be annexed by or partitioned among some of

the larger ones, their weakness and internal disorders furnishing to

powerful neighbours, as in the famous case of the partition of Poland,

at once the temptation and the pretext.

As the Old World no longer interferes with the South American states,

so they are unlikely to interfere with the Old World. They have never

proclaimed any such self-denying ordinance, and have not hitherto

been strong enough to make it seem needed. But even if any among them

becomes a first-class power, small is the chance that it can acquire

interests in other parts of the globe that would collide with those

of other nations. Were Colombia and Venezuela strong states owning

strong navies, there might be Caribbean questions to embroil them with

neighbouring maritime states. But the three leading powers of South

America belong to its southern half, and there are now no unoccupied

countries left to be acquired as colonies.

To what has been said in a preceding chapter regarding the internal

political conditions and political prospects of the South American

republics little need here be added. He who studies their history

since Independence, with a knowledge of what they were when it was

assured in A.D. 1825, will find nothing surprising in the storms that

have buffeted them, nor anything to discourage a hope that they may

eventually reach a smoother sea. The moral of that history is that

nations have to be trained to self-government, just as individual men

have to be trained to every work requiring patience and skill. The

error into which the victorious colonists fell when they expected

freedom and prosperity to follow at once on their deliverance from

Spain was not their error only. It was shared by their friends in

Europe and even more fully by their friends in North America. The

latter had succeeded in establishing efficient state governments and

thereafter an efficient federal government. They attributed this partly

to liberty, _i.e._ to their having broken their tie with a European

monarchy, partly to the benign influences of a new Continent, free

from the evil traditions of the Old World. Many among them made the

mistake, which no intelligent North American makes now, of thinking

that their history began in 1776, the mistake of ignoring the centuries

during which their ancestors had been learning the principles of

self-government in England and the century and a half during which they

had been putting those principles into practice in the older colonies.

In this state of mind and attaching a magic significance to the name

of a republic, the people of the United States did not see why Spanish

America, which had imitated them in rejecting a European king and

was placed, like them, in a new land, should not repeat their happy

experiences. Liberal enthusiasts in England and France and Italy were

scarcely less sanguine. None of them realized that Spanish America

belonged, in 1825, to an age which England and North America had long

left behind. Most of the land was wilder than England or Germany had

been in the twelfth century, a thin population, no roads, settlements

scattered here and there in forests or deserts. The peasantry were

further back than those of western Europe in the fifteenth century, not

merely rude and ignorant, but speaking native languages and soaked in

primeval superstitions. The upper class were further back than those of

Europe in the seventeenth century, for few of them had received any

sort of higher education and none of them had any personal knowledge

of free institutions, or any experience in civil administration. Thus

both classes wanted the foundation on which free governments must be

erected. The humbler class did not know and could not know how to

elect representatives or supervise those whom they elected. The upper

class did not know how to legislate or govern. They tried to erect a

superstructure of complicated political institutions when there was no

solid foundation to build on, when only a few of the choicest minds

knew what order meant and what liberty meant and what was the relation

between the two. Such experiments were foredoomed to failure.

The troubles of these ninety years have, accordingly, nothing in them

that need dishearten either any friend of Spanish America or any friend

of constitutional freedom. The person who ought to reconsider his

position is the man who holds that any group of human beings called

"the people" are always right, that the best and sufficient way to fit

men for political power is to give it to them, and that the name of

Republic has the talismanic gift of imparting virtue and wisdom to the

community which adopts it. The mistaking of names for things is an old

error, and has sometimes proved a fatal one.

Yet there was something noble in the over-sanguine confidence of the

North American and European liberals, as well as of some of the finest

minds among the South Americans themselves when they expected freedom

to work miracles. The ideal of liberty that these men set up, though

rarely realized, has never been lost. Servility and obscurantism have

never resumed their old sway in South America. And as it is true that

men need to be trained to self-government, so it is also true that

men never become fit for the work till they try it. The ninety years

of turmoil have not been altogether wasted. Two real constitutional

republics have already emerged from it and their example cannot but

tell on those others who, oppressed by less favourable conditions,

still lag behind. That sort of progress which consists in getting rid

of the old ideas and old habits of thinking and acting and replacing

them by better ones must needs be a slow process. Something has already

been done, and the closer and more frequent contact with Europe and

North America into which these Spanish-American states are being

brought ought to accelerate the process. So ought the additional

motives for desiring order which the growth of material prosperity

brings with it. Already the presence of foreigners imposes a certain

check, and their property is generally respected in revolutions. The

more the citizens acquire capital and themselves enter on commercial

undertakings, and form business habits, and get to look at things with

a practical eye, the stronger and more general will grow the public

sentiment that insists on replacing the reign of force by the reign of

law. When force has been eliminated, the task of making governments

pure and rooting out fraudulent methods will become less difficult.

It is a fair conclusion from European history that violence is, of

all the evils that afflict a state, the evil which must be first

extinguished. In England, a period of corruption set in after the great

Civil War had ended, and the forms of constitutional government were

often grossly perverted, but corruption and perversions ultimately

disappeared with the growth of a higher sentiment.

Those South American states which have a large aboriginal population,

even if they cannot become--and is it desirable that with such a

population they should become?--democracies of the modern type, may at

least try to secure order and such material prosperity as will bring

them into closer touch with the outer world, and enable their peoples

to learn, and be influenced by, the ideas and the methods of government

that prevail among the great nations.

Intellectual and social progress were both in the ancient world

and in the Middle Ages largely due to the reciprocal influences of

nations on one another. As the want of these influences retarded the

movement towards civilization of the Peruvians and Mexicans before the

Conquest, so the isolation of the Spanish Americans has retarded their

development ever since. They stood almost entirely outside the current

of European thought and had little personal contact with Europeans

till English and German merchants and English railway men, and North

American mining engineers began to come among them from about 1860

onwards, and till somewhat later, the wealthy Argentines and Brazilians

found their way to Paris. Although this contact has brought capital

in its train, and given a start to material development, it has been

a force rather among the people than of the people. It comes from

without and is pumped into them like oxygen from a tube. It touches

only one section of the inhabitants, and one side of their life. It

is teaching them business methods and all that is therein implied,

but it affects them only slightly on the literary, or scientific, or

artistic side. This is of course less true of countries like Argentina

and Chile than of the smaller northern republics, yet even in the

former it is material interests that are dominant. This is, no doubt,

in our day true of all European countries as well as of North America.

In Europe, however, and also in the United States and Canada, the

number of men who occupy themselves with science and letters is far

larger in proportion to the population than it is in the South American

countries, and the provision made for higher education incomparably

more ample. Argentina has, indeed, not only the University of Buenos

Aires, already staffed by able and energetic teachers, but the older

and more ecclesiastically coloured University of Cordova and the new

University of La Plata and its excellent military school, as Chile

has its university in Santiago, and as Uruguay has the University

of Montevideo. But these stand almost alone. Isolation, as well as

poverty, has been a cause of the weakness of these organs of national

life, a deficiency which order and prosperity ought presently to remove

in other states as they have in Argentina.

One cause of the isolation I have referred to is found in the fact

that there has been comparatively little literary production during

the last two centuries in the language which these nations speak.

Spanish is no doubt what the Germans call a "World Speech." It is now

used by sixty millions of people in the New World as well as by twenty

millions in Old Spain. But Old Spain never supplied to her colonies

through books anything approaching the volume of that perennial stream

of instruction and stimulation which English-speaking writers have for

nearly four centuries supplied to those who can read English all over

the world, and which France has likewise supplied to all who can read

her language. In South America, men now learn French in increasing

numbers, but they are still a small percentage of the educated

population of Spanish America.

Of the eight or nine millions of people in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia,

and Paraguay probably one-half are not only illiterate, but cannot

speak even Spanish. These facts constitute no reproach on the peoples

of these states. They are a result of the circumstances attending

the Conquest in the sixteenth century and of the way in which Spain

thereafter administered her colonial empire.

That political conditions will improve during the next century seems

altogether probable, and although social advance must be slow,

especially where the native population is very large, political

progress is sometimes unexpectedly rapid. To anyone observing England

during the Wars of the Roses civil strife might have seemed so

ingrained a habit as to be likely to last for generations. Yet after

the accession of the first Tudor there were only a few slight troubles

down till 1641, when a really great issue appeared which had to be

fought out and was fought out within four years. So in our own days we

have seen a new country, Bulgaria, as soon as it was delivered from a

foreign despotism, step forward towards settled government with a firm

tread which surprised all Europe. Democracy in the North American sense

may be still far distant, but a settled government, maintaining order,

giving opportunities for educational and social as well as material

improvement, and responsible to the opinion of the more educated

classes, may be much nearer than the never-ending, still beginning,

troubles of the last ninety years have led most Europeans to expect.

To forecast what one may call the intellectually creative future of

the Spanish-Americans is far more difficult. Considering themselves

not Spaniards, but a new people, or peoples, they hold that views or

predictions about them based on the history and tendencies of Spaniards

are beside the mark. Nevertheless, as the other race factors--the

quality of the aboriginal element and the results of an intermingling

of the aboriginal with the Spanish colonial stock--are obscure, it is

only in the Spanish element that any sort of basis for speculation can

be found. Now the Spanish, or so-called Iberian, race, more or less

Latinized during the ages of Roman dominion, and slightly Teutonized by

the Germanic invasions of the fifth century, has been always a strong

race. It was strong when it fought against Rome, and strong when it

resisted the Moors in its mountain fastnesses and drove them step by

step backwards, and ultimately out of the peninsula. It produced in the

Middle Ages and afterwards many warriors and statesmen of the first

rank. But the genius of the race seems to have at all times run more

to practical life than towards intellectual creation. Two or three

writers are of world fame, and so are two or three artists, without

reckoning the mostly unnamed or unknown mediæval architects who reared

ecclesiastical buildings of unsurpassed beauty. Metaphysical talent,

turned into theological channels, gave birth to some dogmatic and

casuistical writings of unquestionable power. Still the total quantity

of literary or artistic product of high excellence is small when

compared with that of Italy or France. That this is more markedly true

of the later seventeenth and the eighteenth than of earlier centuries

may be explained by the extinction in the sixteenth of intellectual

freedom. French literature still flourished while Spanish was sinking

under ecclesiastical censure.

In Spanish America, where remoteness from European influences darkened

the firmament still further, scarcely any literary or scientific work

of permanent merit was accomplished, though the fountain of pleasing

verse did not cease to flow.[158] The stormy times of the War of

Independence and the domestic turmoil that everywhere followed gave

no opportunities for acquiring knowledge nor any leisure to use

it. It is only recently, and chiefly in Mexico and in the southern

South American states, that the day of more benignant conditions has

seemed to be dawning. It is true that in them, as political conflicts

subside, material interests come first to the front, and, like a rank

growth, so cover the ground that not much room is left for the play

of intellect upon matters promising no direct pecuniary gain to the

nation or to individuals. This was to be expected at a time when the

development of natural resources attracts foreign capital and fills

the minds of enterprising men. It is the salient feature of the life

to-day of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil, and to a slighter extent of

Chile also. But it need not be permanent. Just as in North America

there came, not long after the Civil War, a passionate eagerness to

found universities and extend the range and improve the efficiency

of the higher scientific and literary teaching, so the leading men

in these more advanced states may realize the need for basing their

civilization on the enlightenment of the people. The task before them

is harder than that which the North Americans had, because their system

of elementary and secondary education is far less complete. With this

extension of higher instruction and the closer communion of the best

minds with those of the northern hemisphere, there may at any time come

an outburst of purely intellectual activity. Prediction is so much more

difficult in this field than in the field of politics that one must

abstain from venturing to enter it. Shrewd observers living in the

middle of the eighteenth century were able to foretell some sort of

political upheaval as approaching in France; but nobody foretold the

flowering in Germany of the great literature which began with Kant and

Lessing and continued in Goethe and Schiller, Fichte and Hegel.

The traveller in South America who confines himself, as many do, to the

larger cities, finds them so like those of Europe and North America

in their possession of the appliances of modern civilization, in

their electric street cars and handsome parks, in their ably written

press, in the volume of business they transact--I might add in the

aspect of the legislatures and in the administrative machinery of

their government--that he is apt to fancy a like resemblance in the

countries as a whole. But the small towns and rural districts are very

far behind, though least so in Chile and Argentina. If one regards

these various nations as a whole, one is struck by the want of such an

"atmosphere of ideas," if the phrase be permissible, as that which men

breathe in Europe and in North America. Educated men are few, books

are few, there is little stir of thought, little play of cultivated

intelligence upon the problems of modern society. Most of these

countries seem to lie far away from the stream of intellectual life,

hearing only its distant murmur. The presence of a great inert mass of

ignorance in the native population partly accounts for this; and one

must remember the difficulty of providing schools and the thinness of a

population scattered through mountainous or desert or forest-covered

regions. These disadvantages may in years to come be lessened, but in

the meantime those who are born with superior talents are born into an

ungenial environment, ill-fitted to develop and polish such talents

to their own and to the public benefit. The traveller finds, now and

then in some of these states, gifted men who would be remarkable in

any country. One whom I knew in Mexico years ago was as brilliant and

as accomplished in many lines of knowledge as any person I have ever

known. But it takes a large number of such men to influence a nation

and guide the course of its opinion. Men of marked ability abound,

but their talent, like the system of instruction of the country, is

directed almost exclusively to practical ends, and does less than

it ought either for political progress or for the expansion of the

national mind. Their interest in science is almost entirely an interest

in its applications, and their hero is the great inventor. Science and

learning, pursued for their own sake, have not yet won the place they

ought to hold. Those in whom a taste for philosophical speculation

or abstract thought of any kind appears, seldom devote themselves to

patient investigation. They are apt to be captured by phrases and

formulas, perhaps of little meaning, which seem to give short cuts to

knowledge and truth.[159]

Another fact strikes the traveller with surprise. Both the intellectual

life and the ethical standards of conduct of these countries

seem to be entirely divorced from religion. The women are almost

universally "practising" Catholics, and so are the peasantry, though

the Christianity of the Indians bears only a distant resemblance to

that of Europe. But men of the upper or educated class appear wholly

indifferent to theology and to Christian worship. It has no interest

for them. They are seldom actively hostile to Christianity, much less

are they offensive when they speak of it, but they think it does not

concern them, and may be left to women and peasants. The Catholic

revival or reaction of the first half of the nineteenth century did

not touch Spanish America, which is still under the influence of the

anti-Catholic current of the later eighteenth. The Roman Church in

Spain and Portugal was then, and indeed is now, far below the level

at which it stands in France, Germany, and Italy. Its worship was

more formal, its pressure on the laity far heavier, its clergy less

exemplary in their lives. In Spanish America the obscurantism was

at least as great and the other faults probably greater. There was

not much persecution, partly, no doubt, because there was hardly any

heterodoxy, and the victims of the Inquisition were comparatively few.

But the ministers of religion had ceased not only to rouse the soul,

but to supply a pattern for conduct. There were always some admirable

men to be found among them, some prelates models of piety and virtue,

some friars devoted missionaries and humanely zealous in their efforts

to protect the Indians. Still the church as a whole had lost its hold

on the conscience and thought of the best spirits, and that hold it has

never regained. In saying this I am comparing Catholic South America

not with the Protestant countries of Europe, but with such Roman

Catholic countries as France, Rhenish Prussia, and Bavaria, in all of

which the Roman Church is a power in the world of thought and morals.

In eastern Europe the Orthodox Church has similarly shrivelled up and

ceased to be an intellectual force, but there it has at least retained

the affection of the upper class, and is honoured for its fidelity

during centuries of Musulman oppression. In the more advanced parts of

South America it seems to be regarded merely as a harmless Old World

affair which belongs to a past order of things just as much as does the

rule of Spain, but which may, so long as it does not interfere with

politics, be treated with the respect which its antiquity commands. In

both cases the undue stress laid upon the dogmatic side of theology

and the formal or external side of worship has resulted in the loss

of spiritual influence. In all the Spanish countries, the church had

trodden down the laity and taken freedom and responsibility from them

more than befell anywhere else in Christendom, making devotion consist

in absolute submission. Thus when at last her sway vanished, her moral

influence vanished with it. This absence of a religious foundation for

thought and conduct is a grave misfortune for Latin America.

The view which I am here presenting is based chiefly on what I saw in

Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil, the three countries in which there is a

larger educated class than in the less populous republics. It applies

in a less degree to Chile; and there are, of course, exceptions in

the three first-named republics also, though not numerous enough to

affect the general truth of what I am trying to state. The phenomenon

is all the more remarkable because in the days when America began to

be settled there was no part of Europe where religion had so strong a

hold on the people as it had in Spain and Portugal. The Conquistadores,

whatever may be thought of the influence of their faith upon their

conduct, were ardently pious in their own way. Even in the desire they

professed for the propagation of the faith among the Indians, they were

not consciously hypocritical, though they never allowed their piety to

stand in the way of their avarice.

The fiery vigour of that extraordinary group of men has often blazed

out in their descendants. It is the appearance in almost every state

of men of tireless energy and strenuous will that gives their chief

interest to the wars and revolutions of the last hundred years. Few

of these men, besides the heroes of Independence, such as San Martin,

Belgrano, Miranda, Bolivar, and Sucre, are known to Europe, and of

those who are known, some like Francia and Artigas and Rosas and Lopez,

have won fame by ruthlessness more than by genius. Of late years

the leading figures have been more frequently statesmen and less

frequently soldiers. Both types are honourably represented to-day in

many of the republics. There is plenty of strength in the race, and

Juarez of Mexico is only one of many examples to show that Indian blood

does not necessarily reduce its quality. Into what channels its force

will be hereafter directed, and whether it will develop a gift for

thought and for artistic creation commensurate with the activity which

it has shewn in other fields, is a question upon which its history

since 1825 sheds little light. The wind bloweth where it listeth.

In the more progressive states, conditions are changing as fast as

anywhere else in this changeful age. Here, as everywhere, the Present

is the child of the Past, but the features of the child change as it

grows up, and all we know of the future is that it will be unlike the

past. No countries have more possibilities of change than those of

South America. European immigrants are streaming into the southern

republics. The white race is commingling with the aboriginal Indians

in the west and with the negroes in the east. Scientific discovery

is bringing its latest appliances into contact with countries still

undeveloped and with peoples long left behind in the march of progress.

Till the middle of the eighteenth century the world of trade, politics,

and thought was practically a European world. It then expanded to take

in North America, then southern Asia and Australia, and then, last of

all, the ancient nations of the Far East. South America, which has

hitherto, except at rare intervals, stood outside, has now begun to

affect the commercial and financial movements of the world. She may

before long begin to affect its movements in other ways also, and

however little we can predict the part that her peoples will play, it

must henceforth be one of growing significance for the Old World as

well as for the New.

NOTES

NOTE I. The reader who desires fuller information regarding the

countries treated of here may wish to be referred to some books in

English. The most convenient general historical accounts are perhaps

to be found in Mr. Akers' _History of South America, 1854-1904_, and

in Mr. T. C. Dawson's _The South American Republics_ (2 vols.). For

Peru Sir Clements Markham's _History of Peru_ is still the best, to

which may be added, for the earlier period, his recent work, _The

Incas of Peru_. Mr. Scott Elliot's _History of Chile_ is useful. The

chapters on Peru in _The History of the New World_, by Mr. E. J.

Payne, a scholar of great talents too soon lost to historical science,

contain a thoughtful study of the causes to which the progress towards

civilization of the ancient Peruvians was due. The two books of

Professor Moses, _The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America_ and

_South America on the Eve of Emancipation_, are fair in spirit and

throw much light upon topics regarding which little has been written

in English. The fullest and most careful account of Peruvian and

Bolivian antiquities is still that of Mr. Squier: _Peru, Travel and

Exploration in the Land of the Incas_ (1877). Of more recent works

of travel that which stands first in the field of natural history is

John Ball's _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_ (1887). Among

others of a more general kind the following may be named: _Across South

America_, by Hiram Bingham; _The South Americans_, by Albert Hale;

_The Other Americans_, by Arthur Ruhl; _Uruguay_, by W. H. Koebel;

_Argentine Plains and Andine Glaciers_, by Walter Larden; _Panama_, by

Albert Edwards; _Argentina_, by W. A. Hirst; and the _Ten Republics_,

by Robert P. Porter. Sir M. Conway's _Travels and Explorations in

the Bolivian Andes_ is addressed primarily to mountain climbers, but

contains much that is interesting to other readers also. A recent book

in French entitled _Le Brésil au XXme Siècle_, by M. Pierre Denis,

is short, but singularly clear, well informed, and judicious.

In the publications issued by the Pan American Union in Washington a

great deal of valuable statistical information brought up to date may

be found. The South American Supplements issued monthly by the London

_Times_ are well edited and constitute a useful current record of what

is going forward.

NOTE II. Some readers may also wish to hear what are the facilities

for travel in the parts of South America covered by this book. There

are now many well-appointed railways in Argentina and Uruguay, and a

smaller number in Chile and Brazil, and both in these and other states

the work of construction is going on steadily. Roads fit for driving

are still comparatively few and rough, but in level countries like

Argentina one drives over the Pampa wherever wire fences do not bar the

way. Travel in the Andes is mostly upon mule back; it is slow and has

become expensive. The capital cities of the republics have good hotels.

In Arequipa, the larger coast towns of Chile, and three or four of

the Argentine and Brazilian cities, fair accommodation can be had.

Elsewhere it is very poor, and the food no better. The scale of prices

is everywhere high, but most so in Buenos Aires and Montevideo, which

have won the reputation of being the most expensive places in the world

to live in, surpassing even Petersburg and Washington.

A great deal of what is most interesting in the six republics above

referred to can now be seen by railway, and if a few plain but fairly

comfortable hotels (such as that at Santa Rosa de los Andes on the

Transandine Railway) were placed here and there upon the chief

Peruvian, Chilean, and Brazilian lines, journeys along them would

present no exceptional difficulties. There is now no yellow fever

except in Guayaquil and on the Amazon; and the conditions of health

are on the whole not unfavourable. Those who intend to travel in the

loftier parts of the Andes ought, however, to satisfy themselves that

their hearts and lungs are sound.

NOTE III. A remarkable testimony to the harm wrought by the Spanish

Conquest on the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru may be found in the will

of Leguisamo, one of the last survivors of the Conquistadores, made at

Cuzco in 1589, and printed in Sir Clements Markham's book, _The Incas

of Peru_.

"I took part in the conquest and settlement of these kingdoms when

we drove out the Incas who ruled them as their own. We found them in

such order and the Incas governed them in such wise that there was not

a thief nor vicious man nor adulterer nor bad woman admitted among

them. The men had honest and useful occupations. The lands, forests,

mines, pastures, houses, and all kinds of products were regulated and

distributed in such sort that each one knew his property without any

one else seizing it, nor were there lawsuits. The operations of war,

though numerous, never interfered with the interests of commerce or

agriculture. All things from the greatest to the smallest had their

proper place and order. The Incas were feared, obeyed, and respected by

their subjects as men capable and versed in the arts of government....

We have subdued these kingdoms and we have destroyed by our evil

example the people who had such a government as these natives enjoyed.

They were so free from committing crimes that the Indian who had a

large quantity of gold in his house left it open, only placing a small

stick across the door as a sign that its master was absent. With that

according to their custom no one could enter or take anything.... But

now they have come to such a pass, in offence of God, owing to the bad

example we have set them in all things, that these natives have changed

into people who do no good or very little."

Some allowance must be made in this description for the disappointment

and sadness in which Leguisamo wrote, as appears from other parts of

his will; and other evidence at our disposal shews that his picture of

Peru under the Incas is too favourable, yet even after making these

deductions, the admission of the harm wrought by the conquerors and the

consequent decline in native character and conduct carries weight.

[Illustration: SOUTH AMERICA]

[Illustration: PANAMA CANAL]

[Illustration: BOLIVIA AND PERU]

[Illustration: STRAIT OF MAGELLAN]

[Illustration: PARTS OF ARGENTINA, URUGUAY, AND CHILE]

INDEX

A

Aboriginal population, present condition of, in Andean regions,

180-186;

the Araucanians in southern Chile, 232-238;

of Brazil, 367;

influence of, on differentiation of various parts of Spanish

America into nations, 432-433;

importance of, as a factor in all parts of the continent except

Argentina and Uruguay, 454 ff.

_See_ Indians.

_Achachila_, Mountain Spirit, 186.

Aconcagua, Mt., 57, 142, 214, 268;

description of, 257-258.

Adams, John Quincy, diplomacy of, 497, 508.

Adobe houses, Payta, 41;

at Sicuani, 88;

in Lake Titicaca region, 123.

Agriculture, in Peru, 41-42, 78;

of Indians in interior of Peru, 87-88;

on central plateau of Peru, 120, 122-124;

importance of, to Bolivia, 193;

in southern Chile, 231, 240;

difficulties of practice of, on Falkland Isles, 310;

in Argentina, 329-331;

risks to, in Argentina, from drought and locusts, 333-334, 557;

rank of Argentina in agricultural products, 336;

in Uruguay, 354;

in Brazil, 403 ff.;

retardation of, by the unassimilated Indian population, 475-476;

suitability of Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil for, 556-557.

Aguas Calientes, town of, 87.

Akers, _History of South America_ by, 587.

Alakaluf tribe of Fuegians, 294.

Albatrosses, seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287, 288.

Alcaldes of Indian villages, 91;

powers and duties of, 180-181.

Alcohol from sugar-cane, made by Peruvian Indians, 467.

Alexander VI, Pope, bull of, dividing New World between Spain and

Portugal, 366.

Alfalfa, 177, 202, 263, 334.

Almagro, Diego de, 204, 218.

Alpacas, 78, 81.

Alpaca wool, 122.

Alps, comparison of Andes and, 277.

Altars of churches, Cuzco, 99.

Altitude, mountain sickness resulting from high, 83;

effects of, of La Paz, 171-174;

of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia a deterrent to immigration, 555.

Amazonian plain (the Selvas), 369-370;

future of, 558-562.

Amazon River, 40, 369;

forests of the, 75-76, 393-394;

sources of the, 86.

_American Commonwealth_, cited, 340 n.

Americas, the two: the naming of, 484-487;

names which might have been given, 487;

physical similarities between, 488-489;

points of similarity in settlement of, 489-490;

points of divergence, 490 ff.;

Latin America and Teutonic America, 490;

differences in the aboriginal tribes, 491-492;

differences in climate, in discoveries of mines, and in class of

immigrants to, 492-494;

differences in the sphere of government and administration, 494-495;

resultant unlikeness of, in everything but position in Western

Hemisphere, 495-496;

effect on mutual relations of achievement of independence, 496-497;

divergence of fortunes of, as to wealth and population, 497-499;

difference in the formation of nations,--two in Teutonic America

against nineteen states in Latin America, 499-500;

points of resemblance to be found in republican forms of government,

in social equality, and in detachment from European politics,

501-504;

contrasts between people of, in ideas and temperament, 504-505;

present attitude of, toward one another, 507 ff.;

common relations between, shown to be wholly wanting, 507-520;

the Monroe Doctrine, and South American view of, 508-510.

Ampato, Mt., 57, 81.

Anahuac, Peruvian Indians compared with those of, 159, 160;

plateau of, compared with the Andes, 278.

Anarchist propaganda in Argentina, 343.

Ancohuma (Hanko Uma), peak of, 142.

Ancon, hill of, 9-12.

Ancon, village of, 27.

Ancud, channel of, 239.

_Andenes_, terraces in Lake Titicaca region, 122.

Andes mountains, 38, 39, 42, 47;

description of peaks of Western Cordillera, 55-58, 60, 61,

63, 81, 82;

gold in the, 192;

splendor of scenery of, 200-201, 203, 241-242;

tunnel through the, 251, 256;

trips across the, 252-261, 267-271;

passage of, by San Martin's army, 268, 280-281;

the Christ of the, summit of Uspallata Pass, 269-270;

descent of, on open trolley, 270-271;

comparisons of, with other great ranges, 271 ff.;

as a field for mountain climbers, 272;

advantages of distance for viewing, 272-275;

why an unfavourable field for landscape painters, 275-276;

comparison of, with Himalayas, 276-277;

comparison with Alps and North American ranges, 277-279;

expense and difficulty of travel in the, 588.

Andrez, nephew of Tupac Amaru, 92.

Animals, on Peruvian highlands, 77-78, 81-82;

of Bolivia, 177;

of forests of southern Chile, 245;

absence of, among Fuegians, 294-295;

on Pampas of Argentina, 325-326.

Antarctic current, the, 38, 39, 43, 45, 489.

Antimony mines, 87.

Antiquities. _See_ Ruins.

Antiquity of Cuzco, 109 n.

Antofagasta, 169, 202, 210, 211, 215.

Antofagasta and Bolivia Railroad, 187, 189-190, 191-192.

_Araucana_, epic by Alonzo de Ercilla, 236.

Araucanian Indians, 159, 225;

home of, in Central Valley of Chile, 232-233;

primitive semi-civilization of, 233-234;

maintain their independence against the Spanish, 233-235;

Chile asserts authority over, 235-236;

remain the one unconquered native people of South America, 236;

estimates of former and present numbers, 236;

inroads of disease and drink among, and government protection

of, 236-237;

religion of, 237-238.

_Araucaria_, conifer of southern Chile, 244.

Arawak Indians, 457.

Areche, Spanish judge, 116.

Arequipa, Peru, 60;

history, 60;

altitude, 60;

climate, 60-61;

Harvard Observatory at, 61;

scenic wonders at, 62-64;

houses, streets, and people, 64-66;

Indian labourers in, 66;

an ecclesiastical stronghold, 66-67;

romance of the runaway nun at, 69-74;

terminal of Southern Railroad of Peru, 80.

Argentina, 52;

entrance to, across the Andes, 251-260;

contrasts between Chile and, 264-265;

railways of, 264, 329, 337, 588;

difference as to interest aroused between Peru, Bolivia, and Chile

and, 315, 346;

proportion of population of, dwelling in Buenos Aires, 322-323;

natural features of, 324-325;

the Pampas, 325-329;

farms and cattle ranches of, 329-331;

allotment of land into large estates held by great landowners,

331-333;

Italians in, 332-333, 339-340, 438, 516-517;

leading agricultural products of, 336;

cattle, sheep, and horses in, 336 n.;

possibilities of, as to growth in wealth and population, 337-338;

composition of population of the country, 338-340;

effect on future of nation of European commingling, 339-341,

346-348;

separation of church from politics in, 342-343;

anarchist propaganda in, 343;

relative positions held by politics, literature, and business

in, 344-346;

excessive patriotism of people, 346;

influence of geographical position on its differentiation as a

separate political entity, 429;

a true nation by the test of possessing a distinctive national

quality and a strong national sentiment, 441;

armament maintained by, 449;

slight influence of Italians on political and intellectual life

of, 516-517;

British capital invested in railways of, 517;

a _bona fide_ republic, after a troubled and sanguinary political

history, 544-545;

pre-eminent fitness of, for immigration, 556-557;

universities and schools in, 575;

writers on theoretical jurisprudence and international law in, 578 n.

Arias, Pedro de, 477.

Arica, 169.

Aridity of the Pampas of Argentina, 333.

Armies of South American countries, 449.

Arrow points found at Tiahuanaco, 148.

Art, displayed in altars of churches at Cuzco, 99;

lack of excellence in, in South America, 99;

ancient Peruvian, 106-107;

inferiority of ancient Peruvian, as a whole, 154.

Artigas, José, savage treatment of prisoners by, 548, 584.

Ascotan, 201.

Assassinations, political, in South America and in Europe, 548.

Asuncion, 179.

Atacama, Desert of, 204.

Atahuallpa, treachery of Pizarro to, 98, 192.

Aullagas Lake, 126, 190-191.

Australia, effect of Panama Canal on trade to, 34;

decreasing birth-rate of, 563 n.

Australian gum trees, world-wide spread of, 92-93;

at La Paz, 176-177;

on the Pampas, 335;

in Montevideo, 353.

Ausungate, Mt., 108.

Avenida Central, Rio de Janeiro, 381.

Avenida de Mayo, Buenos Aires, 316-317, 346.

Ayacucho, battle of, 166.

_Ayllu_, Indian clan, 180.

Aymará Indians, 121-124;

traditions of the, 149;

at La Paz, 179, 182;

one of the two divisions of Indians found by Spanish, 183-184;

present condition of, 460-462;

isolated social position of, 474-475.

Ayuntamiento, municipal council, 535.

B

Bahia, city of, 400-401.

_Bahia_, battleship, 396-399.

Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, 1, 4, 8, 11, 37, 283, 477.

Balboa Hill, Panama, 8.

Ball, John, _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_ by, 227, 289, 587.

Ballivian, Señor, 178.

Balmaceda, President of Chile, 222;

advanced policies, defeat, and death of, 544.

Balsas, boats of _Totora_, Lake Titicaca, 125, 141.

Bandelier, _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_ by, quoted and cited,

63-64, 142 n., 185 n., 465-466, 467-468.

Barley, grown on central plateau of Peru, 120, 122.

Barnevelt Island, 293.

Barrios, Gerardo, 545.

Bas Obispo, 21.

Bath of the Inca, Island of the Sun, 133.

Beagle Sound, 292.

"Big Trees" of California, comparison of South American trees

with, 245, 391.

Bingham, Professor Hiram, ascent of Coropuna by, 57 n.;

cited on antiquity of Cuzco, 109 n.;

_Across South America_ by, cited, 113 n., 588;

quoted on South American view of Monroe Doctrine, 509-510;

on number of North Americans as compared with number of Germans in

Brazil, 510 n.

Biobio River, 225, 227, 235.

Birds seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287-288.

Birth-rate, acceleration of, among immigrants to Argentina, 339, 566;

decrease in the world's, may help to solve overpopulation

problem, 554-555;

unreliability of estimates based on, as shown by Australia, 563;

higher among Indians than among whites, 566.

Blanco, Guzman, 519, 525.

Blanco, Rio, 254.

Boats of Indians on Lake Titicaca, 125, 141.

Bogota, 52.

_Boleta_, weapon of Gauchos, 328.

Bolivar, Simon, 167;

fame of, exceeds merits, 507;

Pan-American Union project of, 511 n.;

form of government favoured by, 538, 540.

Bolivia, 42, 57;

distinction between Peru and, purely arbitrary, 121-122;

reasons for lack of natural boundaries, explained by history

of, 166-167;

named for Simon Bolivar, 167;

an entirely inland state, 167;

people, 167;

area, population, and towns, 168;

railways of, 168-169, 186-187, 191-192, 193-194;

minerals of, 190, 192-193;

necessity of railways to, for sake of cohesiveness of country,

193-194;

the risk of a future partitioning of, 448;

proportion of Indians in population of, 458;

population in proportion to area, 527;

not a country for immigrants to turn toward, 555.

_Bolson_, basin-shaped hollow, 95.

Borax, lakes of, 199;

mining and preparing of, 199-200.

Botafogo Bay, Rio de Janeiro, 381.

Botanical Garden, Buenos Aires, 319;

Montevideo, 353-354;

Rio de Janeiro, 382.

Bougainville, colony planted at Falkland Isles by, 312.

Brazil, area and aboriginal Indians of, 367;

mountains, valleys, and inland plain of, 368-369 (_see_ Selvas);

exportation of coffee, 372;

wonders of scenery of, 385 ff.;

character of villages, 389-390;

trees, flowers, and forests of, 390-394;

how it fell to the Portuguese to colonize, 401-402;

negroes in, 401, 404-405, 408;

account of different regions of, 402 ff.;

proportion of foreign population in, 407;

political history of, 410-411;

present political conditions, 411-413;

chief economic and political issues in, 413;

transitional state of society in, 414;

status of coloured population, 414-415, 479-480;

financial standing of the nation, 415;

letters and oratory in, 416-417;

possibilities of, in other hands than its present possessors,

420-421;

characterized by true national qualities, 441;

armament maintained by, 449;

slavery in, 456;

effect of intermixture of blood in, 480;

titles of nobility in, 502 n.;

slight influence of Italians on political and intellectual life

in, 516-517;

pre-eminent fitness of southern, for immigration, 556-557.

Brewery, at Cuzco, 102;

at Valdivia, 229.

Brigandage, decrease in, 548.

British, at Valdivia, 229;

population of Falkland Isles composed of, 310;

capital invested by, in Argentine railways, 337;

in Argentina, 340-341;

capital of, in railways of Uruguay, 354-355;

Santos-São Paulo railway line built and owned by, 372;

Leopoldina railway owned by, 386;

capital of, invested in South America generally, 517.

_See also_ English.

Buccaneers, English, 12, 15-16.

Bueno, Rio, excursion on the, 242-243.

Buenos Aires, city of, 216 n., 262;

dulness of water approach to, 315-316;

general appearance, streets, houses, etc., 316-318;

business rush and social gaiety of, 318;

docks and harbour works at, 319-320;

shanties in suburbs of, 320;

outer rim of pretentious places, 320-321;

make-up of population of city, 321-322;

predominance of Spanish and Italian speech in, 322;

proportion of population of whole country dwelling in, 322-323;

terms used to designate population of, as opposed to that of rest

of nation, 323;

anarchists in, 343;

the press of, 344;

numbers of North Americans and of Germans in, 510 n.;

University of, 575;

expense of living in, 589.

Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, 166, 327, 349.

Building, excellence of ancient Peruvians in, 154-155.

C

Cabildos, municipal councils, 535.

_Caboclos_, half-breeds called, 408.

Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 366-367.

Cachendo, town of, 56.

Calama, village of, 202.

Calcutta, comparison of Botanic Garden at, with that at Rio de

Janeiro, 382.

California poppy about Valparaiso, 214.

Callao, 46.

Canal Zone, the, 4-35.

Canary Isles, mummies of primitive inhabitants of, 157 n.

Candelaria, celebration of feast of, Copacavana, 129-130.

Candido, João, mutineer leader, 396.

Cannibalism in ancient Peru and among Amazonian tribes, 157.

Canning, George, diplomacy of, 497, 508.

Cape Horn, 293.

Caracoles, 270.

Cara Indians, 159.

Carbajal, Francisco, 477.

Carib Indians, 456-457.

Casas, Bartolomé de las, 464.

Castro, dictator of Venezuela, 525.

Cathedral, Lima, 48-49;

Arequipa, 65, 67;

Cuzco, 97-98;

La Paz, 175;

Santiago, 217.

Catholicism, position of, in Argentina, 342-343;

effect of, on attitude of whites toward Indians and negroes, 471-472;

status of the Church in Spanish America generally, 582-584.

Cattle, transportation of, across the Andes, 252 n.;

breeding of, about Buenos Aires, 321;

on Pampas of Argentina, 327, 328;

numbers of, in Argentina, 336 n.;

in Uruguay, 354.

Caupolican, Araucanian chief, 184, 235;

memorial to, at Temuco, 516.

Cedars of southern Chile, 245.

Census of Peruvian Indians taken by Viceroy Toledo, 457.

Central America, ruins in Peru contrasted with those in, 106, 113;

to be grouped with South America rather than North, 490;

impossibility of existence of a real democracy in, 539.

Cereals, the important production of Argentina, 336.

Ceremonial dances of aboriginal tribes, 130, 185, 467-468.

Cerro, hill and castle of, Montevideo, 353.

Chachani, Mt., 56-57, 60, 62, 81.

Chagres River, 6, 7, 8, 15, 20-21, 24.

Challa, Bay of, 134.

Charles V, Emperor, 12, 98, 284, 499, 500.

Charrua Indians, 159, 355.

_Chenopodium_, 120.

Chibcha Indians, Bogota, 13, 457.

Chicha, drink brewed from maize, 90, 123, 467, 468 n.

Chile, 52, 57;

Peruvian nitrate provinces conquered by, 42;

peculiarity of length and breadth of, 205;

mountains and valleys of, 205-206;

three regions of, 206-207;

the nitrate fields, 207-209;

revenue to, from export duties on nitrates, 209;

large estates and landed aristocracy of, 220;

predominance of politics in, 221;

civil war in (1890), 222;

party divisions and an election in, 222-223;

description of southern portion, 223 ff.;

coast towns and seaports of the south, 225-232;

fusion of whites and Indians in, 232;

immigration into southern, from Europe, 239-240;

lake, river, and mountain region of, 241-247;

contrasts between Argentina and, 264-265;

influence of its geographical position on separate political

status of, 429;

a true nation in possessing a distinctive national quality and a

strong national sentiment, 441;

armament maintained by, 449;

successful working of real republican government in, 543-544;

room for increased population in, 557-558;

university in Santiago, 575.

Chile River, 60, 82.

Chiloe, island of, 223, 239.

Chimborazo, Mt., 40.

Chimu city, ruins of, near Truxillo, 44, 153, 183.

China, slight immigration into South America from, 438;

improbability of danger to South America from, 504.

Chincha Islands, guano deposits on, 46.

Chinchilla, habitat of the, 200.

Chingana, Labyrinth, on Titi Kala, 136-137.

_Cholos_, half-breeds at Oruro, 190, 195 n.

Choqquequirau, ruins at, 113.

Christianity, attitude of Indians toward, 465-466.

Christ of the Andes, statue of, 256, 269-270.

Chucuito, lake of, 136 n.

Chullpas, on Island of the Sun, 133.

Chuquisaca (Sucre), 166, 167, 168, 193-194.

Church, of Company of Jesus, Arequipa, 67;

at Copacavana, 129-130;

at Tiahuanaco, 148.

Church, the Roman Catholic, separation of, from politics in

Argentina, 342-343;

party antagonistic to, in Uruguay, 363-364;

complete separation of state and, in Brazil, 412-413;

slight influence of, on progress of South American countries toward

national life, 436-437;

present status in Spanish America, and causes, 582-584.

Churches, Cuzco, 98-99;

La Paz, 174-175.

Cities, phenomenon of growth of, out of proportion to that of the

countries to which they belong, 322.

Clémenceau, Georges, _South America of To-day_ by, quoted, 412, 417.

Climate, on coast of Peru, 38-39;

at Lima, 51;

effect of differences in, on development of the two Americas,

431, 492.

Coal, lignite, at Punta Arenas, 300;

lack of, in Argentina, 336.

Coast Range, western South America, 81, 224, 225, 297;

of Brazil, 381, 384.

Coca, liquor made from, 89-90.

Coca-leaf chewing, 182, 467.

Cochabamba, 168, 193.

Cochrane, Lord, 230, 280.

Cockburn Channel, 292, 298-299.

Coffee, exportation of, from Brazil, 372;

description of a plantation, 387-388;

region where grown, in Brazil, 403.

Cog-wheel railway on Transandine line, 252.

Coillelfu, town of, 244.

Collahuasi copper mine, 198.

Collao, country called the, 121, 183.

Collao Indians, 86.

Colombia, 17, 76;

forests of coast, 39;

question of true national qualities of, 441-442;

population in proportion to area, 527;

poetic output of, 578 n.

Colon, city of, 5, 11, 13, 23.

Colour line, absence of a, in South America, 470-474, 479, 482.

Columbus, Christopher, statue of, 5;

voyage of Magellan as compared with voyages of, 282;

belief of, that it was India he had reached, 484-485.

Commerce, effect of Panama Canal on European, 34.

Concepcion, 225-226.

Condorcanqui, José Gabriel (Tupac Amaru), 92, 116.

Congresses of American republics, 511 n.

Conquistadores, undeniable piety of, 584.

_See_ Pizarro.

Conway, Sir Martin, climbing in the Bolivian Andes by, 142;

on composition of mountains in Cordillera Real, 143;

on varying effects of rarity of air, 173;

attempted ascent of Mt. Sarpiento by, 299;

book by, 588.

Copacavana, shrine of Virgin of the Light at, 126, 129.

Copan, ruins of, comparison of ruins at Cuzco with, 106.

Copper mines, Peru, 42;

near Aguas Calientes, 87;

Bolivia, 189, 190, 192;

the Collahuasi mine, 198.

Copper smelting, Corral, 229.

Coquimbo, 39, 206, 211.

Corcovado, peak of, Rio de Janeiro, 380.

Cordillera range in Peru, 55-58, 77-79.

Cordillera Real, the, 127, 141-143.

Cordova, Argentina, 323, 326;

University of, 323, 575.

Coronel, port of, 227.

Coropuna, Mt., 57, 83.

Corral, town of, 229-230, 280.

Cortes, 516.

Costa Rica, 13, 503.

Cotton, production of, in Argentina, 336;

labour on Brazilian plantations of, 404-405.

Courtship, South American, 51.

_Criollos_, the, 513.

Criticism, susceptibility of South Americans to, 506.

Croker Peninsula, 292.

Crooked Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293, 297.

Crucero Alto, the, 83.

Cuahtémoc, last of the Aztec kings, 516;

statue of, 516.

Cuba, influence of geographical position on its status as a political

entity, 429.

Culebra Cut, Panama Canal, 8-9, 20, 21-22, 23, 24-25.

Cumbre, the, 267, 268, 280.

Cusipata, plaza of, Cuzco, 97.

Cuzco, 54;

position as an ancient capital, 95;

description of the present-day city, 95-97;

cathedral of, 97-98;

churches at, 98-99;

merits and demerits as a place of residence, 100;

University of, 100-101;

Indian population of, 101-102;

walls at, 103 ff.;

walls of Sacsahuaman, 106 n., 107-112, 118;

proof of extreme antiquity of, 109 n.;

rumours of subterranean passages at, 110;

the Rodadero, 111;

the Seat of the Inca, 111-112;

Sacsahuaman probably older than, 112-113;

other ruins of walls about, 113;

horrors of Spanish rule at, 115-117;

memories and reflections aroused by, 117;

railway lines to, 194;

contrast between Santiago and, 217.

D

"Dago" and "Gringo," use of the words, 506.

Dances, primitive heathen, 130, 185, 467-468.

Darwin, Charles, _Voyage of the Beagle_ by, 294 n.

Darwin, Mt., 293.

Davis, John, discoverer of Falkland Isles, 311.

Dawson, T. C., _The South American Republics_ by, 587.

Death rate, Canal Zone, 29;

a high, among Indians of South America, 236-237, 457-458, 566.

De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 4, 18.

Delimitation Award, 449.

Democracies, impossibility of existence of real, in Spanish American

states, 539.

Denis, Pierre, work on Brazil by, 588.

Desaguadero River, 126, 143-144;

Indians on lagoons of the, 183.

Deseado, Cabo (Cape Pilar), 285, 290, 291.

Deserts, 40-41, 75;

in Bolivia, 167, 196;

scenery on, 196-197;

of Argentina, 266-267.

Desolation Island, 291, 293, 295.

Diaz, Bartholomew, 283.

Diaz, Porfirio, 532 n., 548;

autocratic government of, the form best suited for Mexico, 542-543.

Dictatorships in young South American republics, 538-539.

Dominican missionaries, 464-465.

Drake, Sir Francis, 15, 17;

attack of Araucanians on, 235;

passage of Straits of Magellan by, 286.

Dramas of ancient Peruvians, 155-156.

Dress, of Indians of Peru, 89;

of Indians at La Paz, 175-176;

of Gauchos, 328.

Drought, the risk of, in Argentina, 333, 557 n.

Dry farming, 330.

Dumas, Alexandre, a saying of, quoted, 490.

Dungeness, Cape, Tierra del Fuego, 305.

Duties, protective, in Brazil, 413.

E

Earthquakes, freedom of Panama from, 24;

prevalence of, at Lima, 48;

at Arequipa, 64;

at Valparaiso, 203;

at Mendoza, 262;

absence of, at Buenos Aires, 317.

Earth Spirit of Indian tribes, 185, 466.

Easter Island, figures on, compared with figures at Tiahuanaco, 150.

Eastern Cordillera, 188.

East Indian coolies in Guiana, 564 n.

Ecuador, 39, 40, 76, 342;

question of true national qualities of, 442;

not a country for immigrants, 555.

Eden, _Decades of the New World_ by, 303.

Education, comparatively small provision made for in South

America, 575;

the outlook for a wider, 579-580.

Edwards, A., _Panama_ by, 588.

Elliot, Scott, _History of Chile_ by, 587.

_Encomienda_, system of the, 455.

English, residing at La Paz, 179;

at Valparaiso, 215-216;

adverse criticism on, quoted, 216;

at Buenos Aires, 321;

in Argentina, 340-341;

in state of São Paulo, 377;

lack of sympathy of feeling between South Americans and, 506;

influence of, restricted to commercial relations, 517-518.

_See also_ British.

English names of headlands, bays, and channels of Straits of

Magellan, 292-293.

English Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293, 298.

Ercilla, Alonzo de, _Araucana_ of, 236.

Espiritu Santo, Cape, 305.

Estates of great landowners, Chile, 220-221;

in Argentina, 331-333.

Eucalyptus trees in South America, 92-93, 176-177, 335, 353.

Evangelists, islands called, 290.

Export duties on nitrates, 209.

F

Falkland Isles, visit to, 308-314;

sheep industry predominant on, 310;

possibilities for development of, 310-311;

chequered history of, 311-312;

present form of government, 312;

impressions of nature obtained at, 313-314.

Farming country, Argentina, 329-330.

_See_ Agriculture.

Ferro Carril Transandino, 251.

Fevers, Isthmus of Panama, 3;

preventive measures, Canal Zone, 28-30;

at Guayaquil, 40.

Fitzgerald, E. A., _High Andes_ by, 258 n.

Fitzroy, Cape, 292.

_Flor del Inca_, shrub called, 133.

Flowers, Isthmus of Panama, 7;

in forests of southern Chile, 243, 244, 245, 246;

of Brazil, 391-394.

Flying fish, 43.

Forests, of Colombia and Ecuador, 39;

of the Amazon, 75-76;

of Brazil, 390-394;

of southern Chile, 241-247;

of the Selvas, 558-560.

Formosa, Cape, 291.

Fortifications, Panama Canal, 19, 32-33.

Francia, José Gaspar Rodriguez, 465, 525, 584.

Franciscan monks, Copacavana, 129.

Frazer, J. G., _Golden Bough_ by, cited, 159 n.

Free trade, an issue in Brazil, 413.

French, attempts of, to construct Panama Canal, 18, 31-32;

mining carried on by, at Pulucayo, 195;

copper smelting at Corral by, 229;

residing at Coillelfu, 244;

on the Falkland Isles, 311-312;

colony at Buenos Aires, 321;

in Argentina, 340;

in state of São Paulo, 377;

influence of, in things intellectual and social, 518-520;

spread of language and literature of, in South America, 576.

Froward, Cape, 293, 298, 305.

Fuegian Indians, 292, 294.

Fury Island, 293.

G

Gama, Vasco da, voyage of, as compared with that of Magellan, 282.

Garden, at Lota, 227-228;

Botanical Garden at Buenos Aires, 319;

at Montevideo, 353-354;

at Rio de Janeiro, 382.

Garden Mountain, the, 201.

Garibaldi, story of fighting by, in Uruguay, 358.

Gatun Dam, 6, 21-22, 23-24.

Gaucho horsemen, Argentina, 321, 328;

in Uruguay, 355-356;

in Brazil, 406.

Gavea, Mt., 383.

Germans in South America, 102;

at La Paz, 179;

at Valparaiso, 215-216;

at Valdivia, 229;

immigration of, into Chile, 239, 438;

at Osorno, 239;

at Buenos Aires, 321;

in Argentina, 340-341;

in state of São Paulo, 377;

large number of, in Rio Grande do Sul, 406;

in Brazil, 438;

in Uruguay, 438;

a factor to be reckoned with commercially in Brazil and South

America generally, 510 n.;

influence of, restricted to commercial relations, 517-518.

Glaciers, Andean, 84, 85;

of Cordillera Real, 141, 143;

on Mt. Illimani, 176;

on Mt. Aconcagua, 249, 258;

on mountains along Straits of Magellan, 295, 296.

Goethals, Colonel, 26-27, 30.

Gold, in Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, 192;

retardation of real development of Spanish America caused by, 493.

Gold Hill, 21, 25 n.

Gorgas, Colonel, 29.

Governments of Spanish American states, effect of physical conditions

on, 527-528;

of racial conditions, 528-531;

of economic and social conditions, 532-534;

of historical conditions during the colonial period, 534-536;

of historical conditions at close of War of Independence, 536-539;

have never been real democracies, 539-540;

question of what form might have been preferable, 540-541;

three classes of states under republican forms, 541-545;

encouragement to be got from Chile and Argentina, 543-546;

states still unfitted for popular self-government, 547-548;

leniency called for in judging Spanish American, 549-551.

Graham Land, 284.

Gran Chaco, the, 327, 329, 338, 478;

plagues of locusts emanating from, 334.

"Gringo," use of word, 506.

Guanacos, in Tierra del Fuego, 304;

in Argentina, 326.

Guano, 42, 45-46;

a source of evil to Peru, 209.

Guaqui, Bolivia, 125, 144, 169.

Guarani Indians in Paraguay, 441, 459.

Guayaquil, city of, 40, 589.

Guayaquil, Gulf of, 38-39, 40.

H

Hale, Albert, _The South Americans_ by, 510, 588.

Half-breeds, in Brazil, 407-408;

social status of, in South America, 472-473;

a negligible quantity in North America, 491-492.

_See_ Mestizos _and_ Mulattoes.

Hanko Uma, peak of, 142.

Harvard Observatory, Arequipa, 61.

Hayti, government of, 542.

Himalaya Mountains, comparisons between Andes and, 276-277.

Hindus in British Guiana, 438.

Hirst, W. A., _Argentina_ by, 588.

Horse-racing, in Chile, 221-222;

at Buenos Aires, 318, 345;

in Brazil, 415.

Horses, importance of, in Uruguayan insurrections, 359;

found on Pampas of Argentina, 327, 328;

numbers of, in Argentina, 336 n.

Hotel accommodations, 589.

Houses, adobe, 41, 88, 123;

cane and reed, Lima, 47-48;

ancient Peruvian, 131-132.

_Huaca_, sacred object (fetish), 139.

Huanchaca, 195.

Huayna Capac, Inca sovereign, 111.

Huayna Potosi, Mt., 142, 187.

_Huillca_ of ancient Peruvians, 157.

Humboldt current, the, 38, 39, 43, 45, 489.

I

_Ilacata_, Indian official, 180.

Iles Malouines, French name for Falkland Isles, 311.

Illampu, Mt. (Sorata), 57, 134, 141-142.

Illimani, Mt., 134, 142, 176, 177, 186, 188.

Immigration, to southern Chile, 239-241;

to Argentina, 338-339;

of Germans and Italians to Brazil, 405-407;

of Portuguese, Spaniards, and Syrians, 407;

slight effect of, on national differentiation in South America,

437-438;

from Spain, 514;

of Italians to Argentina and Brazil, 516;

mountainous parts of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia unsuited for, 555;

the three sections of South America to be regarded as a

field for, 555;

pre-eminent fitness of Argentina, Uruguay, and southern

Brazil, 556-557;

room for, to Chile, 557-558;

the Amazonian Selvas considered with a view to, 560-562.

Incas, the, 41, 44, 45, 46, 60, 92, 94;

civilization of the, 78-79;

ancient highway of the, 86;

traces of empire of, at Cuzco, 102-118;

stories of the gold of the, 110;

depth of the fall of the, 114-115;

relics of, at Copacavana, 128-130;

on Sacred Isles, Lake Titicaca, 132, 133, 135-139;

Sacred Rock honoured as the ancient home of race of, 139;

traces of people who antedated the, at Tiahuanaco, 149-150;

type of civilization of, compared with that of Aztecs, 160;

administration of government, roads, rest-houses, etc.,

of, 160-161;

political astuteness of, 161-162;

disastrous results of overthrow of, by Spanish, 162;

destruction of people of, 162-163;

question of completeness of development of semi-civilization of,

when overthrown, 164-165;

belonged to the Quichua race of Indians, 183;

naming of unusual natural phenomena after the, 258-259.

Inca's Bridge, the, 258-259.

Indian runners, service of, under the Incas, 60, 161.

Indians, prehistoric, 3, 13;

of San Blas, 13-14;

on Isthmus of Panama, 13-14;

at Arequipa, 66;

enslavement of, by rubber producers, 76, 458;

as shepherds, Peru, 81, 83;

of towns in interior of Peru, 84;

at Sicuani, 88-92;

predominance of, at Cuzco, 101-102;

of central plateau of Peru, 121-124;

inferiority of Andean, compared with other tribes, 159-160;

in Bolivia, 168;

large proportion of, among population of La Paz, 179;

present condition of aborigines in Andean regions, 180 ff.;

tribal organization of, 180-181, 461-462;

_Ilacatas_ and _Alcaldes_ of, 180-181;

illiteracy of, 181-182, 468;

indulgence in alcohol and more especially in coca leaf chewing,

181-182;

two divisions of, the Quichuas and the Aymarás, 182-184;

characteristics of, 184-185;

religion of, 185;

feelings toward white men, 185-186;

fusion of, with white race in Chile, 232;

the Araucanians, 232-238;

to south of Araucanians, 238-239;

on islands off south Chilean coast, 288, 478;

along Straits of Magellan, 294;

of the Pampas of Argentina, 326, 327, 338;

among the police of Buenos Aires, 343;

of Uruguay, 355;

of Brazil, 367, 369;

statistics of, in Brazil, 408 n.;

influence of, on differentiating various parts of Spanish America

from one another into separate nations, 432-433;

have nothing to do with government of countries they inhabit, 439,

469-470, 529;

constitute an economic factor of the first magnitude except in

Argentina and Uruguay, 454;

attitude of Spanish conquerors toward, 454-456;

vast differences in qualities of aboriginal, 456-457;

present numbers of, 457;

proportion of, in population of Mexico and South America, 458-460;

numbers of wild tribes, 460;

civil and ecclesiastical oppression of, under the Spaniards and

later, 460-465;

religion of, 462-466;

work of Dominicans and Jesuits among, 464-465;

attitude toward Christianity, 465-466;

indulgence of, in drinking and dancing, 467-468;

safety of white people among, 468-469;

relations between whites and, in Paraguay, 470-473;

constitute separate nationalities from those of the combined white

and mestizo, 474;

retardation of industrial and intellectual progress by, 475-476,

580-581;

effect of intermarriage with, on the Spanish stock, 476-477;

Peruvian Indians free from bloodthirstiness, 477;

of the Selvas, 559;

estimated total number in whole continent, 564;

rate of increase of, 566.

_Indios bravos_, wild Indians, 460, 470, 530 n.

Inquisition, hall of the, Lima, 50.

Insurrections, South American and other, 359-361, 362-363.

_See also_ Revolutions.

Intensive cultivation, postponement of fear of overpopulation by, 554.

Intermarriage, of whites and Indians in Paraguay, 471;

effect of, on quality of Spanish stock, 476-477, 530-531;

between whites and negroes in Brazil, 480.

Invention, lack of, in ancient Peruvians, 155.

Inventors, esteem of Spanish Americans for scientists as, 581.

Iodine, a by-product of nitrate, 208.

Iquitos, town of, 559.

Irrigation, Lima, 47;

at Mendoza, 263.

Isabella the Catholic, statue of, returned to Spain, 515.

Island of the Sun, Lake Titicaca, 132-140.

Isthmuses, interest attached to, geographically and commercially, 1-2.

Italians, at Mendoza, 263;

increasing numbers of, in Argentina, 264-265, 438;

in Buenos Aires, 321-322;

as labourers in Argentina, 332-333;

distribution of, in Argentina, 339;

birth-rate among immigrants, 339;

question of influence of, on future nation, 339-340;

in Uruguay, 355;

in São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, 376-377, 406-407;

slight effect of, on political and intellectual life in South

America, 516-517.

Italiaya, Mt., 368.

J

Japanese, slight immigration of, to South America, 438;

remoteness of danger from, 504.

Jesuit annalist quoted, 63-64.

Jesuits, churches of, in Peru, 67, 98-99;

mission work of, among the Indians, 464-465.

Jockey Club, Buenos Aires, 318.

John VI of Portugal, 410.

Johnson, Sir H. H., on coloured race in Brazil, 408 n.

Juarez, Benito, 184, 521, 585.

Jujuy, town of, 330, 478.

Juliaca, village of, 84.

Juncal, town of, 254, 270.

Juncal Valley, the, 271.

Jungle, Isthmus of Panama, 6-7;

of Amazonian plain, 75, 76, 393-394.

K

Kaka Aka, Mt., 142.

Koati (Koyata), Island of the Moon, Lake Titicaca, 131-132.

Koebel, W. H., _Uruguay_ by, 588.

L

Labourers, Panama Canal, 26 n., 27-30;

negro, on Brazilian cotton and sugar plantations, 404-405;

in coffee, cattle, and cereal regions of Brazil, 405-407;

importance of Indian population as, 454.