Cotton manufacturing is an important illustration of the growth in the
textile industries of the world during the period in which the use of
machinery has multiplied the producing power of man in the industrial
lines. In all lines of textile manufacture the growth has been rapid,
but especially so in cotton, which has made greater gains in the work
of supplying man with the necessary requirements of life, in clothing
for his body and the comforts of life, than other branches of the
textile industries and than many other branches of manufacture.
Mulhall estimates the consumption of cotton by all nations at 303
million pounds in 1800 and 5,900 million pounds in 1896; wool, 460
million pounds in 1800 and 2,400 million pounds in 1896; flax, 600
million pounds in 1800 and 200 million pounds in 1896; silk, 30
million pounds in 1800 and 50 million pounds in 1897. It will be seen
from these estimates that the growth in consumption of cotton has been
far in excess of that of any other of the important fibers. Cotton
consumption in 1896 was, according to these figures, 5,900 million
pounds, against 303 million in 1800, or practically 20 times as much
in 1896 as in 1800, while wool consumption is set down at 2,400
million pounds in 1896, against 460 million in 1800, or only about 5
times as much in 1896 as in 1800; while in the other materials used in
textile manufactures the growth has been much less than that of
cotton.
Before entering upon a discussion of the growth in cotton
manufacturing and the causes thereof, it is proper to say that the
value of all textile manufactures in the principal countries of Europe
has, according to Mulhall, grown from £96,000,000 in 1800 to
£660,000,000 in 1896, and in the United States, from £3,000,000 in
1800 to £188,000,000 in 1896, the value of textile manufactures
produced in Europe having thus increased about sixfold in the period
in question, and in the United States about sixtyfold. It is apparent
from these figures that the growth in the manufacture of cotton 248
during the last century has far outstripped that of any other of the
textiles. It is also quite apparent that the capital invested in
cotton manufacturing is much greater than that in other textiles. The
United States Census reports the capital invested in the manufacture
of cotton goods in 1880 at 320 million dollars; in 1905, 613 million;
the value of the products of these manufacturing establishments in
1880, 211 million dollars, and in 1905, 450 million dollars. Even
these figures of increased production--from 211 million dollars’ value
in 1880 to 450 million in 1905--do not fully indicate the increase in
quantity of products, since prices in 1905 were materially less than
those of 1880. The average price of standard sheetings in the New York
markets was quoted at 8½ cents per yard in 1880 and 7 cents per
yard in 1905; of standard drillings, 8½ cents per yard in 1880 and
7 cents per yard in 1905; of New York mills bleached shirtings, 12¾
cents per yard in 1880 and 9 cents per yard in 1905; of standard
prints, 7.4 cents per yard in 1880 and 4¾ cents per yard in 1905;
and of 64 by 64 printing cloths, 4½ cents per yard in 1880 and 3.6
cents per yard 1905. This indicates that the increased valuation in
cotton products from 211 million dollars in 1880 to 450 million
dollars in 1905, fails to fully reflect the increased quantity
produced in 1905, and suggests that the quantity produced in 1905 was
probably approximately three times as great as in 1880.
The disposition to increase production through enlargements of
existing factories rather than by the establishment of new ones, or
the combination of existing factories as an offset to the
establishment of new ones, is indicated by the fact that the total
number of establishments, which was reported in 1880 at 1,005, was, in
1905, but 1,154, an increase of about 12 per cent in the number of
establishments, while capital was increasing nearly 200 per cent, the
value of product more than 100 per cent, and quantity of product 249
probably nearly 200 per cent.
Great Britain is in proportion to population the greatest
cotton-manufacturing country of the world. She was earliest in the
field as a manufacturer, developing that industry while the countries
of continental Europe were engaged in wars and while the United
States, now the leading producer of cotton, was developing her
agricultural industries and had scarcely as yet entered upon the
development of her manufacturing possibilities. The United States, by
far the largest producer of raw cotton, ranks second as a manufacturer
of cotton goods.
Accurate estimates of the relative standing of the various countries
in the manufacture of cotton are difficult, almost impossible,
especially in view of the fact that no country other than the United
States takes a periodic census of its industries. There are, however,
three ways by which the production of cotton manufactures in the
various countries can be approximately measured: first, by the number
of spindles in cotton mills; second, by the quantity of cotton used;
and, third, a method which has been suggested in some quarters, a
measurement of the quantity or value of cotton goods exported. This,
however, would not give at all an accurate picture of the quantity
produced, since the population of the cotton-manufacturing countries
varies so greatly and, what is more important, the habits of life, the
climatic conditions, and therefore the quantities of cotton cloths and
cotton manufactures of various sorts used by their respective
populations renders the third method of estimate of little value. Even
the first and second methods mentioned--the determination of the
number of spindles and the determination of the quantity of cotton
used--do not, by any means, give an accurate picture of the relative
quantity or value of cotton goods manufactured. In the United States,
where cotton is plentiful, much larger quantities of cotton are used
per spindle than in the European countries, and greater quantities 250
of cotton are also used for each 100 yards of cotton manufactured than
is the case in other countries. This is due, in part, to the fact that
the manufacturers of the United States are producing cotton goods for
their home population, living in a temperate zone climate and
requiring, therefore, heavy cottons; while many of the factories of
Europe are manufacturing for exportation to tropical countries, where
cottons of very light weight are required. As a consequence, the
European manufacturers use a less quantity of cotton per spindle and a
less quantity of cotton per square yard of product than is the case
with the manufacturers of the United States. The number of spindles in
cotton mills in Great Britain is estimated at 44½ million in the
season 1896-7 and 52 million in 1906-7, an increase of 16¾ per
cent; in continental Europe, 30⅓ million in 1896-7 and 35¾
million in 1906-7, an increase of 18 per cent; in the United States,
17¼ million in 1896-7 and 25¾ million in 1906-7, an increase of
50 per cent; and in India, 4 million in 1896-7, and 5⅓ million in
1906-7, an increase of 33 per cent. The annual consumption of cotton
in cotton mills is estimated, in Great Britain, 3¼ million bales of
500 pounds net in 1896-7, and 3-9/10 million bales in 1906-7, an
increase of 21 per cent; in continental Europe, 4⅓ million bales in
1896-7, and 5½ million bales in 1906-7, an increase of 44 per cent;
in the United States, 2¾ million bales in 1896-7, and 4-5/6 million
bales in 1906-7, an increase of 77 per cent; and in India, 1 million
bales in 1896-7, and 1½ million bales in 1906-7, an increase of 50
per cent.
It will be noted that although the number of spindles in the cotton
mills in the United States was but 25¾ million, against 52 million
in Great Britain, or about half as many in the United States as in
Great Britain, the quantity of cotton used in the United States was
greater than in Great Britain, being 4,822,000 bales, against 251
3,915,000 bales in Great Britain.
The textile industry of the United States, according to census
reports, represented in 1900 investments amounting to 1,043 million
dollars, employed 661,000 wage-earners, paid 209 million dollars per
annum of wages, used 521 million dollars’ worth of materials, and
turned out products valued at 931 million dollars. The number of
establishments was 4,312. Cotton manufactures formed a larger share of
these enormous totals, both as to investment, wages paid, and value of
products, than did any other of the manufacturing industries included
under the general term of textiles. The value of cotton manufactures
in 1900 was 339 million dollars, while that of wool manufactures was
297 million; silk manufactures, 107 million; hosiery; and knit goods,
95 million; and flax, hemp and jute manufactures, 48 million. Adding
to this 45 million for dyeing and finishing of textiles, the value of
the combined textiles in 1900 is set down at $931,494,566.
“Textiles,” or “textile fabrics,” may be properly described as stuffs
made by weaving together of threads of any sort to produce a material
with a nearly solid surface. “A fishing net,” says the Encyclopedia
Americana, “is not a textile, because the cords which compose it are
not woven together but merely cross one another at equally distant
intervals and are strongly knotted at those points. But
mosquito-netting is a textile, although very open, because the threads
are merely held by their own friction.” Textiles in the usual sense
are made of the twisted fibers spun into thread of flax or linen,
cotton, hemp, jute, silk or wool, woven together by the use of a loom.
“The general nature of a loom,” says the above quoted authority, “is
that the threads of the warp are divided into two sets, one of which
is thrown upward, while the other is thrown down, and at the same
moment a shuttle carrying a thread of the woof is driven through
between the two sets of warp threads. The next movement of the loom 252
reverses the two sets of warp threads, throwing the upper one down and
the lower one up, compressing and drawing tight the woof thread into
the loops which show on the surface of the stuff and go to form the
surface, and the shuttle is driven through again in the opposite
direction. The constant repetition of this forward and backward
movement of the shuttle gives a strip of woven fabric which constantly
grows: and as each movement of the shuttle is made, an appliance
drives the last thread of the woof back against the others, so that
this growing strip of woven stuff is kept at a uniform state of
firmness and solidity. It is in this way that the simplest fabrics of
linens and cottons are made. If it be desired to produce a somewhat
more elaborate weave, this is done by raising two threads of the warp
and dropping one; or by raising three threads of the warp and dropping
one, and so on. In this way the threads of the woof are seen lying in
loops, or what seems to be stitches longer than those of the simplest
weave…. If we take a step further and use three or four warp
threads, say, of red, while the rest remain white, and do the same
thing with the woof threads, we produce stripes and where these
stripes cross one another there will be a little square of the solid
color of the three or four threads, while the stripes elsewhere remain
of the half-way tint…. In such weaving of patterns it is here
assumed that the threads are dyed before the weaving is begun. The
matter of printing colors upon calico, thin silk, or the like, is
entirely apart from consideration of the textile fabric. Printing is
done from blocks (or rolls) with color almost exactly as if the
material receiving the pattern were paper instead of a woven stuff.”
The above description of the method of producing textiles is
sufficiently elaborate for a study of this character. The methods of
producing brocades, satins, velvets and other elaborately figured
textiles of any sort may be studied more in detail by reference to 253
any standard encyclopedia or work of this character.
The fact that cotton is, as has been already shown, the most important
of the textile industries, utilizing larger sums of capital, turning
out greater values of product, distributing its products over a wider
area and to a larger number of people than any other of the textiles,
justifies a somewhat more elaborate discussion of this industry and
its development during the period in which the manufacturing
industries of the world have been transferred from hand labor to that
of machines, and in which capital has come to form so important a
factor in production.
The manufacture of textiles from cotton is, like that of iron and
steel, “older than written history.” The art of cotton spinning and
weaving is believed to have been practised in India, still a great
cotton-producing section of the world, from 20 to 30 centuries ago.
From India the production of cotton and manufacture of cotton goods
moved westward into Persia, thence to the area immediately east of the
Mediterranean, then to Egypt, and even southern Europe. The Moors are
said to have introduced the cultivation and manufacture of cotton into
Spain during their control of that section of Europe, but the
cotton-manufacturing industry which existed at Seville, Cordova and
Grenada fell into decay after their expulsion from Spain and was only
resumed after the British, followed by the French and Germans, had
developed the art of manufacturing cotton goods by machine methods.
While the manufacture of yarn or threads from cotton declined in
Spain, it later made its appearance in Italy in the fourteenth century
and in Germany, Prussia, the Netherlands and England in the sixteenth
century, and France in the seventeenth century, but it was not thought
practicable to manufacture cloth exclusively from cotton until toward
the close of the eighteenth century, the cotton yarn being used only
for woof, while the warp used in conjunction therewith was either 254
wool, flax, or silk. The so-called “Manchester cottons” of earlier
date were composed in part of cotton and in part of wool or linen. The
first acquaintance of western Europe with cloths made entirely from
cotton seems to have been in those brought from Calcutta, India (and
therefore called calicoes); but the calicoes made in Europe at that
time and for more than a century after were made, in part at least, of
wool or linen.
Prior to the latter part of the eighteenth century all cloths, whether
of wool, cotton, silk, or flax, were manufactured by hand labor. The
natural fabrics were, as described elsewhere in this work, spun into
threads by the use of the simple spinning wheel, chiefly by the labor
of women who were termed “Spinsters.” The threads thus obtained were
made into cloth by the use of a loom upon the general principles above
described, but of extremely simple design and operated solely by human
power. Up to this time the making of threads or yarn and their
transformation into cloth by the weavers, chiefly men, kept pace
fairly with one another, the supply of thread or yarn being about
equal to the demand by the weavers. “One good weaver,” says Dr. Ure,
“could keep three active women at work spinning weft. In operating the
loom, the shuttle which carried the thread back and forth between the
raised and lowered sections of the warp was thrown back and forth with
the hand, which required a constant extension of the hands to each
side of the warp. In 1738 John Kay, an Englishman, devised a system by
which the shuttle was thrown back and forth by means of strings
attached at opposite ends of the lathe in which the shuttles ran,
enabling a weaver to double the amount of cloth which he could
manufacture within a given space of time, thus making the demand for
yarn in excess of the supply.” “It was no uncommon thing,” says a
writer on that subject, “for a weaver to walk three or four miles in a
morning, and call on four or five spinners, before he could collect 255
weft to serve him for the remainder of the day.”
This stimulated active minds in those industries to devise some method
for increasing the facilities for turning the wool or cotton or flax
into the needed yarn, and James Hargreaves, a weaver, devised about
1764 a machine which he called the “spinning jenny,” in which were set
eight spindles in a frame put in motion by a single wheel, and by
moving backward and forward a moveable carriage containing a
horizontal clasp to hold the material being twisted into threads, the
quantity of yarn which one person could produce in a given length of
time was greatly increased. Subsequently the number of spindles in the
frame was increased to 20 or 30, and in time to more than 1,000.
Hargreaves kept this invention secret for a time, using it merely to
manufacture yarn for his own weaving, but it finally became known and
the spinners of the neighborhood, believing that it would throw many
out of employment, broke into his establishment and destroyed the
machine. He, however, retired to Nottingham, erected a small mill and
took out a patent for the “spinning jenny,” and in time it became to
be an established method of manufacturing yarn and in a more elaborate
form is the principal factor in the manufacture of cotton yarns in the
great factories today, the number of spindles which a modern machine
of this character now uses being often in excess of 1,000, instead of
the 8 utilized by the original spinning jenny.
Meantime another method was being utilized and brought into operation,
by which a stronger yarn could be produced. It seems to have been
originally devised by John Wyatt, of Birmingham, England, and operated
upon a system entirely different from that of the jenny. “The method
adopted,” says Ellison, in his “Cotton Trade of Great Britain,” “was
to pass the cotton through pairs of small grooved rollers placed
horizontally, the upper and lower roller of each pair revolving in 256
contact, the sliver of cotton, after passing through these rollers,
being caught by another pair of rollers placed immediately in front
which revolve with three, four, or five times the velocity of the
first pair and therefore draw out the sliver of cotton into three,
four, or five times its former length and degree of fineness. After
passing through this second pair of rollers it was attached to a
spindle, the rapid revolutions of which twisted it into a thread and
at the same time wound it upon a bobbin.” This method, devised by
Wyatt in 1730 and patented in 1738, was perfected by Arkwright 30
years later and was known as the “spinning frame,” but since it was
operated by water power, received the name of the “water frame.” By
the use of this process the cotton yarn was made of sufficient
strength to permit its use for the warp as well as for the woof, and
thus, for the first time, the making of cloth entirely from cotton
became practicable.
“With the invention of the jenny and water frame,” says Ellison,
“commenced a new era in the history of the cotton trade; in fact, so
far as Europe is concerned, it may be said that the history of the
cotton manufacture, as a separate and distinct industry, began with
the invention of these two machines; for until the introduction of
Arkwright’s contrivance for spinning by rollers, it was impossible to
produce a piece of cloth composed wholly of cotton.”
Still another important device for use in the manufacture of cotton
cloths was the “carding machine.” Originally the raw cotton was
prepared for spinning by the use of brushes made of short pieces of
wire instead of bristles, the wire being stuck into a sheet of leather
at a certain angle, the cotton being spread upon one piece and combed
with another until the fibers were laid straight, when it was ready
for the use of the spinner. In 1748 a carding machine was devised to
supersede the hand process, but it was not until toward the close of 257
the century that carding machines took such form as to become an
important factor in the cotton-manufacturing industry. Even in the
closing quarter of the eighteenth century the prejudice on the part of
hand laborers against machines was so great that for several miles
around Blackwell every spinning jenny containing more than 20 spindles
was destroyed, while a mill erected by Arkwright near Chorley was
destroyed by a mob. A little later another machine was invented by
Samuel Crompton, which he designated the “spinning mule,” which
combined the drawing rollers of Arkwright and the jenny of Hargreaves;
and it was looked upon as an improvement upon the machines of
Arkwright and Hargreaves. These devices--the spinning jenny of
Hargreaves, the water frame of Arkwright, and the combination of those
principles in the spinning mule of Crompton--revolutionized the
cotton-manufacturing industry and the principles thus embodied are
still the chief factors in the great cotton-manufacturing
establishments of the world today.
Another device which added greatly to the manufacturing possibilities
with reference to cotton was the invention by Eli Whitney in America
of the cotton gin, a machine for stripping the cotton fiber from the
seeds and technically called the “gin,” probably a contraction of the
word engine. It performs its work through the operation of a series of
revolving saws which come in contact with the cotton through openings
sufficiently narrow to prevent the passing of the seeds but permitting
the fibers torn therefrom to pass downward into a receptacle, while
the seeds, freed from the fiber, pass through another opening and are
subsequently utilized in the manufacture of oil; though this
utilization of the seeds did not develop until long after the cotton
gin had become an important factor in the cotton-manufacturing
industries of the world.
Through the application of these machines--the spinning jenny, the 258
water frame, the spinning mule, and the cotton gin, driven by power
generated by water or steam, and in more recent years applied, in some
cases in the form of electricity--the cotton manufacturing of the
world has been transferred from hand work to that of machines, and the
world’s consumption of cotton today is many times as much as that of
the period in which these machines were being perfected, while the
quantity of cotton goods produced from a given amount of cotton is,
through the refinement of machine processes, much greater than
formerly. The quantity of cotton cloth produced at the present time
through the development of machinery and the encouragement which its
use has given to production of cotton and consumption of cotton goods
multiplies many times that of the period in which the transformation
from hand to machine production began, and has made cotton the leading
textile material of the world.
True, other branches of the textile industry have also benefited by
the application of machine methods of spinning and weaving similar to
those above described; but no other important textile has seen such a
remarkable growth under the stimulus of machine production as has
cotton. Even as late as 1830 the cotton consumed by those sections of
the world for which statistics are available only amounted to about
500 million pounds, against 8,500 million in 1907, while, as already
indicated, a pound of cotton under present conditions of manufacture
produces probably twice as much of a given line of manufactures as a
century ago. When it is remembered that the population of the world
has only doubled since 1830 and the consumption of cotton is 17 times
as great as at that time, the relative growth of cotton consumption to
population will be seen to have been very great.
The above figures relating to consumption of cotton and to comparison
of present consumption with that of a century ago relate chiefly to 259
Europe and the United States. Statistics of consumption are available,
in addition to Europe and the United States, for India and Japan, and
a few communities in which the consumption is small, such as Canada,
Mexico and Australia. In addition to this, however, it must be
remembered that large quantities of cotton goods are still being
manufactured in certain parts of the world by the crude processes
which prevailed in Europe and the United States before the adoption of
the machine methods above described. In China, for example, large
quantities of cotton are turned into yarn by hand spinning, and into
cloth by hand weaving, and there is reason to believe that the
quantity of cotton cloth manufactured in China by hand weaving, partly
from yarns spun by hand and partly from yarns manufactured by machine
methods, is greater than that manufactured by modern machinery. In
many of the oriental countries, in large portions of South America, in
large sections of Africa, and in the islands of the Pacific, millions,
hundreds of millions of people are still clothed with textiles--cotton,
wool, silk, or fibers--manufactured by hand processes or by simple
machines operated by man power. In Europe and the United States,
however, the system has been completely transformed, and machinery and
money, in combination with a steadily decreasing percentage of human
labor, now manufacture the cotton goods worn not only by their own
people, but by large sections of the inhabitants of the oriental
countries and the continents of Africa, South America and Australia.
The relative growth in the manufacture of cotton in recent years by
the principal countries in which this industry has developed is
indicated by the fact that the quantity of cotton consumed in Great
Britain in 1887 was 2,955,000 bales and in 1907, 3,900,000 bales; that
of the continent of Europe, in 1887, 2,912,000 bales, in 1907,
5,460,000 bales; in the United States, in 1887, 1,939,000 bales, in 260
1907, 4,950,000 bales; in India, in 1887, 569,000 bales, in 1907,
1,600,000 bales; in Japan, in 1892, the first year for which
statistics are available, 99,000 bales, and in 1907, 925,000 bales;
and in all other countries for which figures are available, in 1891,
106,000 bales, and in 1907, 171,000 bales.
With this elaborate use of machinery and increase of cotton
production, manufacture and consumption, has come great reduction in
cost of production and in prices. “In the last half of the nineteenth
century,” says S. N. D. North, late Director of the Census, in the
Encyclopedia Americana, “there was an increase in value of textile
products in the United States of about six times and not less than ten
times if it were possible to measure this product by quantity instead
of by value. Even the largest figures convey an inadequate idea of the
relative importance of our textile mills in the industrial economy of
the nation, for those mills supply the materials for a great group of
subsidiary factory industries, such as the wholesale clothing
manufacture, etc. When we aggregate these, and add to them the value
of the products of the linen, jute, hemp, and bagging mills of the
country, we find that the product of our textile mills is larger in
value than that of any single line of related industries, iron and
steel excepted. The decrease in the cost of goods during the last half
of the century has been one of the most striking phases of the
development. This decrease is due--in some measure, of course, to the
decreased price of the raw materials, but in even larger measure to
the remarkable advance in methods of manufacture--to the new and more
perfect machinery employed, in the invention of which American
mechanical genius has contributed certainly as much as that of any
other people, and perhaps more. All the fundamental inventions in
spinning-machinery were of English origin. The French and Germans have
also done much in the invention of labor-saving textile machinery,
but the American record may be shown to have surpassed them all. 261
The wool-carding machinery of all countries owes its chief improvement
over the machines of a century ago to the invention of John Goulding,
of Worcester, Mass. The modern cotton spindle, making 10,000
revolutions a minute, is an evolution of our own mechanics, and the
saving effected by new forms of spindles invented and adopted in the
United States since 1870, when 5,000 revolutions per minute was the
average speed, has been more than equal to the capacity of all the
warp-spinning machinery in use in this country in that year. In
structural equipment, the modern American mill,” continues Mr. North,
“is, in some respects, superior to the average foreign mill. It is not
so massive a structure, nor so solidly built, brick being used here
while the English usually use stone; and in the lightness and airiness
of its rooms, in economy of arrangement and general completeness of
equipment and care for the comfort and convenience of the operatives,
it is usually superior. While many parts of the machinery required for
the equipment of our textile mills are still necessarily imported from
England because not made, or less perfectly made, in the United
States, our machine manufacturers have been advancing as rapidly in
recent years as the textile mills themselves, and the time cannot now
be far distant when every new mill built in America will be equipped
throughout with American-made machinery. The American textile mills
now supply practically every variety of fabric made in the world, with
the exception of linens and the very finest grades of other fabrics.”
The Census of 1905 shows the value of cotton manufactures of the
United States in 1850, 62 million dollars; in 1860, 115 million; in
1880, 192 million; in 1900, 331 million; and in 1905, 442 million; the
capital invested in 1850, 75 million dollars; and in 1905, 605
million; the wages paid in 1860 (no figures for 1850), 24 million
dollars; in 1905, 94 million; the number of wage-earners in 1850, 262
122,000; in 1905, 310,000; the number of spindles, in 1860, 5¼
million; in 1905, 23 million; the number of looms, in 1860, 126,313;
in 1905, 540,910; the cotton consumed, in 1860, 423 million pounds; in
1905, 1,873 million pounds.
A marked characteristic of the cotton industry of the United States in
recent years has been the gradual movement of the industry away from
New England, where it was originally established, toward the
cotton-producing section, the South. The number of cotton-manufacturing
establishments in the New England States fell from 439 in 1880 to 308
in 1905, while those in the South increased from 161 to 550 in the
same time. The number of spindles as shown by the Bureau of Statistics
of the Department of Commerce and Labor, in the Northern States as a
whole, increased from 10 million in 1880 to 17⅓ million in 1908, while
those in the Southern States increased from a little over a half
million in 1880 to over 10 million in 1908. In the principal
cotton-manufacturing countries of the world the increase in spindles
during the last decade has been as follows: Great Britain, from 44½
million in 1897 to 52 million in 1907; continental Europe, from 30⅓
million in 1897 to 36 million in 1907; the United States, from 17
million to 25¾ million; India, from 4 million to 5⅓ million; and
Japan, from a half million to a little over 1½ million. The 36 million
cotton spindles in continental Europe are, according to Ellison,
distributed as follows: Germany, 9 million; Russia and Poland, 7
million; France, 6 million; Austria-Hungary, 3¾ million; Italy, 3
million; Spain, 2¾ million; Switzerland, 1½ million; Belgium, 1⅓
million, and the remainder distributed among Switzerland, Holland,
Portugal and Greece.