The following are some of the proverbs relating to the Kapus:--

The Kapu protects all.

The Kapu's difficulties are known only to god.

The Kapu dies from even the want of food.

The Kapu knows not the distinction between daughter and

daughter-in-law (i.e., both must work for him).

The Karnam (village accountant) is the cause of the Kapu's death.

The Kapu goes not to the fort (i.e., into the presence of the

Raja). A modern variant is that the Kapu goes not to the court

(of law).

While the Kapu was sluggishly ploughing, thieves stole the rope

collars.

The year the Kapu came in, the famine came too.

The Reddis are those who will break open the soil to fill their

bellies.

When the unpracticed Reddi got into a palanquin, it swung from

side to side.

The Reddi who had never mounted a horse sat with his face to

the tail.

The Reddi fed his dog like a horse, and barked himself.

Karadhi.--A name sometimes given to Mari Holeyas.

Karadi (bear).--An exogamous sept of Tottiyan.

Karaikkat.--Karaikkat, Karaikkatar, or Karkatta, meaning those who

waited for rain, or, according to another version, those who saved

or protected the clouds, is an endogamous division of Vellala. Some

Tamil Malayalis, who claim to be Vellalas who emigrated to the hills

from Conjeeveram, have, at times of census, returned themselves as

Karaikkaat Vellalas.

Karaiturai (sea-coast) Vellala.--A name assumed by some Pattanavans.

Karaiyalan (ruler of the coast).--A title of Maravans, also taken by

some Idaiyans.

Karaiyan.--A name for Tamil sea-fishermen, who live on the coast

(karai). The fishing section of the Palles is known as Palle

Kariyalu. See Pattanavan.

Karalan.--In the Census Report, 1891, the Karalans (rulers of clouds)

are returned as a tribe of hunters and cultivators found in the hills

of Salem and South Arcot. In the Report, 1901, Karalan is given as a

synonym for Vellala in Malabar, and also as a name for Malayalis. At

the census, 1901, many of the Malayalis of the Shevaroy hills in the

Salem district returned themselves as Vellalas and Karalans. And the

divisions returned by the Karalans, e.g., Kolli, Pacchai, Periya,

and Perianan, connect them with these Malayalis (q.v.).

Karepaku.--Karepaku or Karuvepilai is a name for Koravas, who

hawk for sale leaves of the curry-leaf plant (Murraya Koenigii).

Karichcha.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a

sub-division of Nayar.

Karimbarabannaya (sugar-cane sept).--An exogamous sept of Kelasi.

Karimpalan.--The Karimpalans are a small hunting and cultivating forest

tribe in Malabar. They are "punam (shifting) cultivators, hewers of

wood, and collectors of wild pepper, and are found in all the foot

hills north of the Camel's Hump. They wear the kudumi (hair knot),

and are said to follow the marumakkatayam system of inheritance in the

female line, but they do not perform the tali kettu ceremony. They

are supposed to have the power of exorcising the demon Karuvilli,

possession by whom takes the form of fever." [117]

Kariya.--A sub-division of Kudubi.

Karkadabannaya (scorpion sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant.

Karkatta.--A synonym of Karaikattu Vellala.

Karna.--A sub-division of Golla, and an exogamous sept of Mala.

Karnabattu.--The Karnabattus, or Karnabhatus, are a Telugu weaving

caste, found chiefly in the Godavari district. The story goes that

there once lived a king, who ruled over a portion of the country now

included in this district, and was worried by a couple of demons,

who carried off some of his subjects for their daily food. The king

prayed Siva for deliverance from them, and the god, being gratified at

his devotion to him, produced nine persons from his ears, and ordered

them to slay the demons. This they did, and their descendants are

the Karnabhatus, or ear soldiers. By religion, the Karnabattus are

either ordinary Saivites or Lingayats. When a girl reaches maturity,

she remains under a pollution for sixteen days. Early marriage is the

rule, and a Brahman officiates at weddings. The dead, as among other

Lingayats, are buried in a sitting posture. The caste is organised in

the same manner as the Sales, and, at each place, there is a headman

called Kulampedda or Jatipedda, corresponding to the Senapatbi of

the Sales. They weave coarse cloths, which are inferior in texture

to those manufactured by Patta Sales and Silevantas.

In a note on the Karnabattus, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes that

"though a low caste, they forbid the remarriage of widows. But the

remark in the Census Report (1901) that they abstain from meat is

not true of the Karnabattus questioned, who admitted that they would

eat even pork. Their special deity is Somesvara, whom they unite to

worship on the new-moon day of Pushyam (January-February). The god is

represented by a mud idol made for the occasion. The pujari (priest)

throws flowers over it in token of adoration, and sits before it with

his hands outstretched and his mouth closed until one of the flowers

falls into his hands."

The Karnabattus have no regular caste titles, but sometimes the elders

add Ayya or Anna as a suffix to their name.

Karna Sale.--The Karna Sales are a caste of Telugu weavers,

who are called Seniyans in the Tamil country, e.g., at Madura and

Tanjore. They seem to have no tradition as to their origin, but the

name Karna would seem to have its origin in the legend relating

to the Karnabattus. These are, in the community, both Saivites

and Vaishnavites, and all members of the Illabaththini sept are

Vaishnavites. They are said to have only one gotra, Kasi (Benares),

and numerous exogamous septs, of which the following are examples:--

Vasthrala, cloth.

Rudrakshala, seeds of Elæocarpus Ganitrus.

Mandha, village common or herd.

Kodavili, sickle.

Thadla, rope.

Thatichettu, palmyra palm.

Dhoddi, court-yard.

Thippa, rubbish-heap.

In some places, the office of headman, who is called Setti,

is hereditary. He is assisted by a Pedda Kapu, and Nela Setti,

of whom the latter is selected monthly, and derives his name from

the Telugu nela (month). In their marriage ceremonial, the Karna

Sales closely follow the Padma Sales, but they have no upanayanam

(sacred thread rite), or Kasiyathre (mock pilgrimage to Benares),

have twelve pots brought for worship, and no pot-searching.

As among other Telugu castes, when a girl reaches puberty, twigs of

Strychnos Nux-vomica are placed in the special hut erected for the

occasion. On the third or fifth day, the girl's relations come to her

house under a cloth canopy (ulladam), carrying rice soaked in jaggery

(crude sugar) water. This rice is called dhadibiyam (wet rice), and is

placed in a heap, and, after the waving of coloured water, distributed,

with pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts), among those present.

The dead are carried to the burial-ground in a car, and buried, after

the manner of Lingayats, in a sitting posture. Jangams officiate

at funerals.

The caste deity is Somesvara. Some Karna Sales wear the lingam,

but are not particular about keeping it on their person, leaving

it in the house, and wearing it when at meals, and on important

occasions. Concerning the Lingayat section of the community,

Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, as follows. [118] "The Lingayats resemble

the Linga Balijas in all their customs, in all respects, except that

they recognise sutakam, or pollution, and bathe to remove it. They

freely eat in the houses of all Linga Balijas, but the latter will

not eat with them. They entirely disregard the spiritual authority of

the Brahmans, recognising priests among the Linga Balijas, Jangams,

or Pandarams. In the exercise of their trade, they are distinguished

from the Kaikolans in that they sometimes weave in silk, which the

Kaikolans never do." Like the Padma Sales, the Karna Sales usually

only weave coarse cotton cloths.

Karnam.--See Korono.

Karnam (accountant).--An exogamous sept of Kamma.

Karnataka.--The territorial name of a sub-division of Handichikka

and Uppara. It is also the name of a sub-division of Madhva and

Smarta Brahmans who speak the Kanarese language, as opposed to the

Desastha Brahmans, who are immigrants into Southern India from the

Maratha country.

Karo Panikkar.--A class of temple servants in Malabar. "The Karo

Panikkar is said to be descended from the union of Vettakorumagan

(the God of hunting) and a Kiriyattil Nayar woman. His occupation is

to act as Vellichapad or oracle in temples dedicated to his divine

ancestor." [119]

Karpura Chetti.--A synonym of Uppiliyans, who used to manufacture

camphor (karpura).

Karta.--Karta and Kartavu, meaning agent or doer, is an honorific

title of Nayars and Samantas. It is also the name for the chief mourner

at funerals of Nayars and other castes on the west coast. Kartakkal,

denoting, it is said, governors, has been returned, at times of census

by Balijas claiming to be descendants of the Nayak kings of Madura

and Tanjore.

Karukku-pattayar (those of the sharp sword).--A sub-division of

Shanan. In the Census Report, 1891, the division Karukku-mattai

(petiole of the palmyra leaf with serrated edges) was returned. Some

Shanans are said to have assumed the name of Karukku-mattai Vellalas.

Karumala (black mountain).--An exogamous sept of Kanikar.

Karuman.--A sub-division of Kammalans, who do blacksmith's work.

Karumpuraththal.--A synonym for the caste name adopted by some

Kappiliyans.

Karumpurattan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that

"the term Karumpurattan is said to be a corruption of Karu-aruttar,

which means the Annihilators, and to have been given to the caste

because they are the descendants of a garrison of Chola Vellalas,

who treacherously allowed an enemy to enter the Tanjore fort, and

annihilate the Raja and his family. Winslow, however, says [120] that

Karumpuram is a palmyra tree. [121] and Karumpurattan may thus mean

a palmyra man, that is, a toddy-drawer. In the enumeration schedules,

the name was often written Karumpuran. If this etymology is correct,

this caste must originally have been Shanans or Iluvans. It is said to

have come from the village of Tiruvadamarudur in Tanjore, and settled

in the north-eastern part of Madura. The caste has seven sub-castes,

called after seven nadus or villages in Madura, in which it originally

settled. In its ceremonies, etc., it closely follows the Ilamagams. Its

title is Pillai."

Karutta (dark-coloured).--Recorded, at the Madras census, 1891,

as a sub-division of Idaiyans, who have also returned Karuttakkadu,

meaning black cotton soil or regur.

Karuva Haddi.--A name for the scavenging section of Haddis.

Karuvan.--A corrupt form of Karuman.

Karuvelam.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a

sub-division of Nayar.

Kasayi (butcher).--A Muhammadan occupational name.

Kasi (Benares).--A gotra of Medara and Karna Sale.

Kasi.--A name for the stone-mason section of Kamsalas.

Kasturi (musk).--An exogamous sept of Badaga, Kamma, Okkiliyan,

and Vakkaliga. Indian musk is obtained from the musk glands of the

Himalayan musk-deer, Moschus moschiferus.

Kasuba (workmen).--A section of Irulas of the Nilgiris, who have

abandoned jungle life in favour of working on planters' estates

or elsewhere.

Kasukkar.--The name, derived from kas, cash, of a sub-division

of Chetti.

Kasula (copper coins).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sale.

Kasyapa.--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Bhatrazus, Khatris, and

Tontis. Kasyapa was one of the seven important Rishis, and the priest

of Parasu Rama.

Katakam (crab).--An exogamous sept of Komati.

Katal Arayan.--See Valan.

Katari (dagger: katar).--An exogamous sept of Golla, Mutracha, and

Yerukala. The dagger or poignard, called katar, has "a solid blade

of diamond section, the handle of which consists of two parallel

bars with a cross-piece joining them. The hand grips the crosspiece,

and the bars pass along each side of the wrist." [122]

Katasan.--Recorded [123] as "a small caste of basket-makers and

lime-burners in the Tinnevelly district. It has at least two endogamous

sub-divisions, namely, Pattankatti and Nittarasan. Widows are allowed

to remarry. The dead are buried. The social position of the caste is

above that of the Vettuvans, and they consider themselves polluted if

they eat food prepared by a Shanan. But they are not allowed to enter

Hindu temples, they worship devils, and they have separate washermen

and barbers of their own, all of which are signs of inferiority. Their

title is Pattamkatti, and Kottan is also used."

Kaththavaraya.--A synonym for Vannan, derived from Kaththavaraya,

the deified son of Kali, from whom the Vannans trace their descent.

Kaththe (donkey).--An exogamous sept of Madiga.

Kaththi (knife).--An exogamous sept of Devanga and Madiga.

Kaththiri (scissors).--An exogamous sept of Devanga, and sub-division

of Gadaba.

Kaththiravandlu (scissors people).--Concerning this section of the

criminal classes, Mr. F. S. Mullaly writes to me as follows. "This is

purely a Nellore name for this class of professional pick-pockets. The

appellation seems to have been given to them from the fact that they

frequent fairs and festivals, and busy railway platforms, offering

knives and scissors for sale. And, when an opportunity presents

itself, they are used for cutting strings of beads, ripping open bags,

etc. Several of these light-fingered gentry have been found with small

scissors in their mouths. Most of them wear shoes of a peculiar shape,

and these form a convenient receptacle for the scissors. Bits of broken

glass (to act as knives) are frequently found in their mouths. In

different districts they are known by different appellations, such as

Donga Dasaris in North Arcot and parts of Cuddapah; Golla Woddars,

Donga Woddars, and Muheri Kalas in Cuddapah, Bellary, and Kurnool;

Pachupus in Kistna and Godavari; Alagiris, Ena or Thogamalai Koravas

in the southern districts. Individuals belonging to this class of

thieves have been traced, since the opening of the East Coast Railway,

as far as Midnapore. An important way of identifying them is the fact

that everyone of them, male and female, is branded at the corners

of the eyebrows and between the eyes in childhood, as a safeguard

against convulsions."

For the following additional information I am indebted to an official

of the Police department. "I am not aware of these people using any

particular shoes. They use sandals such as are generally worn by

ryots and the lower classes. These they get by stealing. They pick

them up from houses during the daytime, when they go from house to

house on the pretence of begging, or they steal them at nights along

with other property. These sandals are made in different fashions

in different districts, and so those possessed by Kathiras are

generally of different kinds, being stolen from various parts of the

country. They have no shoes of any peculiar make, nor do they get any

made at all. Kathiras do not generally wear any shoes. They walk and

run faster with bare feet. They wear shoes when walking through the

jungle, and entrust them to one of their comrades when walking through

the open country. They sometimes throw them off when closely pursued,

and run away. In 1899, when we arrested one on the highroad, he had

with him five or six pairs of shoes of different kinds and sizes,

and he did not account satisfactorily for being in possession of so

many. I subsequently learnt that some supernumeraries were hiding in

the jungle close to the place where he was arrested.

"About marks of branding on the face, it is not only Kathiras, but

almost all nomadic tribes who have these marks. As the gangs move on

exposed to changes of weather, the children sometimes get a disease

called sandukatlu or palakurkura. They generally get this disease from

the latter part of the first year up to the fifth year. The symptoms

are similar to those which children sometimes have at the time of

teething. It is when children get this disease that they are branded

on the face between the eyebrows, on the outer corners of the eyes,

and sometimes on the belly. The brand-marks on the face and corners of

the eyes are circular, and those on the belly generally horizontal. The

circular brand-marks are made with a long piece of turmeric, one end

of which is burnt for the purpose, or with an indigo-coloured cloth

rolled like a pencil and burnt at one end. The horizontal marks are

made with a hot needle. Similar brand-marks are made by some caste

Hindus on their children."

To Mr. P. B. Thomas I am indebted for specimens of the chaplet,

made of strips of rolled pith, worn by Kaththira women when begging,

and of the cotton bags, full of false pockets, regularly carried by

both men and women, in which they secrete the little sharp knife and

other articles constituting their usual equipment.

In his "History of Railway thieves," Mr. M. Paupa Rao Naidu, writing

about the pick-pockets or Thetakars, says that "most of them wear shoes

called chadavs, and, if the articles stolen are very small, they put

them at once into their shoes, which form very convenient receptacles

from their peculiar shape; and, therefore, when a pick-pocket with

such a shoe on is suspected of having stolen a jewel, the shoes must

be searched first, then the mouth and the other parts of the body."

Kaththula (sword).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi.

Katige (collyrium).--A gotra of Kurni.

Katikala (collyrium).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Katike.--The Katike or Katikilu are butchers in the Telugu country,

concerning whom it is noted, in the Kurnool Manual, that "some are

called Sultani butchers, or Hindus forcibly circumcised by the late

Nabob of Kurnool. They observe both Mussalman and Hindu customs." A

correspondent in the Kurnool district informs me that the butchers

of Kurnool belong to three classes, one selling beef, and the others

mutton. Of these, the first are Muhammadans, and are called Gayi

Khasayi, as they deal in beef. The other two are called respectively

Sultanis and Surasus, i.e., the circumcised and uncircumcised. Both

claim to be the descendants of two brothers, and have the following

tradition concerning their origin. Tipu Sultan is said not to have

relished the idea of taking mutton at the hands of Hindus, as they

would not perform Bismallah at the time of slaughtering the sheep. He

accordingly ordered both the brothers to appear before him. Being the

manager of the family, the elder went, and was forcibly circumcised. On

hearing the news, the younger brother absconded. The descendants of

the former are Muhammadans, and of the latter Hindus. As he was made

a Muhammadan by force, the elder brother and his descendants did not

adopt all the Muhammadan manners and customs. Till recently they did

not even allow their beards to grow. At the present day, they go to

mosques, dress like Muhammadans, shave their heads, and grow beards,

but do not intermarry with the true Muhammadans. The descendants of

the younger brother still call themselves Ari-katikelu, or Maratha

butchers, profess the Hindu religion, and follow Hindu manners

and customs. Though they do not eat with Muhammadans or Sultanis,

their Hindu brethren shun them because of their profession, and

their intimacy with Sultanis. I am informed that, at Nandyal in

the Kurnool district, some Maratha butchers, who observe purely

Hindu customs, are called by Muhammadan names. The Tahsildar of the

Sirvel taluk in the same district states that, prior to the reign

of the father of Ghulam Rasul Khan, the dethroned Nawab of Kurnool,

the butcher's profession was solely in the hands of the Marathas,

some of whom were, as stated in the Manual, forcibly circumcised,

and became a separate butcher caste, called Sultani. There are two

sections among these Sultani butchers, viz., Bakra (mutton) and Gai

Kasai (beef butcher). Similar stories of forcible conversion to the

Muhammadan religion are prevalent in the Bellary district, where the

Kasayis are mostly converted Hindus, who dress in the Hindu style, but

possess Muhammadan names with Hindu terminations, e.g., Hussainappa.

In connection with butchers, I may quote the following extract from a

petition to the Governor of Madras on the subject of a strike among the

Madras butchers in 1907. "We, the residents of Madras, beg respectfully

to bring to your Excellency's notice the inconvenience and hardship

we are suffering owing to the strike of the butchers in the city. The

total failure of the supply of mutton, which is an important item

in the diet of non-Brahmin Hindus, Muhammadans, Indian Christians,

Parsis, Eurasians and Europeans, causes a deprivation not merely of

something to which people have become accustomed, but of an article of

food by which the health of many is sustained, and the want of which

is calculated to impair their health, and expose them to diseases,

against which they have hitherto successfully contended."

Katorauto.--A name for the offspring of maid servants in the harems

of Oriya Zamindars, who are said to claim to be Kshatriyas.

Katta.--Katta or Katte, meaning a bund, dam, or embankment, has been

recorded as an exogamous sept or gotra of Devanga and Kurni.

Kattelu (sticks or faggots).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Kattira.--A sub-division of Gadaba.

Kattu.--See Kadu.

Kattukudugirajati.--The name, meaning the caste which allows living

together after marriage of an informal kind, recorded [124] as the

caste name of Turuvalars (Vedars) of Salem, derived from a custom

among them, which authorises temporary matrimonial arrangements.

Kattu Kapari (dweller in the forest).--Said to be a name for Irulas

or Villiyans. The equivalent Kattu Kapu is, in like manner, said to

be a name for Jogis.

Kattu Marathi.--A synonym of Kuruvikaran.

Kaudikiaru.--Kaudikiaru or Gaudikiaru is a title of Kurubas.

Kavadi.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Kabadi is returned as

the name of a class of Telugu wood-cutters. Kavadi is the name of a

division of Koravas, who carry offerings to Perumalswami at Tirupati

on a pole (kavadi). Kavadi or Kavadiga is further the name given

to Kannadiyan curd-sellers in Madras, who carry the curds in pots

as head-loads.

Kavalgar (watchman).--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division

of Ambalakaran, and title of Nattaman, Malaiman, and Sudarman. The

equivalent Kavali is recorded as a sub-division of the Kammas. The

Kavalis, or watchers, in the Telugu country, are said to be

generally Lingayat Boyas. [125] The Telugu Mutrachas are also called

Kavalgar. The village kaval system in the southern districts is

discussed in the note on Maravans.

Kavandan.--At the census, 1901, more than nine thousand people returned

themselves as Kavandan or Kaundan, which is a title of Konga Vellalas,

and many other castes, such as Anappan, Kappiliyan, Palli, Sembadavan,

Urali, and Vettuvan. The name corresponds to the Canarese Gauda

or Gaunda.

Kaundinya (a sage).--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Razus and

Bhatrazus.

Kavane (sling).--An exogamous sept of Gangadikara Holeyas.

Kavarai.--Kavarai is the name for Balijas (Telugu trading caste),

who have settled in the Tamil country. The name is said to be a

corrupt form of Kauravar or Gauravar, descendants of Kuroo of the

Mahabaratha, or to be the equivalent of Gauravalu, sons of Gauri, the

wife of Siva. Other suggested derivatives are: (a) a corrupt form of

the Sanskrit Kvaryku, badness or reproach, and Arya, i.e., deteriorated

Aryans; (b) Sanskrit Kavara, mixed, or Kavaraha, a braid of hair, i.e.,

a mixed class, as many of the Telugu professional prostitutes belong

to this caste; (c) Kavarai or Gavaras, buyers or dealers in cattle.

The Kavarais call themselves Balijas, and derive the name from

bali, fire, jaha sprung, i.e., men sprung from fire. Like other

Telugu castes, they have exogamous septs, e.g., tupaki (gun), jetti

(wrestler), pagadala (coral), bandi (cart), simaneli, etc.

The Kavarais of Srivilliputtur, in the Tinnevelly district, are

believed to be the descendants of a few families, which emigrated

thither from Manjakuppam (Cuddalore) along with one Dora Krishnamma

Nayudu. About the time of Tirumal Nayak, one Ramaswami Raju, who had

five sons, of whom the youngest was Dora Krishnamma, was reigning

near Manjakuppam. Dora Krishnamma, who was of wandering habits,

having received some money from his mother, went to Trichinopoly,

and, when he was seated in the main bazar, an elephant rushed into

the street. The beast was stopped in its career, and tamed by Dora

Krishnamma, to escort whom to his palace Vijayaranga Chokkappa sent

his retinue and ministers. While they were engaged in conversation,

news arrived that some chiefs in the Tinnevelly district refused to

pay their taxes, and Dora Krishnamma volunteered to go and subdue

them. Near Srivilliputtur he passed a ruined temple dedicated

to Krishna, which he thought of rebuilding if he should succeed

in subduing the chiefs. When he reached Tinnevelly, they, without

raising any objection, paid their dues, and Dora Krishnamma returned

to Srivilliputtur, and settled there.

Their marriage ceremonies are based on the type common to many

Telugu castes, but those who belong to the Simaneli sept, and believe

themselves to be direct descendants of Krishnamma, have two special

forms of ceremonial, viz., Krishnamma perantalu, and the carrying

of pots (gurigelu) on the heads of the bride and bridegroom when

they go to the temple before the Kasiyatra ceremony. The Krishnamma

perantalu is performed on the day prior to the muhurtam (tali-tying),

and consists in the worship of the soul of Krishnamma, a married

woman. A new cloth is purchased and presented to a married woman,

together with money, betel, etc., and she is fed before the rest. It

is practically a form of sradh ceremony, and all the formalities of

the sradh, except the homam (sacred fire) and repeating of mantras

from the Vedas, are gone through. This is very commonly observed by

Brahmans, and a few castes which engage a Brahman priest for their

ceremonies. The main idea is the propitiation of the soul of the dead

married woman. If such a woman dies in a family, every ceremony of an

auspicious nature must be preceded by sumangaliprarthana, or worship

of this married woman (sumangali). Orthodox females think that, if the

ceremony is not performed, she will do them some harm. Another custom,

now dying out, is the tying of a dagger to the waist of the bridegroom.

In the Madura district, the Kavarais are described [126] as being "most

commonly manufacturers and sellers of bangles made of a particular kind

of earth, found only in one or two parts of the district. Those engaged

in this traffic usually call themselves Chettis or merchants. When

otherwise employed as spinners, dyers, painters, and the like, they

take the title of Nayakkan. It is customary with these, as with

other Nayakkans, to wear the sacred thread: but the descendants of

the Nayakkan kings, who are now living at Vellei-kuricchi, do not

conform to this usage, on the ground that they are at present in a

state of impurity and degradation, and consequently ought not to wear

the sacred emblem."

The bulk of the Kavarais in Tanjore are said [127] "to bear the

title Nayak. Some that are engaged in trade, more especially those

who sell glass bangles, are called Settis, and those who originally

settled in agriculture are called Reddis. The title of Nayak, like

Pillai, Mudali, and Setti, is generally sought after. As a rule, men

of the Palli or cooly class, when they enter the Government service,

and shepherds, when they grow rich in trade or otherwise, assume this

title, wear the namam (the trident mark on the forehead emblematic of

the Vaishnava persuasion), and call themselves Kavarais or Vadugars,

though they cannot speak Telugu, much less point to any part of the

Telugu country as the seat of their forefathers."

One of the largest sub-divisions of the Kavarais is Valaiyal, the Tamil

equivalent of Gazula, both words meaning a glass or lac bangle. [128]

Kavuthiyan.--The Kavuthiyans are described as follows in the Gazetteer

of Malabar. "They are barbers who serve the Tiyans and lower castes;

they are also sometimes given the title Kurup. Their females act as

midwives. There seem to be several sections, distinguished by the

affix of the name of the castes which they serve, as for instance

Tacchakavuthiyan or Tacchakurup, and Kanisakavuthiyan, appropriated

to the service of the Asaris and Kanisans respectively; while the

barbers who serve the Izhuvans are known both as Aduttons, Vattis,

or Izhuva Kavuthiyans. But whether all these should be regarded as

offshoots of one main barber caste, or as degraded sections of the

castes which they serve, the Kavuthiyans proper being only barbers to

the Tiyans, it is difficult to determine. The fact that the Naviyan

or Kavuthiyan section of the Veluttedans, as well as the Kavuthiyan

section of the Mukkuvans, are admittedly but degraded sections of

these castes, makes the second the more probable view. It is also

to be noticed that the Kavuthiyans, in the north at least, follow

marumakkattayam (inheritance in the female line), while the Taccha

and Kanisa Kavuthiyans follow the other principle of descent."

Kayalan.--The Kayalans are Tamil-speaking Muhammadans, closely allied

to the Marakkayars and living at Kayalpatnam in Tinnevelly. Many of

them have settled as merchants in Madras, and sell glass beads, cowry

shells, dolls from Tirupati, toys, etc. Some are money-lenders to

the lower classes, and others travel about from village to village

selling, for cash or credit rates, cloths, brass vessels, and

other articles. They are sometimes called Arumasaththukadankarar,

or six months' debt people, as this is the time usually allowed

for payment. At Kayalpatnam, a Kayalan husband is expected to live

in his father-in-law's house, and, in connection with this custom,

the following legend is narrated. The chiefman of the town gave his

daughter in marriage to a man living in an adjacent village. One

evening, she went to fetch water from a tank, and, on her way back,

trod on a cobra. She could not move her foot, lest she should be

bitten, so she stood where she was, with her water-pot on her head,

till she was discovered by her father on the following morning. He

killed the snake with the kitti (tweezers) and knife which he had

with him, and told the girl to go with him to his house. She, however,

refused to do so, and went to her husband's house, from which she was

subsequently taken to that of her father. The kitti is an instrument

of torture, consisting of two sticks tied together at one end,

between which the fingers were placed as in a lemon squeezer. With

this instrument, the fingers were gradually bent backwards towards

the back of the hand, until the sufferer, no longer able to endure

the excruciating pain, yielded to the demands made on him to make

confession of guilt.

Kayasth.--Kayasth or Kayastha is the writer-caste of Bengal. See

Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal.

Kayerthannaya (Strychnos Nux-vomica sept).--An exogamous sept of the

Bants and Shivalli Brahmans in South Canara.

Kayila (unripe fruit).--An exogamous sept of Orugunta Kapu.

Keimal (kei, hand, as an emblem of power).--A sub-division of Nayar.

Kela.--A small class of Oriya jugglers and mountebanks, whose women,

like the Dommara females, are often prostitutes. The name is derived

from keli, dancing, or khel to play.

Kelasi.--For the following account of the Kelasi or barber caste

of South Canara, I am indebted to a note on the barbers of Tuluva

by Mr. M. Bapu Rao. [129] The caste name is derived from kelasa,

work. In like manner, the Canarese barbers of Bellary and Dharwar call

themselves Kashta Madovaru, or those who perform the difficult task.

The barbers of South Canara are of different castes or sub-castes

according to the language they speak, or the people for whom they

operate. Thus there are (1) the Tulu Kelsi (Kutchidaye, man of

the hair) or Bhandari; (2) the Konkani Kelsi or Mhallo, who must

have migrated from the north; (3) the Hindustani Kelsi or Hajams;

(4) the Lingayat Kelsi or Hadapavada (man of the wallet); (5) the

Mappilla (Moplah) barber Vasa; (6) the Malayali barber Kavudiyan; and

even Telugu and Tamil barbers imported by the sepoy regiments until

recently stationed at Mangalore. Naturally the Tulus form the bulk of

the class in Tuluva. There is among them a section known as Maddele,

employed by palm-tappers, and hence considered socially inferior to the

Bhandari, who is employed by the higher classes. [The Billava barbers

are called Parel Madiali or Parel Madivala.] If a high caste barber

operates for a man of lower caste, he loses his caste thereby, and

has to pay a fine, or in some other way expiate his offence before

he gains re-admission into his community. Pariahs in these parts

have no separate caste of barbers, but anyone among themselves may

try his skill on any head. Mappilla barbers are employed only by the

Muhammadans. Even in their own community, however, they do not live

in commensality with other Mappillas though gradations of caste are

not recognised by their religion.

The barber is not ambitious enough to claim equality of rank with

the Bant, the potter, the piper, the weaver, or the oilmonger; but he

shows a decided disposition to regard himself as above the level of

the fisherman or the palanquin-bearer. The latter often disclaim any

such inferiority, and refer to the circumstance that they discharge

the functions of carrying the huge umbrella in marriage processions,

and shouldering the gods in religious processions. They argue that

their rivals perform an operation, the defilement of which can only

be wiped off by bathing the head with a solution of sacred earth

taken from besides the roots of the tulsi plant (Ocimum sanctum). In

justice to the barber, however, it must be mentioned that he has

to perform certain priestly duties for most Sudras. His presence is

essential at two of the ceremonies observed by castes professing to

be superior to his. At the name-giving ceremony a Tulu barber has to

tie a thread round the waist of the child, and name it, among Sudras

of a higher caste than himself. [At the present day, the Bhandari

is said to receive his fee for tying the thread, though he does not

actually perform the act.] Again, on the death of a high caste Sudra,

the barber has to carry the fire to the cremation ground, though the

funeral pyre is lighted by the relations of the deceased. He also has

to assist at certain other rites connected with funeral obsequies,

such as purifying the house.

[The collection of fragments of bones from the ashes, heaping up

the ashes, and cleaning the spot where the corpse was burnt, are the

business of the Kelasi. These duties he performs for Morlis, Bants,

Gattis, and Vodaris. The Bhandari or Kelasi is an object of intense

hatred to Konkani women, who call them by abusive names, such as

fellow with a burnt face, miserable wretch, widow-maker, etc.]

The barber in South Canara has invented several stories concerning

the origin of his first progenitor. At a time when the barber had not

yet been created, Siva was a bachelor, spending his time in austere

devotions, and allowing his hair to grow into long matted locks. A time

came when he became bent on matrimony, and he thought that the hirsute

condition of his face would not be appreciated by his bride, the

young daughter of the king of the mountains. It was at this juncture

that the barber was created to make Siva a good-looking bridegroom,

and the Brahman to officiate at the marriage ceremony. According to

another legend, a Gandharva-born woman was on one occasion cast into

the sea by irate Brahma, and doomed to be turned into a rock. Moved

by her piteous entreaties, however, Brahma relented, and ordained that

she should be restored to human form when Parasurama should happen to

set his foot upon the rock. This came to pass when Parasurama thrust

back the waters of the western sea in order to create the western

coast. The re-humanised woman thereupon offered her thanksgivings

in such winning words that the great Brahman hero asked her to beg

any boon she wished. She begged a son, who should in some way remind

generations to come of the great Brahman who had reclaimed her from her

inanimate state. The boon was thereupon granted that she should give

birth to sons, who would not indeed be Brahmans, but who would perform

functions analogous to those performed by Brahmans. The barber thus

discharges certain priestly duties for Sudras, and cleanses the body

even as the Brahman cleanses the soul; and the defilement caused by

the razor can be removed only by the smearing of mud and water, because

the barber's female progenitor was a rock recovered out of water.

The primary occupation of the barber does not always bring

in a sufficient income, while it leaves him a large amount of

leisure. This he spends, if possible, in agricultural labour, in

which he is materially assisted by his female relations. Barbers

residing in towns hold no land to fall back upon, but their average

monthly earnings range from five to seven rupees. Their brethren in

the villages are not so busy plying the razor, so they cultivate land

as tenants. One of the blessings conferred by Parasurama is that the

barber shall never starve.

When a child is born, a male member of the family has to tie a thread

round its waist, and give it a name. The choice of a name often

depends upon the day of the week on which the child was born. If it

is born on a Sunday it is called, if a boy, Aitha (Auditya, sun),

or, if a girl, Aithe; if on a Monday, Some or Somu; if on a Tuesday,

Angara or Angare; if on a Wednesday, Budara or Budare, changed among

Pariahs into Mudara or Mudaru; if on a Thursday, Guruva or Guruvu; if

on a Friday, Tukra (Shukra) or Tukru; if on a Saturday, Taniya (Saniya)

or Taniyaru. Other names which are common are Lakkana (Lakshmana),

Krishna, Subba, and Korapulu (Koraga woman). Those who can afford to

do so often employ a Brahman priest to ascertain whether the child

is born lucky or unlucky; and, in the latter case, the barber is

advised to offer something to the tutelary deity or the nine planets,

or to propitiate the village deity, if it is found that the child is

born under its evil eye. No lullaby should be sung while the child

is being rocked for the first time in a cradle, perhaps because, if

the very first rocking is done with a show of rejoicing, some evil

spirit may be envious of the human joy, and mar the happiness.

The initiation of a boy into the mysteries of his hereditary

profession takes place between the tenth and the fourteenth year. In

very rare cases, nowadays, a boy is sent to school between the sixth

and eighth year. These occasions are marked by offerings of cocoanuts

and plantains to the village deity.

With boys marriage takes place between the sixteenth and twenty-fifth

year, with girls before or after puberty. Matches are made by selection

on the part of the parents. Lads are sometimes allowed to choose

their own brides, but their choice is subject to the approval of the

parents, as it must necessarily be in a joint family. Bridegrooms

have to pay for their brides a dowry varying from twenty to fifty

rupees, and sometimes as much as a hundred rupees. Deformed girls,

however, fetch no price; on the other hand, they have to pay some

pecuniary inducement to the bridegroom. Widows are allowed, and,

when young, encouraged to remarry. The most essential condition of

a valid marriage is that the contracting parties should belong to

different baris or balis (exogamous septs). As examples of the names

of these balis, the following may be cited: Bangaru (gold), Salia

(weaver), Uppa (salt), Kombara (cap made of areca palm leaf), Karimbara

(sugar-cane). Horoscopes are not consulted for the suitability or

future prosperity of a match, but the day and hour, or lagnam of a

marriage are always fixed by a Brahman priest with reference to the

conjunction of stars. The marriage lasts for three days, and takes

place in the house of the bridegroom. This is in accordance with

the primitive conception of marriage as a bringing away by force

or procuring a bride from her parents, rather than with the current

Brahman idea that the bridegroom should be invited, and the girl given

away as a present, and committed to his custody and protection. The

marriage ceremony takes place in a pandal (booth) on a raised or

conspicuous place adorned with various figures or mandala. The pair are

made to sit on a bench, and rice is sprinkled on their heads. A barber

then shaves the chin and forehead of the bridegroom, the hair border

being in the form of a broken pointed arch converging upwards. He also

touches the bride's cheeks with the razor, with the object of removing

what is called monetha kale, the stain on the face. The full import

of this ceremony is not clear, but the barbers look upon the act as

purificatory. If a girl has not come of age at the time of marriage,

it is done on the occasion of the nuptials. If she has, the barber,

in addition to touching the cheeks with the razor, goes to her house,

sprinkles some water over her with a betel leaf, and makes her touch

the pot in which rice is to be cooked in her husband's house. At the

bridegroom's house, before the assembled guests, elders, and headman

of the caste, the man and the girl are linked together in the marriage

bond by having water (dhare) poured on their joined hands. Next, the

right hands of the pair being joined (kaipattavane), the bridegroom

leads the bride to her future home.

Soon after a death occurs, a barber is summoned, who sprinkles water

on the corpse, and touches it with a razor if it be of a male. In every

ceremony performed by him, the barber must have recourse to his razor,

even as the Brahman priest cannot do without his kusa grass. The rich

burn their dead, and the poor bury them. Persons dying of infectious

diseases are always buried. Prior to the removal of the corpse to

the cremation or burial ground, all the clothes on and about it,

with the exception of one cloth to cover it from head to foot, are

removed and distributed to Pariahs, who have prepared the pyre or

dug the grave. Before the mourners return from the cemetery, they

light four lamps in halves of cocoanuts, and leave them burning on

the spot. Coming home, the chief mourner places in the hands of the

Gurukara or headman of the caste a jewel or other valuable article as

a security that he will duly perform all the funeral rites. This is

termed savuotti dipuna. The Gurukara, in the presence of the relations

and friends assembled, returns the same, enjoining its recipient to

be prepared to perform the requisite rites, even with the proceeds

of the sale of the pledged article if necessary. The eleventh day is

the savu or principal mourning day, on which the headman and elders

of the caste, as well as the friends and relations of the deceased

ought to be present. On the spot where the deceased expired, or as

near thereto as possible, an ornamental square scaffolding is erected,

and covered with cloth coloured with turmeric. The ground below the

scaffolding is covered with various figures, and flowers and green

leaves are strewn on it. Each mourner throws on this spot handfuls

of cooked rice, coloured yellow and red, and cries out "Oh! uncle,

I cry murrio," or "Oh! father, I cry murrio," and so on, according

to the relationship in which the deceased stood to the mourner. This

ceremony is called murrio korpuna, or crying alas. In well-to-do

families it is usual to accompany this with devil-dancing. On the

twelfth day, rice is offered to crows, the original belief apparently

being that the spirits of the deceased enter into birds or beasts, so

that food given to these may happen to reach and propitiate them. On

the night of the thirteenth day, the relations of the deceased set

apart a plantain leaf for the spirit of the departed, serve cooked rice

on it, and, joining their hands, pray that the soul may be gathered

unto its ancestors, and rest in peace. The anniversary of the death,

called agel, is celebrated by placing cooked rice on two plantain

leaves placed over sacrificial twigs, and burning incense and waving

lamps before it. This is called soma dipuna.

The family god of the barber is Krishna of Udipi, and the high-priest

to whom he pays homage is the Saniyasi (religious ascetic), who for

the time being worships that god. The same high-priest is also the

final court of appeal from the decisions of the village council of the

barbers in matters relating to caste and religion. The powers which

are ever present to the barber's mind, and which he always dreads and

tries to propitiate, are the village demons, and the departed spirits

of members of his own family. If a child falls ill, he hastens to the

Brahman seer, to learn who is offended, and how the spirit should be

appeased. If his cow does not eat hay, he anxiously enquires to which

demon he should carry a cock. If the rain fails or the crops are poor,

he hies to the nearest deity with cocoanuts, plantains, and the tender

spikes of areca. In case of serious illness, he undertakes a vow

to beg from door to door on certain days, and convey the money thus

accumulated to Tirupati. In his house, he keeps a small closed box

with a slit in the lid, through which he drops a coin at every pinch

of misfortune, and the contents are eventually sent to that holy place.

The affairs of the community are regulated by a council of

elders. In every village, or for every group of houses, there is an

hereditary Gurukara or headman of the barbers, who is assisted by four

Moktesars. If any of these five authorities receives a complaint, he

gives notice to the others, and a meeting is arranged to take place

in some house. When there is a difference of opinion, the opinion of

the majority decides the issue. When a decision cannot be arrived at,

the question is referred to the council of another village. If this

does not settle the point at issue, the final appeal lies to the Swami

of the the Udipi temple. The council inquires into alleged offences

against caste, and punishes them. It declares what marriages are

valid, and what not. It not only preserves discipline within the

community itself, but takes notice of external affairs affecting

the well-being of the community. Thus, if the pipers refuse to make

music at their marriage processions, the council resolves that no

barber shall shave a piper. Disputes concerning civil rights were

once submitted to these councils, but, as their decisions are not

now binding, aggrieved parties seek justice from courts of law.

Punishments consist of compensation for minor offences affecting

individuals, and of fine or excommunication if the offence affects

the whole community. If the accused does not attend the trial, he

may be excommunicated for contempt of authority. If the person seeks

re-admission into the caste, he has to pay a fine, which goes to the

treasury of the temple at Udipi. The presiding Swami at the shrine

accepts the fine, and issues a writ authorising the re-admission of the

penitent offender. The headman collects the fine to be forwarded to the

Swami, and, if he is guilty of any mal-practice, the whole community,

generally called the ten, may take cognisance of the offence. Offences

against marriage relations, shaving low caste people, and such like,

are all visited with fine, which is remitted to the Swami, from whom

purification is obtained. The power of the village councils, however,

has greatly declined in recent years, as the class of cases in which

their decision can be enforced is practically very small.

The Tulu barbers, like many other castes on the western coast, follow

the aliya santana system of inheritance (in the female line). The

tradition in South Canara is that this, and a number of other customs,

were imposed upon certain castes by Bhutala Pandya. The story relates

that Deva Pandya, a merchant of the Pandya kingdom, once had some new

ships built, but before they put to sea, the demon Kundodara demanded

a human sacrifice. The merchant asked his wife to spare one of her

seven sons for the purpose, but she refused to be a party to the

sacrifice, and went away with her sons to her father's house. The

merchant's sister thereupon offered her son. Kundodara, however,

was so very pleased with the appearance of this son that he spared

his life, and made him a king, whose sway extended over Tuluva. This

king was called Bhutala Pandya, and he, being directed by Kundodara,

imposed upon the people the system of nephew inheritance.

The barber is changing with the times. He now seldom uses the old

unfoldable wooden-handled razor forged by the village blacksmith,

but has gone in for what he calls Raja sri (royal fortune; corruption

of Rodgers) razors. He believes that he is polluted by the operation

which it is his lot to perform, and, on his return home from his

morning round, he must bathe and put on washed clothes.

Ken.--Ken (red) and Kenja (red ant) have both been recorded as gotras

of Kurni.

Kenna.--A division of Toda.

Kepumari.--It is noted, in the Gazetteer of South Arcot, that "the

Kepumaris are one of the several foreign communities from other

districts, who help to swell the total of the criminal classes in

South Arcot. Their head-quarters is at Tiruvallur in the Chingleput

district, but there is a settlement of them at Mariyankuppam (not

far from Porto Novo), and another large detachment at Kunisampet in

French territory. They commit much the same class of crime as the

Donga Dasaris, frequenting railway trains and crowded gatherings,

and they avert suspicion by their respectable appearance and pleasant

manners. Their house-language is Telugu. They call themselves Alagiri

Kepumaris. The etymology of the second of these two words is not free

from doubt, but the first of them is said to be derived from Alagar,

the god of the Kallans, whose temple at the foot of the hills about

twelve miles north of Madura town is a well-known place of pilgrimage,

and to whom these people, and other criminal fraternities annually

offer a share of their ill-gotten gains." Information concerning

the criminal methods of these people, under the name Capemari, will

be found in Mr. F. S. Mullaly's 'Notes on Criminal Classes of the

Madras Presidency.'

Kerala.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [130] as "the western coast from

Gokarnam to Cape Comorin, comprising Travancore, Cochin, Malabar,

and part of South Canara."

Kere (tank).--A gotra of Kurni.

Kesari (lion).--A gotra of Kurni.

Kethaki (Pandanus fascicularis).--An exogamous sept of Stanika.

Kethri.--See Khatri.

Kevuto.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "the

Kevutas are the fisherman caste of Ganjam, and they are said to be

the descendants of the Kaibartas, a fishing caste of Bengal. Besides

fishing in rivers, canals and lakes, they ply boats and catamarans,

and some are also traders. Uriya Brahmans and Bairagis are their

priests. From the fifth day after child-birth till the twenty-first,

the Uriya Brahmans read the Bhagavata Purana in the house, and on the

last day they give a name to the child. The married girls and widows

put a veil over their faces whenever they go out of doors."

The Kevutos are low in the social scale, but not a polluting

caste. They apparently recognise the following endogamous

sub-divisions:--Bhettiya, Bilva, Jonka, Khottia, Koibarto or Dasa,

Liyari, Chuditiya, and Thossa. Of these the Thossas are cultivators,

the Liyaris make a preparation of fried rice (liya), and the Chudityas

are engaged in parching grain (chuda, parched rice). By reason of their

change of occupation, the Liyaris and Chudityas have practically become

distinct castes, and some deny that there is any connection between

them and the Kevutos. Telugu people sometimes call the Chuditiyas

Neyyalu, and I am told that there is a street in Parlakimedi almost

wholly inhabited by Kevutos, who say that they are of the Neyyalu

caste.

Of gotras which occur among the Kevutos, nago (cobra), bhago (tiger),

and kochipo (tortoise) are the most common. They also have exogamous

septs or bamsams, among which are gogudiya (bells) and nolini (bamboo

carrier). The titles which occur in the caste are Behara, Sitto,

Torei, Jalli, Bejjo, and Paiko.

The marriage rite is performed at night, and the bride's father

ties a gold bead (konti) on the neck of the bridegroom. The Kevutos

worship especially Dasaraj and Gangadevi. The latter is worshipped

at the Dasara festival, and, in some places, fowls and goats are

sacrificed in her honour. In the neighbourhood of the Chilka lake,

the goats are not sacrificed, but set at liberty, and allowed to

graze on the Kalikadevi hill. There is a belief that animals thus

devoted to Gangadevi do not putrify when they die, but dry up.

In the Vizagapatam Agency tracts, the Kevutos are said to be notorious

for their proficiency in magic and necromancy.

Khadi.--A sub-division of Telli.

Khadiya.--A name, said to be derived from ghatiyal, meaning a person

possessed, and used as a term of reproach for Kudumis of Travancore.

Khajjaya (cake).--An exogamous sept of Vakkaliga.

Kharvi.--The Kharvis are described, in the South Canara Manual, as

"Marathi fishermen, who migrated to this district from the Bombay

Presidency. The name Kharvi is said to be a corrupt form of the

Sanskrit kshar, salt. They are hardworking but thriftless, and much

given to drink, chiefly toddy. They are sea-fishermen and good sailors,

and also work as domestic servants and labourers. They employ Havik

Brahmans to perform their marriage and other ceremonies. The head of

the Sringeri Math is their spiritual teacher."

The Kharvis are Konkani-speaking fishermen and cultivators, found

in the Kundapur taluk of South Canara. Those who are not engaged in

fishing always wear the sacred thread, whereas the fishermen wear

it for seven days from the Sravana Hunnami, or full-moon day of the

month Sravana (August-September), and then remove it. All are Saivites,

and disciples of the Sringeri mutt. Ajai Masti and Nagu Masti are the

deities specially worshipped by them. They follow the makkala santana

law of inheritance (from father to son). Their headmen are called

Saranga or Patel, and these names are used as titles by members of

the families of the headmen. The assistant to the headman is styled

Naik or Naicker.

For the performance of the marriage ceremonial, Shivalli or

Kota Brahmans are engaged. The dhare form of marriage (see Bant)

is observed, but there are a few points of detail, which may be

noted. Five women decorate the bride inside her house just before she

comes to the marriage pandal (booth), and tie on her neck a gold bead

(dhare mani) and black beads. At the pandal she stands in front of

the bridegroom, separated from him by a screen, which is stretched

between them. Garlands of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) are exchanged,

and the screen is removed. Bashingams (chaplets) are tied on the

foreheads of the bridal pair at the outset of the ceremonial, and

are worn for five days.

The dead are cremated, and, in most cases, the ashes are thrown into a

river. But, among the orthodox, they are taken to Gokarna, and thrown

into the river at that place. On the eleventh day, presents are made

to Brahmans after purification. On the following day, food is offered

on two leaves to the soul of the deceased.

One of the leaves is thrown into water, and the other given to a cow

or bull.

Khasa.--It is noted by the Rev. J. Cain [131] that "members of

this caste are found chiefly in attendance on zamindars and other

rich people, and report says that they are not unfrequently their

illegitimate children." Khasa is synonymous with Adapapa (q.v.).

Khasgi.--Marathas, of whom a few families constitute the aristocracy

in the Sandur State.

Khatri.--The Khatris are described by Mr. Lewis Rice [132] as "silk

weavers, who in manners, customs, and language are akin to Patvegars,

but they do not intermarry with them, although the two castes eat

together. The Katris claim to be Kshatriyas, and quote Renuka Purana

as their authority. The legend is that, during the general massacre of

the Kshatriyas by Parasu Rama, five women, each of whom was big with

child, escaped, and took refuge in a temple dedicated to Kali. When

the children came of age, their marriages were celebrated, and their

mothers prayed to Kali to point out some means of livelihood. In answer

to their supplications, the goddess gave them looms, and taught them

weaving and dyeing. The Katris claim descent from these refugees,

and follow the same trades."

The following note relates to the Khatris of Conjeeveram, where most

of them trade in silk thread, silk sashes, and dye-stuffs. Some deal

in human hair, which is used by native females as a chignon. By reason

of their connection with the silk industry, the Khatris are called

Patnulkaran by other castes. The true Patnulkarans are called Koshta by

the Khatris. The Khatris give Bhuja Raja Kshatriya as their caste name,

and some say that they are the descendants of one Karta Virya Arjuna of

the human race. Their tribal deity is Renukamba, the mother of Parasu

Rama, to whom pongal (boiled rice) is offered, and a goat sacrificed

in the month of Thai (January-February). They have exogamous septs,

such as Sulegar, Powar, Mudugal, Sonappa, Bojagiri, etc., and have

adopted the same Brahmanical gotras as the Bhats or Bhatrazus, e.g.,

Gautama, Kasyapa, Vasishta, and Bharadwaja. Attached to them is a

caste beggar, called Bhat, who comes round at long intervals. He

is said to keep the genealogies of the Khatri families. He ties a

flag to a post of the house at which he intends to claim a meal, and,

after partaking thereof, he receives information concerning the births

and marriages, which have taken place in the family since his last

visit. Girls are married both before and after puberty, and infant

marriage is fashionable at the present day. The remarriage of widows

is permitted, but a divorced woman may not marry again so long as

her husband is alive. A man may not marry the widow of his brother,

or of an agnate. The custom of menarikam, by which a man may marry

his maternal uncle's daughter, is prohibited. Families belonging to

one sept may give their daughters in marriage to men of another sept,

from which, however, they are not allowed to receive girls as wives

for their sons. For example, a man of a Sulegar sept may give his

daughters in marriage to men of the Powar sept, but may not take

Powar girls as wives for his sons. But a certain elasticity in the

rule is allowed, and the prohibition ceases after a certain number

of generations by arrangement with the Bhat. The marriage ceremonies

last over seven days. On the first day, the deity Bharkodev, who

is represented by seven quartz pebbles placed in a row on plantain

leaves, is worshipped with offerings of fruit, etc., and a goat is

sacrificed. The blood which flows from its cut neck is poured into

a vessel containing cooked rice, of which seven balls are made, and

offered to the pebbles. Towards evening some of the rice is thrown to

the four cardinal points of the compass, in order to conciliate evil

spirits. On the second day, the house is thoroughly cleansed with

cow-dung water, and the walls are whitewashed. The eating of meat is

forbidden until the marriage ceremonies are concluded. The third day is

devoted to the erection of the marriage pandal (booth) and milk-post,

and the worship of female ancestors (savasne). Seven married women

are selected, and presented with white ravikes (bodices) dyed with

turmeric. After bathing, they are sumptuously fed. Before the feast,

the bridegroom's and sometimes the bride's mother, goes to a well,

tank (pond) or river, carrying on a tray a new woman's cloth, on which

a silver plate with a female figure embossed on it is placed. Another

silver plate of the same kind, newly made, is brought by a goldsmith,

and the two are worshipped, and then taken to the house, where they

are kept in a box. The bridegroom and his party go in procession

through the streets in which their fellow castemen live. When they

reach the house of the bride, her mother comes out and waves coloured

water to avert the evil eye, washes the bridegroom's eyes with water,

and presents him with betel and a vessel filled with milk. The bride

is then conducted to the bridegroom's house, where she takes her

seat on a decorated plank, and a gold or silver ornament called sari

or kanti is placed on her neck. She is further presented with a new

cloth. A Brahman purohit then writes the names of the contracting

parties, and the date of their marriage, on two pieces of palm leaf

or paper, which he hands over to their fathers. The day closes with

the performance of gondala puja, for which a device (muggu) is made

on the ground with yellow, red, and white powders. A brass vessel

is set in the centre thereof, and four earthen pots are placed at

the corners. Puja (worship) is done, and certain stanzas are recited

amid the beating of a pair of large cymbals. On the fourth day, the

bridal couple bathe, and the bridegroom is invested with the sacred

thread. They then go to the place where the metal plates representing

the ancestors are kept, with a cloth thrown over the head like a hood,

and some milk and cooked rice are placed near the plates. On their

way back they, in order to avert the evil eye, place their right feet

on a pair of small earthen plates tied together, and placed near the

threshold. The bride's mother gives the bridegroom some cakes and milk,

after partaking of which he goes in procession through the streets,

and a further ceremony for averting the evil eye is performed in

front of the bride's house. This over, he goes to the pandal, where

his feet are washed by his father-in-law, who places in his hands

a piece of plantain fruit, over which his mother-in-law pours some

milk. The bride and bridegroom then go into the house, where the latter

ties the tali on the neck of the former. During the tying ceremony,

the couple are separated by a cloth screen, of which the lower end

is lifted up. The screen is removed, and they sit facing each other

with their bashingams (forehead chaplets) in contact, and rice

is thrown over their heads by their relations. The Brahman hands

the contracting couple the wrist-threads (kankanams), which they

tie on. These threads are, among most castes, tied at an earlier

stage in the marriage ceremonies. On the fifth day, seven betel

nuts are placed in a row on a plank within the pandal, round which

the bride and bridegroom go seven times. At the end of each round,

the latter lifts the right foot of the former, and sweeps off one

of the nuts. For every marriage, a fee of Rs. 12-5-0 must be paid to

the headman of the caste, and the money thus accumulated is spent on

matters such as the celebration of festivals, which affect the entire

community. If the fee is not paid, the bride and bridegroom are not

permitted to go round the plank the seventh time. On the sixth day,

the bride receives presents from her family, and there is a procession

at night. On the last day of the ceremonies, the bride is handed over

to her mother-in-law by her mother, who says "I am giving you a melon

and a knife. Deal with them as you please." The bride is taken inside

the house by the mother-in-law and shown some pots containing rice

into which she dips her right hand, saying that they are full. The

mother-in-law then presents her with a gold finger-ring, and the two

eat together as a sign of their new relationship.

The dead are cremated, and, when a married man dies, his corpse

is carried on a palanquin to the burning-ground, followed by the

widow. Near the pyre it is laid on the ground, and the widow places

her jewelry and glass bangles on the chest. The corpse should be

carried by the sons-in-law if possible, and the nomination of the

bearers is indicated by the eldest son of the deceased person making

a mark on their shoulders with ashes. On the third day after death,

the milk ceremony takes place. Three balls of wheat-flour, mixed with

honey and milk, are prepared, and placed respectively on the spot

where the deceased breathed his last, where the bier was laid on the

ground, and at the place where the corpse was burnt, over which milk is

poured. The final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) are observed on the

seventh or tenth day, till which time the eating of flesh is forbidden.

The headman of the Khatris, who is called Gramani, is elected once a

month, and he has an assistant called Vanja, who is appointed annually.

The Khatris are Saivites, and wear the sacred thread, but also worship

various grama devatas (village deities). They speak a dialect of

Marathi. The caste title is Sa, e.g., Dharma Sa.

Kethree is described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as "the caste of the

Zamindar's family in Jeypore. It is divided into sixteen classes. They

wear the paieta (sacred thread), and the Zamindar used formerly to

sell the privilege of wearing it to any one who could afford to pay him

twelve rupees. Pariahs were excluded from purchasing the privilege."

The Khatri agriculturists of the Jeypore Agency tracts in Vizagapatam

are, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao informs me, entirely distinct from the

weaving Khatris of the south. They are divided into four septs, viz.,

Surya (Sun), Bhag (tiger), Kochchimo (tortoise), and Nag (cobra). Girls

are married before puberty, and an Oriya Brahman officiates at their

marriages, instead of the customary Desari. They do not, like other

castes in the Agency tracts, give fermented liquor (madho) as part

of the jholla tonka or bride-price, which consists of rice, a goat,

cloths, etc. The marriage ceremonies are performed at the bride's

house. These Khatris put on the sacred thread for the first time

when they are married, and renew it from time to time throughout

life. They are fair skinned, and speak the Oriya language. Their

usual title is Patro.

Khinbudi (bear).--A sept of Rona.

Khodalo.--See Bavuri.

Khodikaro.--A name for Panditos, derived from the stone (khodi),

with which they write figures on the floor, when making astrological

calculations.

Khodura.--The name is derived from khodu, bangle. The Khoduras,

Mr. Francis writes, [133] are "manufacturers of the brass and

bell-metal bangles and rings ordinarily worn by the lower class

Odiyas. Their headman is called Nahako Sahu, and under him there

are deputies called Dhoyi Nahako and Behara. There is a fourth

functionary styled Aghopotina, whose peculiar duty is said to be to

join in the first meal taken by those who have been excommunicated,

and subsequently readmitted into the caste by the caste panchayat

(council). A quaint custom exists, by which honorific titles like

Senapati, Mahapatro, Subuddhi, etc., are sold by the panchayat to

any man of the caste who covets them, and the proceeds sent to Puri

and Pratabpur for the benefit of the temples there. It is said that

the original home of the caste was Orissa, and that it came to Ganjam

with Purushottam Deva, the Maharaja of Puri. In its general customs

it resembles the Badhoyis." I am informed that the name of the fourth

functionary should be Aghopotiria, or first leaf man, i.e., the man

who is served first at a public dinner.

Khoira.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a low caste

of Oriya cultivators.

Khoja.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, eleven Khojas are recorded

as belonging to a Mussalman tribe of traders from Bombay.

For the following note on the Khojas of Southern India, I am indebted

to an article by Dr. J. Shortt. [134] "The true Kojahs, or eunuchs,

are not numerous in Southern India. They are chiefly to be seen in

the houses of wealthy Mussalman nobles, by whom they are placed at

the head of their zenanas or harems. The Kojahs are properly divided

into two classes: (1) Kojahs; (2) Hijras. Sometimes Hindus, Sudras,

and Brahmans subject themselves to the operation (of castration),

of their own accord from a religious impression. Others, finding

themselves naturally impotent, consider it necessary to undergo the

operation, to avoid being born again at a future birth in the same

helpless state. The operation of castration is generally performed

by a class of barbers, sometimes by some of the more intelligent

of the eunuchs themselves, in the following manner. The patient is

made to sit on an upturned new earthen pot, being previously well

drugged with opium or bhang. The entire genitals being seized by the

left hand, an assistant, who has a bamboo lath slit in the centre,

runs it down quite close to the pubis, the slit firmly embracing the

whole of the genitals at the root, when the operator, with a sharp

razor, runs it down along the face of the lath, and removes penis,

testicles and scrotum in one swoop, leaving a large clean open wound

behind, in which boiling gingelly (Sesamum indicum) oil is poured

to staunch the bleeding, and the wound covered over with a soft rag

steeped in warm oil. This is the only dressing applied to the wound,

which is renewed daily, while the patient is confined in a supine

position to his bed, and lightly fed with conjee (rice gruel), milk,

etc. During the operation, the patient is urged to cry out 'Din'

(the faith in Mahomet) three times.

"Of the two classes, the Kojahs are the artificially created eunuchs,

in contradistinction to the Hijras (impotents) or natural eunuchs. Some

years ago there were three Kojahs at the head of the State prison or

Royal Mahal at Vellore, in charge of some of the wives, descendants,

and other female connections of Tippoo Sultan. These men were highly

respected, held charges of considerable trust, and were Muhammadans

by birth. Tales were often repeated that the zenana women (slaves and

adopted girls) were in the habit of stripping them naked, and poking

fun at their helplessness. There were two Kojahs in the employ of the

late Nabob of the Carnatic. They were both Africans. On the death of

the Nabob, the Government allowed one of them a pension of fifteen

rupees a month.

"The second class, Hijras or natural eunuchs as they are termed,

are not so, strictly speaking, but are said to be impotent. While

some are naturally so from birth, others are impressed with a belief

in childhood, and are dressed up in women's clothes, taught to ape

their speech and manners, whilst a few adopt it as a profession

in after-life. They are chiefly Mussalmans. The hair of the head is

put up as in women, well oiled, combed, and thrown back, tied into a

knot, and shelved to the left side, sometimes plaited, ornamented, and

allowed to hang down the back. They wear the cholee or short jacket,

the saree or petticoat, and put on abundance of nose, ear, finger,

and toe rings. They cultivate singing, play the dhol (a drum), and

attitudinise. They go about the bazaars in groups of half a dozen or

more, singing songs with the hope of receiving a trifle. [Such a group

I saw at Sandur, who, on hearing that I wished to photograph them,

made tracks for another place.--E.T.] They are not only persistent,

but impudent beggars, singing filthy, obscene, and abusive songs,

to compel the bazaarmen to give them something. Should they not

succeed, they would create a fire and throw in a lot of chillies, the

suffocating and irritative smoke producing violent coughing, etc.,

so that the bazaarmen are compelled to yield to their importunity,

and give them a trifle to get rid of their annoyance. While such were

the pursuits in the day, at nightfall they resorted to debauchery and

low practices by hiring themselves out to a dissipated set of Moslems,

who are in the habit of resorting to these people for the purpose,

whilst they intoxicate themselves with a preparation termed majoon,

being a confection of opium, and a drink termed boja, a species

of country beer manufactured from ragi (Eleusine Coracana), which

also contains bhang (Indian hemp). In addition to this, they smoke

bhang. The Hijras are met with in most of the towns of Southern India,

more especially where a large proportion of Mussalmans is found."

In Hyderabad, castration used to be performed at about the age of

sixteen. A pit, 3 1/2 feet deep, was dug in the ground, and filled

with ashes. After the operation, the patient had to sit on the ashes,

with crossed legs, for three days. The operation was performed, under

the influence of narcotics, by a Pir--the head of the Khoja community.

I am informed by Mr. G. T. Paddison that, at the annual festival of

the Gadabas of Vizagapatam, thorns are set on a swing outside the

shrine of the goddess. On these the priest or priestess sits without

harm. If the priest is masculine, he has been made neuter. But,

if the village is not fortunate enough to possess a eunuch, a woman

performs the ceremony.

The following notes were recorded by me on the occasion of an interview

with some eunuchs living in the city of Madras:--

Hindu, aged about 30. Generative organs feebly developed. Is a natural

eunuch. Speaks and behaves like a female. Keeps a stall, at which he

sells cakes. Goes out singing and dancing with four other eunuchs,

and earns from ten annas to a rupee in a night. There are, in Madras,

about thirty eunuchs, who go about dancing. Others keep shops, or

are employed as domestic servants.

One well acquainted with the Hindu eunuchs of Madras stated that, when

a boy is born with ill-developed genitalia, his unnatural condition

is a source of anxiety to his parents. As he grows up he feels shy,

and is made fun of by his companions. Such boys run away from home,

and join the eunuchs. They are taught to sing and dance, and carry

on abominable practices. They are employed by dancing-girls, to decoy

paramours to them. For this purpose, they dress up as dancing-girls,

and go about the streets. At times of census, they return themselves

as males engaged in singing and dancing.

Khond.--See Kondh.

Khongar.--See Kangara.

Kichagara.--A small class of Canarese basket-makers and beggars. The

name is said to be derived from kichaku, meaning an imitative sound,

in reference to the incessant noise which the Kichagaras make when

begging.

Kidaran (copper boiler).--A synonym for Malayalam artisans.

Kilakku Teru (east street).--A section of Kallan.

Killavar.--A sub-division of Tottiyan.

Killekyata.--The Killekyatas are a Marathi-speaking people, who amuse

villagers with their marionette shows in the Telugu and Canarese

countries. "They travel round the villages, and give a performance

wherever they can secure sufficient patronage. Contributions take the

form of money, or oil for the foot-lights." [135] "Their profession,"

Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri writes, [136] "is enacting religious dramas

before the village public (whence their name, meaning buffoon). The

black kambli (blanket) is their screen, and any mandapa or village

chavadi, or open house is their stage. Night is the time for giving

the performance. They carry with them pictures painted in colours on

deer skins, which are well tanned, and made fine like parchment. The

several parts of the picture representing the human or animal body

are attached to each other by thin iron wires, and the parts are

made to move by the assistance of thin bamboo splits, and thus the

several actions and emotions are represented to the public, to the

accompaniment of songs. Their pictures are in most cases very fairly

painted, with variety and choice of colours. The stories chosen for

representation are generally from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,

which they however call Ravanyakatha and Pandavakatha--the stories

of Ravana and the Pandavas." The dead are buried in a seated posture.

Some of the women are engaged as professional tattooers.

Kimedi.--A local name for Koronos who live at Parlakimedi.

Kindal (basket-maker).--A sub-division of Savara.

Kinkila (the koel or cuckoo).--A gotra of Kurni. The cuckoo, named

Eudynamis honorata, is the bird, whose crescendo cry, ku-il, ku-il,

is trying to the nerves during the hot season.

Kinthali.--A sub-division of the Telugu Kalingis.

Kira (parrot).--A sept of Gadaba. Kira also occurs as a sub-division

of Sondi.

Kiraikkaran.--Kiraikkaran is an occupational name, denoting those who

cultivate kirai (Amarantus). The Kiraikkarans are stated, in the Census

Report, 1901, to be usually Agamudaiyans in Coimbatore. I gathered,

however, that the name is given by Tamil-speaking people to the Kempati

Okkiliyans of Coimbatore, a Canarese people who migrated thither from

Kempati in Mysore. The majority of them cultivate kirai and other

edible vegetables, but some are petty traders or fishermen. Some of

their marriage divisions are named after deities, e.g., Masani and

Viramashti, and one division is called Jogi.

Kirata (hunter).--A name assumed by Bedars, Ekaris, and other classes.

Kirganiga.--Kirganiga or Kiruganiga is the name of a sub-division of

Ganigas, who express oils in wooden mills.

Kiriyam.--A sub-division of Nayar. Also the Malayalam word for house

name or sept.

Kiriyattil.--A sub-division of Nayar.

Kizhakathi.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as a

sub-division of Paraiyan. The word means easterner, and a Paraiyan

of North or South Arcot would call a Paraiyan of Madras by this name.

Koalaka (arrow).--An exogamous sept of Jatapu.

Kobbiriya.--A sub-division of Domb.

Kochattabannaya.--Kochattabannaya or Kojjarannaya (jak tree, Artocarpus

integrifolia, sept) is an exogamous sept of Bant.

Kochimo (tortoise).--A sept of Oriya Gaudo, Bosantiya, Bottada,

Konda Dora, Mattiya, and Omanaito.

Kochuvalan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a

name for Ulladans.

Kodaketti (umbrella tying).--A sub-division of Panan.

Kodavili (sickle).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale.

Kodekal Hata-kararu (cloth-weavers).--A sub-division of Devanga.

Kodi (cock).--An exogamous sept of Kapu. Thorika occurs as a sept of

Jatapus, who are said to revere a species of fowl called thorika kodi,

and Kodi Kandla (fowl's eyes) as a sept of Boya.

Kodikkal.--Kodikkal, Kodikkar, or Kodikkalkaran, meaning betel vine

man, is the occupational name of a sub-division of Vellalas, and

of Labbai Muhammadans who cultivate the betel vine. In the Census

Report, 1901, it is noted that those who gave this as the name of

their caste returned their parent tongue as Tamil, and their title as

Nayakkan, and were therefore clubbed with Pallis. Kodikkal is further

a sub-division of the Shanans, who derive the name from kodi, a flag,

and give flag-bearer as its significance. Other castes, however,

make it to mean a betel garden, in reference to Shanans who were betel

vine growers. Kodikkal Pillaimar is a synonym of the Senaikkudaiyans,

indicating Pillaimars who cultivate the betel vine.

Kodiyal.--A sub-division of Kudubi.

Kodla.--Kodla (fowl) has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Tsakala,

and Kodla bochchu (fowl's feathers) as an exogamous sept of Kapu.

Kodu.--A form of Kondh. Also a sub-division of Konda Razu.

Kohoro.--A form of Kahar.

Koi.--See Koya.

Koibarto.--A sub-division of Kevuto.

Koil Pandala (keeper of the royal treasury).--One of the divisions

of Kshatriyas in Travancore.

Koil Tampuran.--The following note is extracted from the Travancore

Census Report, 1901. The Koil Tampurans form a small community,

made up of the descendants of the immigrant Kshatriya families

from certain parts of Malabar lying to the north of Travancore and

Cochin. They are also known as Koil Pantalas. In early records, the

term Koviladhikarikal appears to have been used. Immemorial tradition

connects the Koil Tampurans with Cheraman Perumal, and goes to say

that their original settlement was Beypore. About 300 M.E. a few

male members were invited to settle in Travancore, and form marital

alliances with the ladies of the Travancore Royal House, known then

as the Venat Svarupam. Houses were built for them at Kilimanur, six

miles from Attingal, where all the female members of the Royal Family

resided. In M.E. 963, eight persons--three males and five females--from

the family of Aliakkotu, oppressed by the invasion of Tipu Sultan,

sought shelter in Travancore. Maharaja Rama Varma received them kindly,

and gave them the palace of the Tekkumkur Raja, who had been subjugated

by Rama Iyen Dalawah. This site in Changanachery is still recognised

as Nirazhikkottaram. In 975 M.E. one of the five ladies removed to

Kirtipuram near Kantiyur (Mavelikara taluk), and thence to a village

called Gramam in the same taluk. Another shifted to Pallam in the

Kottayam taluk, a third to Paliyakkara in Tiruvalla, and a fourth,

having no issue, continued to live at Changanachery with the fifth lady

who was the youngest in the family. Raja Raaja Varma Koil Tampuran,

who married Rani Lakshmi Bai, sovereign of Travancore from 985 to 990

M.E. was the eldest son of the lady that stayed at Changanachery. Their

present house at that place, known as Lakshmipuram Kottaram, was named

after the Koil Tampuran's royal consort. Raja Raja Varma's sister gave

birth to three daughters and two sons. The eldest daughter and sons

removed to Kartikapalli in 1040, and thence, in 1046, to Anantapuram

in Haripad. In 1041, the second daughter and issue removed to Chemprol

in Tiruvalla, while the third continued to live at Changanachery. Thus

there came into existence seven families of Koil Tampurans, namely

those of Kilimanur, Changanachery, Anantapuram, Pallam, Chemprol,

Gramam, and Paliyakkare. Some time after 1040 M.E. (A.D. 1856), three

more families, viz., those of Cherukol, Karamma, and Vatakkematham,

immigrated from North Malabar.

The Koil Tampurans are all regarded as blood relations, and observe

birth and death pollutions like Dayadis among Brahmans. They follow

the matriarchal system of inheritance. Nambutiri Brahmans marry

their ladies. Their religious ceremonies are the same as those of

Nambutiris, whom they resemble in the matter of food and drink. Their

caste government is in the hands of the Nambutiri Vaidikans.

Their ceremonies are the usual Brahmanical Samskaras--Gatakarma,

Namakarana, Annaprasana, etc. Regarding the Namakarana, or naming,

the only noteworthy fact is that the first-born male always goes by

the name of Raja Raja Varma. The Upanayana, or investiture with the

sacred thread, takes place in the sixteenth year of age. On the morning

of the Upanayana, Chaula or the tonsure ceremony is performed. It

is formally done by the Nambutiri priest in the capacity of Guru,

just as the father does to his son among Brahmans, and afterwards

left to be completed by the Maran. The priest invests the boy with

the thread, and, with the sacrificial fire as lord and witness,

initiates him in the Gayatri prayer. The Koil Tampurans are to repeat

this prayer morning, noon and evening, like the Brahmans, but are

to do so only ten times on each occasion. On the fourth day, the boy

listens to a few Vedic hymns recited by the priest. There is not the

prolonged course of severe discipline of the Brahmanical Brahmachari,

which the Nambutiris so religiously observe. The Samavartana, or

pupilage stage, is performed on the fifteenth day. The ceremony of

proceeding to Benares is then gone through. Just as in the case of

the Brahmans, a would-be father-in-law intercedes, and requests the

Snataka (past Brahmachari) to bless his daughter, and settle in life

as a Grihastha. The Nambutiri priest then steps in to remind the boy

of his dharma (duty) as a Kshatriya, and gives him a sword symbolic

of his pre-ordained function in society.

The marriage of a Koil Tampuran does not present many peculiar

features. One item in the programme, called Dikshavirippu, may be

referred to. During all the four days of the marriage, the bride

is confined to a special room, where a white cloth with a carpet

over it is spread on the floor, and a lamp burns day and night. The

ceremonial bridegroom is either an Aryappattar or a Nambutiri, now

generally a Nambutiri. Of course, the marriage is a mere ceremonial,

and the bridegroom at the ceremony is not necessarily the spouse of

actual life. His death deprives her of the right to wear the tali, and

makes her an Amangali (an inauspicious person) for all socio-religious

purposes. At sraddhas (memorial service for the dead), the Tampuratti

with her married husband alive faces the east, and one that has lost

him has to look in the direction of Yamaloka (south).

Mr. Ravi Varma, the celebrated artist, who died recently, was a Koil

Tampuran of Kilimanur, an extensive village assigned to his ancestors

rent-free for the military services they had rendered to the State

in times of trouble. [137]

Kokala (woman's cloth).--An exogamous sept of Golla.

Kokkara.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, as a sub-division

of Nayar.

Kokkundia.--See Kukkundi.

Kola (ear of corn).--An exogamous sept of Medara.

Kolari.--See Kolayan.

Kolalo (arrack-seller).--A name of Sondis.

Kolata Gudiya.--A name for Gudiyas engaged in agriculture.

Kolayan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that

"the caste is found chiefly in the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara,

and in the northern part of Malabar. In South Malabar, it is called

Urali. Its traditional occupation is herding cows, and it claims the

privilege of supplying milk and ghee to certain Hindu temples, but at

present most of its members are masons. It has two endogamous sections,

Ayan or Kol-Ayan, and Mariyan or Eruman" (Eruma, a cow-buffalo). It

is further noted, in the same report under the heading Eruman, that

"the people of the caste were originally buffalo drivers and keepers,

and still follow their traditional occupation in the Kasaragod taluk of

South Canara. In North Malabar, they are masons and bricklayers." The

masonry work of temples is done by Kolayans.

The name Kolayan has been said to be derived from Golla and Ayan,

meaning cowherd. Golla is, however, a Telugu word not used in the

Malayalam country.

Members of the two sections, Kolayan and Eruman (or Eruvan), are

said not to intermarry. Women of both sections may affect sambandham

(alliance) with Nayars. Children born of such unions are regarded

as somewhat inferior to those born of Kolayan parents, and are not

allowed to worship at the temples. The priests of the Kolayans are

called Muthavan or Poduvan, and are usually elected by Rajas.

Kolayan girls go through the mangalam or tali-kettu ceremony

before they reach puberty. On an auspicious day fixed by the Kanisan

(astrologer), the girl sits on a plank in the middle room of the house,

and four lamps are placed near her. Her father throws rice and flowers

over her head, and ties the tali (marriage emblem) on her neck. The

girl, four women, and four girls, are fed in the middle room. On the

following day, a priest (Vathiyan) places rice, paddy (unhusked rice),

tender cocoanut, betel leaves and areca nuts, before the girl. Men

and women of the priest's family wave rice, cocoanuts, etc., in front

of her both in the morning and afternoon. Finally, towards evening,

a Vathiyan woman waves the rice and other articles thrice, calling out

"Kolachi, Kolachi, Kolachi." The girl may then leave the middle room.

At the first menstrual period, a girl is under pollution for

three days. On the first day, a cloth (mattu) is given to her by a

washerwoman, and on the fourth day she receives one from a Malayan

woman.

The dead are usually cremated. Daily, until the twelfth day of the

death ceremonies, food is offered to the spirit of the deceased, on

a dais set up outside the house, by the relatives. On the fifth day,

all the agnates are purified by the Vathiyan sprinkling water over

them. On the twelfth day, the Vathiyan draws the image of a man with

vibuthi (sacred ashes) on the spot where the deceased breathed his

last. Near the figure, cooked rice, vegetables, etc., are placed. The

chief mourner offers these to the dead person, and makes a bundle of

them in his cloth. Going outside the house, he kicks the dais already

referred to with his foot, while the Vathiyan holds one hand, and

his relations the other hand or arm. He then bathes in a tank (pond)

or river, while his hands are held in like manner.

Koli.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Kolis are described

as being "a Bombay caste of fishermen and boatmen in South Canara;

also a low class of Bengal weavers found in Ganjam." The Kolis

who were investigated in Ganjam are an Oriya-speaking class, who

are apparently Telugu people who have settled in the Oriya country

as weavers of coarse cloths, traders, and agriculturists. They have

Oriya titles such as Behara. They worship village deities (Takuranis),

are Saivites, and none of them have been converted to the Paramartho

form of Vishnavism. The caste council, puberty and death ceremonies,

are based on the common Oriya type, but the marriage rites are an

interesting blend of the Oriya and Telugu types of ceremonial. Thus the

usual Telugu marriage post, but made of Streblus asper wood, is set up,

and nine kinds of grain are placed near it. A bottu (marriage badge)

is tied on the neck of the bride by the bridegroom, and the hands of

the contracting couple are united (hasthagonthi) as among the Oriyas.

Koliyan.--The Koliyans are summed up, in the Madras Census Report,

1901, as "a weaver caste, the members of which were originally

Paraiyans, but now do not eat or intermarry with that caste." They

are largely found in the Tanjore and Madura districts, and are divided

into various nadus (territories) and kuppams (settlements). Those at

Pattukottai, for example, belong to Ambu Nadu, and are sub-divided

into five kuppams. Many of the Koliyans are engaged in weaving coarse

white cloths, while some work as field labourers. As some Paraiyans

have Samban (Siva) as their title, so the title of the Koliyans is

Isan (god). At times of marriage, the names of persons must not be

mentioned without this title, e.g., one who is, in everyday life,

called Ponnan is addressed as Isa Ponnan.

An interesting point in connection with the first puberty ceremonial

of a girl is that, on the sixteenth day, when she bathes, a withe of

a creeper (Dalbergia, sp.) made into a loop, is passed round her body

by a barber from head to foot thrice, without touching her. If this

is not done, it is believed that the girl is not free from pollution.

There are two forms of marriage ceremony, called chinna (little) and

periya (big) kalyanam. The former is resorted to by those who cannot

afford the more elaborate ceremonial. The sister of the bridegroom is

sent to the house of the bride on an auspicious day. She there ties

the tali (marriage badge) on the bride's neck, and conducts her to

the house of the bridegroom. Women who are thus married may not take

part in the marriage of their children. More especially, they may not

decorate them with garlands and flowers, unless they have themselves

performed the sadangu rite. In this, which is usually carried out

a day or two before the child's marriage, the husband and wife sit

on planks, and, after being decorated, and the performance of wave

offerings (arathi), the former ties the tali on his wife's neck.

In the periya kalyanam, the bridegroom goes on a horse to the bride's

house, where he is met by her brother, who is also on horseback. They

exchange garlands, and proceed to the marriage pandal (booth). The

bridegroom receives from the bride's father a cocoanut, and the bride

seats herself on a bench. The bridegroom gives her the cocoanut,

and ties the tali on her neck. They then exchange garlands, and

their fingers are linked together. All these items must be performed

as quickly as possible, in accordance with a saying that the tali

should be tied without dismounting from the horse, which one is

riding. Before the tali is tied, the contracting couple go through

the sadangu ceremony, in which a loop of cotton thread is passed over

them from head to foot, without touching them. Then the kankanams, or

wrist threads, are tied on their wrists. The milk-post and marriage

pots are set up within the pandal, and the bride and bridegroom

prostrate themselves before them, and salute their maternal uncles,

parents and relations, and lastly the musicians. The day's proceedings

terminate with a feast, at the conclusion of which hands are washed

within the house. For six days the bride and bridegroom pay visits to

each other alternately, and, on the seventh day, the wrist-threads,

marriage pots, and milk-post are removed. During marriage and other

auspicious ceremonies, coloured water, into which leaves of Bauhinia

variegata are thrown, are waved (arathi).

On ceremonial occasions, and at times of worship, the Koliyans put

on Saivite sect marks. Among other deities, they worship Aiyanar,

Pattavanswami, and Pothiamman.

The dead are burnt, and the body is placed in a seated posture with

fingers and toes tied together. On the way to the burning-ground, a

widow goes round the corpse, and breaks a pot containing water. On the

day after the funeral, the calcined bones are collected, and arranged

so as to represent a human figure, to which food is offered. The

final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) are performed on the sixteenth

day. A mass of cooked rice, vegetables, and meat, is placed within

an enclosure, round which the relations go in tears.

Kollakar.--There are about seven hundred members of this community at

Cochin, to which place the Kollakars, or people of Kollam, are said

to have come from Quilon (Kollam) in Travancore one or two centuries

ago. The majority of the men work as coolies on board steamers, and a

few as fishermen. The women of the poorer classes twist rope and sell

fish, while the others make lace. A few hold appointments under the

Government, and, in 1907, two had passed the Matriculation examination

of the Madras University. They are Roman Catholics, and are said to

have been converted to Christianity by the Portuguese. They marry among

themselves. The Kollakars are also found at Calicut, Cannanore, Mahe,

and Tellicherry, and are mainly occupied in fishing, rope-making, and

making fishing-nets. A few at Tellicherry are employed as carpenters,

tailors, and petty shopkeepers.

Kolla Kurup.--The Kolla Kurups of Malabar are described, in the

Gazetteer of Malabar, as a sub-caste of, or a caste allied to, the

Kammalans. "They combine two professions, which at first sight seem

strangely incongruous, shampooing or massage, and the construction of

the characteristic leather shields of Malabar. But the two arts are

intimately connected with the system of combined physical training,

as we should now call it, and exercise in arms, which formed the

curriculum of the kalari (gymnasium), and the title Kurup is proper

to castes connected with that institution." Among Kolla Kurups,

the following symbolical ceremony is necessary to constitute a

valid divorce. "The husband and the wife's brother stand east

and west respectively of a lighted lamp placed in the yard of the

woman's original home. The husband pulls a thread from his cloth,

and approaches the lamp, and breaks the thread saying 'Here is your

sister's accharam.'"

Kollan.--The blacksmiths are iron-workers among the Malayalam

Kammalans. "These Malabar Kollans," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [138]

"are said to practice fraternal polyandry to a greater extent even

than the rest of the Malabar artizan castes. Kollans are divided into

(1) Ti (fire) Kollan, (2) Perum (big) Kollan, (3) Tiperum Kollan, (4)

Irumbu (iron) Kollan. There are also Kadacchil Kollan (knife-grinders)

and Tol Kollan (leather-workers). These are of inferior status,

on account of the nature of their professions."

Kollar.--A section of Tottiyan, the full name of which is

Yerrakollavaru or Yerrakolla Tottiyar. Kollar is a corrupt Tamil form

of Golla, to which caste the Tottiyans trace their descent.

Kolli (fire-brand).--A sub-division of Kadu Kurumba.

Kolli (a hill-range, the Kollimalais).--A sub-division of Malayalis.

Komali (buffoon).--An exogamous sept of Odde.

Komanandi.--A sub-division of Andis, who go about naked, except for

a small loin cloth (komanam).

Komaro.--Oriya blacksmiths. See Badhoyi.

Komati.--The Komatis form the great trading caste of the Madras

Presidency, and are found in almost all the districts thereof. They are

further found in the Mysore State, Bombay Presidency, Berar, Central

Provinces, and as far north-west as Baroda. Their wide distribution

accounts for the great variety which prevails in the minor details

of the religious and social ceremonials.

The name Komati has been derived in many different ways. By some it

is said to be from ko-mati, meaning fox-minded. This has reference to

the cunning of the Komatis in business, and is undoubtedly the outcome

of their unpopularity with their customers. The phrase Komatiguttu

(the secrecy of a Komati) is said to be a common one. Others say

that it is from go-mati, meaning the possessor of cows, one of the

ordained duties of Vaisyas being the protecting of cows. Others,

again, say that it is from go-mati, meaning cow-minded. A modern

redaction of the Kanyaka Purana, the sacred book of the Komatis,

gives this derivation. According to this work, the Komatis did severe

penance, and were consequently invited to live in heaven. Their

continued absence from this world gave rise to serious trouble,

and Vishnu accordingly asked them to return thither for the good

of mankind. They, however, refused to do so. Vishnu then called for

Siva, and asked him to induce them to return. Siva brought a cow, and

directed all the Komatis to get into its right ear. From there they

saw gloriously decorated towns, with magnificent temples, pleasure

gardens, etc., and begged permission to live in them. Siva assented,

and they speedily began to march off to their new abodes. But, almost

immediately, a huge conflagration came in view, and began to overwhelm

them. Terror-stricken, they cried out to Siva to help them in their

trouble. He consented on condition that they would return to the

mortal world. This they accordingly did. Siva gave them the name of

Gomati, because they exhibited as much fear at the conflagration as

a cow would when anything untoward happened. Yet another derivation

of Komati is go-mati, meaning sprung from the cow in accordance with

the above legend, or cow-gored in reference to the story that the

ancestors of the Komatis commingled in a cow-shed, where a pregnant

woman was gored by a cow. The derivation ku-mati, meaning evil-minded,

is grammatically impossible. The Komatis are said to have originally

lived, and still live in large numbers on the banks of the Godavari

river. One of the local names thereof is Gomati or Gomti, and the

Sanskrit Gomati would, in Telugu, become corrupted into Komati.

The Komatis everywhere speak Telugu, and are devoted to their

mother-tongue. There is a common proverb among them, "Telugu theta,

Aravam adhvanam," meaning that Telugu is easy (has an easy flow),

and Tamil is wretched. "Of all Dravidian languages," Mr. Henry Morris

writes, "Telugu is the sweetest and most musical. It is exceedingly

mellifluous, and sounds harmonious even in the mouth of the most

vulgar and illiterate. It has justly been called the Italian of

the East." Komatis are clever at learning languages other than their

own. In the Tamil and Canarese districts, they are conversant with the

languages thereof, and in Bombay they speak Marathi. In the Ganjam

and Vizagapatam Agencies, they speak the Kondh and Savara languages

very fluently.

As a commercial caste, the Komatis have a secret trade language of

their own, which is substantially the same all over the country. It

will be seen from the tables given how complete their numerical tables

are, ranging, as they do, from one pie to a thousand rupees. It will

be observed that the rupee is represented by the word thelupu, which

means white. Some Tamil trading castes in like manner call the rupee

velle (white):--