It seems neither now nor very lately to have been known [1329b] to those

philosophers who have made politics their study, that a city ought to

be divided by families into different orders of men; and that the

husbandmen and soldiers should be kept separate from each other;

which custom is even to this day preserved in Egypt and in Crete; also

Sesostris having founded it in Egypt, Minos in Crete. Common meals seem

also to have been an ancient regulation, and to have been established

in Crete during the reign of Minos, and in a still more remote period

in Italy; for those who are the best judges in that country say that

one Italus being king of AEnotria., from whom the people, changing their

names, were called Italians instead of AEnotrians, and that part of

Europe was called Italy which is bounded by the Scylletic Gulf on the

one side and the Lametic on the other, the distance between which

is about half a day's journey. This Italus, they relate, made the

AEnotrians, who were formerly shepherds, husbandmen, and gave them

different laws from what they had before, and to have been the first who

established common meals, for which reason some of his descendants still

use them, and observe some of his laws. The Opici inhabit that part

which lies towards the Tyrrhenian Sea, who both now are and formerly

were called Ausonians. The Chones inhabited the part toward Iapigia and

the Ionian Sea which is called Syrtis. These Chones were descended

from the AEnotrians. Hence arose the custom of common meals, but the

separation of the citizens into different families from Egypt: for the

reign of Sesostris is of much higher antiquity than that of Minos. As

we ought to think that most other things were found out in a long, nay,

even in a boundless time (reason teaching us that want would make us

first invent that which was necessary, and, when that was obtained, then

those things which were requisite for the conveniences and ornament of

life), so should we conclude the same with respect to a political state;

now everything in Egypt bears the marks of the most remote antiquity,

for these people seem to be the most ancient of all others, and to have

acquired laws and political order; we should therefore make a proper

use of what is told us of them, and endeavour to find out what they have

omitted. We have already said, that the landed property ought to belong

to the military and those who partake of the government of the state;

and that therefore the husbandmen should be a separate order of people;

and how large and of what nature the country ought to be: we will first

treat of the division of the land, and of the husbandmen, how many and

of what sort they ought to be; since we by no means hold that property

ought to be common, as some persons have said, only thus far, in

friendship, it [1330a] should be their custom to let no citizen want

subsistence. As to common meals, it is in general agreed that they are

proper in well-regulated cities; my reasons for approving of them shall

be mentioned hereafter: they are what all the citizens ought to partake

of; but it will not be easy for the poor, out of what is their own, to

furnish as much as they are ordered to do, and supply their own house

besides. The expense also of religious worship should be defrayed by the

whole state. Of necessity therefore the land ought to be divided into

two parts, one of which should belong to the community in general, the

other to the individuals separately; and each of these parts should

again be subdivided into two: half of that which belongs to the public

should be appropriated to maintain the worship of the gods, the other

half to support the common meals. Half of that which belongs to the

individuals should be at the extremity of the country, the other half

near the city, so that these two portions being allotted to each person,

all would partake of land in both places, which would be both equal and

right; and induce them to act in concert with greater harmony in any war

with their neighbours: for when the land is not divided in this manner,

one party neglects the inroads of the enemy on the borders, the other

makes it a matter of too much consequence and more than is necessary;

for which reason in some places there is a law which forbids the

inhabitants of the borders to have any vote in the council when they are

debating upon a war which is made against them as their private interest

might prevent their voting impartially. Thus therefore the country ought

to be divided and for the reasons before mentioned. Could one have one's

choice, the husbandmen should by all means be slaves, not of the same

nation, or men of any spirit; for thus they would be laborious in

their business, and safe from attempting any novelties: next to these

barbarian servants are to be preferred, similar in natural disposition

to these we have already mentioned. Of these, let those who are

to cultivate the private property of the individual belong to that

individual, and those who are to cultivate the public territory belong

to the public. In what manner these slaves ought to be used, and for

what reason it is very proper that they should have the promise of their

liberty made them, as a reward for their services, shall be mentioned

hereafter.

CHAPTER XI

We have already mentioned, that both the city and all the country should

communicate both with the sea and the continent as much as possible.

There are these four things which we should be particularly desirous of

in the position of the city with respect to itself: in the first place,

health is to be consulted as the first thing necessary: now a city

which fronts the east and receives the winds which blow from thence is

esteemed most healthful; next to this that which has a northern position

is to be preferred, as best in winter. It should next be contrived that

it may have a proper situation for the business of government and for

defence in war: that in war the citizens may [1330b] have easy access

to it; but that it may be difficult of access to, and hardly to be taken

by, the enemy. In the next place particularly, that there may be plenty

of water, and rivers near at hand: but if those cannot be found, very

large cisterns must be prepared to save rain-water, so that there may

be no want of it in case they should be driven into the town in time of

war. And as great care should be taken of the health of the inhabitants,

the first thing to be attended to is, that the city should have a good

situation and a good position; the second is, that they may have good

water to drink; and this not be negligently taken care of; for what

we chiefly and most frequently use for the support of the body must

principally influence the health of it; and this influence is what the

air and water naturally have: for which reason in all wise governments

the waters ought to be appropriated to different purposes, and if they

are not equally good, and if there is not a plenty of necessary water,

that which is to drink should be separated from that which is for other

uses. As to fortified places, what is proper for some governments is

not proper for all; as, for instance, a lofty citadel is proper for a

monarchy and an oligarchy; a city built upon a plain suits a democracy;

neither of these for an aristocracy, but rather many strong places. As

to the form of private houses, those are thought to be best and most

useful for their different purposes which are distinct and separate

from each other, and built in the modern manner, after the plan of

Hippodamus: but for safety in time of war, on the contrary, they should

be built as they formerly were; for they were such that strangers could

not easily find their way out of them, and the method of access to

them such as an enemy could with difficulty find out if he proposed

to besiege them. A city therefore should have both these sorts of

buildings, which may easily be contrived if any one will so regulate

them as the planters do their rows of vines; not that the buildings

throughout the city should be detached from each other, only in some

parts of it; thus elegance and safety will be equally consulted. With

respect to walls, those who say that a courageous people ought not to

have any, pay too much respect to obsolete notions; particularly as

we may see those who pride themselves therein continually confuted by

facts. It is indeed disreputable for those who are equal, or nearly so,

to the enemy, to endeavour to take refuge within their walls--but since

it very often happens, that those who make the attack are too powerful

for the bravery and courage of those few who oppose them to resist,

if you would not suffer the calamities of war and the insolence of the

enemy, it must be thought the part of a good soldier to seek for safety

under the shelter and protection of walls more especially since so many

missile weapons and machines have been most ingeniously invented to

besiege cities with. Indeed to neglect surrounding a city with a wall

would be similar to choosing a country which is easy of access to an

enemy, or levelling the eminences of it; or as if an individual should

not have a wall to his house lest it should be thought that the owner

of it was a coward: nor should this be left unconsidered, that those who

have a city surrounded with walls may act both ways, either as if it had

or as if it had not; but where it has not they cannot do this. If this

is true, it is not only necessary to have walls, but care must be taken

that they may be a proper ornament to the city, as well as a defence

in time of war; not only according to the old methods, but the modern

improvements also: for as those who make offensive war endeavour by

every way possible to gain advantages over their adversaries, so should

those who are upon the defensive employ all the means already known, and

such new ones as philosophy can invent, to defend themselves: for those

who are well prepared are seldom first attacked.

CHAPTER XII

As the citizens in general are to eat at public tables in certain

companies, and it is necessary that the walls should have bulwarks and

towers in proper places and at proper distances, it is evident that

it will be very necessary to have some of these in the towers; let the

buildings for this purpose be made the ornaments of the walls. As to

temples for public worship, and the hall for the public tables of

the chief magistrates, they ought to be built in proper places, and

contiguous to each other, except those temples which the law or the

oracle orders to be separate from all other buildings; and let these be

in such a conspicuous eminence, that they may have every advantage of

situation, and in the neighbourhood of that part of the city which

is best fortified. Adjoining to this place there ought to be a large

square, like that which they call in Thessaly The Square of Freedom, in

which nothing is permitted to be bought or sold; into which no mechanic

nor husbandman, nor any such person, should be permitted to enter,

unless commanded by the magistrates. It will also be an ornament to this

place if the gymnastic exercises of the elders are performed in it. It

is also proper, that for performing these exercises the citizens should

be divided into distinct classes, according to their ages, and that the

young persons should have proper officers to be with them, and that the

seniors should be with the magistrates; for having them before their

eyes would greatly inspire true modesty and ingenuous fear. There ought

to be another square [1331b] separate from this for buying and selling,

which should be so situated as to be commodious for the reception

of goods both by sea and land. As the citizens may be divided into

magistrates and priests, it is proper that the public tables of

the priests should be in buildings near the temples. Those of the

magistrates who preside over contracts, indictments, and such-like, and

also over the markets, and the public streets near the square, or some

public way, I mean the square where things are bought and sold; for I

intended the other for those who are at leisure, and this for necessary

business. The same order which I have directed here should be observed

also in the country; for there also their magistrates such as the

surveyors of the woods and overseers of the grounds, must necessarily

have their common tables and their towers, for the purpose of protection

against an enemy. There ought also to be temples erected at proper

places, both to the gods and the heroes; but it is unnecessary to dwell

longer and most minutely on these particulars--for it is by no means

difficult to plan these things, it is rather so to carry them into

execution; for the theory is the child of our wishes, but the practical

part must depend upon fortune; for which reason we shall decline saying

anything farther upon these subjects.

CHAPTER XIII

We will now show of what numbers and of what sort of people a government

ought to consist, that the state may be happy and well administered.

As there are two particulars on which the excellence and perfection of

everything depend, one of these is, that the object and end proposed

should be proper; the other, that the means to accomplish it should be

adapted to that purpose; for it may happen that these may either agree

or disagree with each other; for the end we propose may be good, but in

taking the means to obtain it we may err; at other times we may have

the right and proper means in our power, but the end may be bad,

and sometimes we may mistake in both; as in the art of medicine the

physician does not sometimes know in what situation the body ought to

be, to be healthy; nor what to do to procure the end he aims at. In

every art and science, therefore, we should be master of this knowledge,

namely, the proper end, and the means to obtain it. Now it is evident

that all persons are desirous to live well and be happy; but that some

have the means thereof in their own power, others not; and this either

through nature [1332a] or fortune; for many ingredients are necessary to

a happy life; but fewer to those who are of a good than to those who are

of a bad disposition. There are others who continually have the means

of happiness in their own power, but do not rightly apply them. Since

we propose to inquire what government is best, namely, that by which

a state may be best administered, and that state is best administered

where the people are the happiest, it is evident that happiness is a

thing we should not be unacquainted with. Now, I have already said in

my treatise on Morals (if I may here make any use of what I have there

shown), that happiness consists in the energy and perfect practice of

virtue; and this not relatively, but simply; I mean by relatively, what

is necessary in some certain circumstances; by simply, what is good and

fair in itself: of the first sort are just punishments, and restraints

in a just cause; for they arise from virtue and are necessary, and on

that account are virtuous; though it is more desirable that neither any

state nor any individual should stand in need of them; but those actions

which are intended either to procure honour or wealth are simply good;

the others eligible only to remove an evil; these, on the contrary, are

the foundation and means of relative good. A worthy man indeed will bear

poverty, disease, and other unfortunate accidents with a noble mind;

but happiness consists in the contrary to these (now we have already

determined in our treatise on Morals, that he is a man of worth who

considers what is good because it is virtuous as what is simply good; it

is evident, therefore, that all the actions of such a one must be worthy

and simply good): this has led some persons to conclude, that the cause

of happiness was external goods; which would be as if any one should

suppose that the playing well upon the lyre was owing to the instrument,

and not to the art. It necessarily follows from what has been said,

that some things should be ready at hand and others procured by the

legislator; for which reason in founding a city we earnestly wish that

there may be plenty of those things which are supposed to be under the

dominion of fortune (for some things we admit her to be mistress over);

but for a state to be worthy and great is not only the work of fortune

but of knowledge and judgment also. But for a state to be worthy it is

necessary that those citizens which are in the administration should

be worthy also; but as in our city every citizen is to be so, we must

consider how this may be accomplished; for if this is what every one

could be, and not some individuals only, it would be more desirable; for

then it would follow, that what might be done by one might be done

by all. Men are worthy and good three ways; by nature, by custom, by

reason. In the first place, a man ought to be born a man, and not any

other animal; that is to say, he ought to have both a body and soul; but

it avails not to be only born [1332b] with some things, for custom

makes great alterations; for there are some things in nature capable of

alteration either way which are fixed by custom, either for the better

or the worse. Now, other animals live chiefly a life of nature; and in

very few things according to custom; but man lives according to reason

also, which he alone is endowed with; wherefore he ought to make all

these accord with each other; for if men followed reason, and were

persuaded that it was best to obey her, they would act in many respects

contrary to nature and custom. What men ought naturally to be, to make

good members of a community, I have already determined; the rest of

this discourse therefore shall be upon education; for some things are

acquired by habit, others by hearing them.

CHAPTER XIV

As every political community consists of those who govern and of those

who are governed, let us consider whether during the continuance of

their lives they ought to be the same persons or different; for it

is evident that the mode of education should be adapted to this

distinction. Now, if one man differed from another as much, as we

believe, the gods and heroes differ from men: in the first place, being

far their superiors in body; and, secondly, in the soul: so that the

superiority of the governors over the governed might be evident beyond

a doubt, it is certain that it would be better for the one always to

govern, the other always to be governed: but, as this is not easy to

obtain, and kings are not so superior to those they govern as Scylax

informs us they are in India, it is evident that for many reasons it is

necessary that all in their turns should both govern and be governed:

for it is just that those who are equal should have everything alike;

and it is difficult for a state to continue which is founded in

injustice; for all those in the country who are desirous of innovation

will apply themselves to those who are under the government of the rest,

and such will be their numbers in the state, that it will be impossible

for the magistrates to get the better of them. But that the governors

ought to excel the governed is beyond a doubt; the legislator therefore

ought to consider how this shall be, and how it may be contrived that

all shall have their equal share in the administration. Now, with

respect to this it will be first said, that nature herself has directed

us in our choice, laying down the selfsame thing when she has made some

young, others old: the first of whom it becomes to obey, the latter

to command; for no one when he is young is offended at his being under

government, or thinks himself too good for it; more especially when he

considers that he himself shall receive the same honours which he

pays when he shall arrive at a proper age. In some respects it must be

acknowledged that the governors and the governed are the same, in others

they are different; it is therefore necessary that their education

should be in [1333a] some respect the same, in others different: as they

say, that he will be a good governor who has first learnt to obey. Now

of governments, as we have already said, some are instituted for the

sake of him who commands; others for him who obeys: of the first sort is

that of the master over the servant; of the latter, that of freemen over

each other. Now some things which are commanded differ from others; not

in the business, but in the end proposed thereby: for which reason many

works, even of a servile nature, are not disgraceful for young freemen

to perform; for many things which are ordered to be done are not

honourable or dishonourable so much in their own nature as in the end

which is proposed, and the reason for which they are undertaken. Since

then we have determined, that the virtue of a good citizen and good

governor is the same as of a good man; and that every one before he

commands should have first obeyed, it is the business of the legislator

to consider how his citizens may be good men, what education is

necessary to that purpose, and what is the final object of a good life.

The soul of man may be divided into two parts; that which has reason in

itself, and that which hath not, but is capable of obeying its dictates:

and according to the virtues of these two parts a man is said to be

good: but of those virtues which are the ends, it will not be difficult

for those to determine who adopt the division I have already given; for

the inferior is always for the sake of the superior; and this is equally

evident both in the works of art as well as in those of nature; but that

is superior which has reason. Reason itself also is divided into

two parts, in the manner we usually divide it; the theoretic and the

practical; which division therefore seems necessary for this part also:

the same analogy holds good with respect to actions; of which those

which are of a superior nature ought always to be chosen by those who

have it in their power; for that is always most eligible to every one

which will procure the best ends. Now life is divided into labour and

rest, war and peace; and of what we do the objects are partly necessary

and useful, partly noble: and we should give the same preference to

these that we do to the different parts of the soul and its actions,

as war to procure peace; labour, rest; and the useful, the noble. The

politician, therefore, who composes a body of laws ought to extend his

views to everything; the different parts of the soul and their actions;

more particularly to those things which are of a superior nature and

ends; and, in the same manner, to the lives of men and their different

actions.

They ought to be fitted both for labour and war, but rather [1333b] for

rest and peace; and also to do what is necessary and useful, but rather

what is fair and noble. It is to those objects that the education of the

children ought to tend, and of all the youths who want instruction. All

the Grecian states which now seem best governed, and the legislators who

founded those states, appear not to have framed their polity with a view

to the best end, or to every virtue, in their laws and education; but

eagerly to have attended to what is useful and productive of gain: and

nearly of the same opinion with these are some persons who have written

lately, who, by praising the Lacedaemonian state, show they approve of

the intention of the legislator in making war and victory the end of

his government. But how contrary to reason this is, is easily proved by

argument, and has already been proved by facts (but as the generality of

men desire to have an extensive command, that they may have everything

desirable in the greater abundance; so Thibron and others who have

written on that state seem to approve of their legislator for having

procured them an extensive command by continually enuring them to

all sorts of dangers and hardships): for it is evident, since the

Lacedemonians have now no hope that the supreme power will be in their

own hand, that neither are they happy nor was their legislator wise.

This also is ridiculous, that while they preserved an obedience to their

laws, and no one opposed their being governed by them, they lost the

means of being honourable: but these people understand not rightly

what sort of government it is which ought to reflect honour on the

legislator; for a government of freemen is nobler than despotic power,

and more consonant to virtue. Moreover, neither should a city be thought

happy, nor should a legislator be commended, because he has so trained

the people as to conquer their neighbours; for in this there is a

great inconvenience: since it is evident that upon this principle every

citizen who can will endeavour to procure the supreme power in his own

city; which crime the Lacedaemonians accuse Pausanias of, though he

enjoyed such great honours.

Such reasoning and such laws are neither political, useful nor true: but

a legislator ought to instil those laws on the minds of men which are

most useful for them, both in their public and private capacities. The

rendering a people fit for war, that they may enslave their inferiors

ought not to be the care of the legislator; but that they may not

themselves be reduced to slavery by others. In [1334a] the next place,

he should take care that the object of his government is the safety

of those who are under it, and not a despotism over all: in the third

place, that those only are slaves who are fit to be only so. Reason

indeed concurs with experience in showing that all the attention which

the legislator pays to the business of war, and all other rules which

he lays down, should have for their object rest and peace; since most

of those states (which we usually see) are preserved by war; but, after

they have acquired a supreme power over those around them, are ruined;

for during peace, like a sword, they lose their brightness: the fault of

which lies in the legislator, who never taught them how to be at rest.

CHAPTER XV

As there is one end common to a man both as an individual and a citizen,

it is evident that a good man and a good citizen must have the same

object in view; it is evident that all the virtues which lead to rest

are necessary; for, as we have often said, the end of war is peace, of

labour, rest; but those virtues whose object is rest, and those also

whose object is labour, are necessary for a liberal life and rest; for

we want a supply of many necessary things that we may be at rest. A city

therefore ought to be temperate, brave, and patient; for, according to

the proverb, "Rest is not for slaves;" but those who cannot bravely face

danger are the slaves of those who attack them. Bravery, therefore, and

patience are necessary for labour, philosophy for rest, and temperance

and justice in both; but these chiefly in time of peace and rest; for

war obliges men to be just and temperate; but the enjoyment of pleasure,

with the rest of peace, is more apt to produce insolence; those indeed

who are easy in their circumstances, and enjoy everything that can

make them happy, have great occasion for the virtues of temperance and

justice. Thus if there are, as the poets tell us, any inhabitants in

the happy isles, to these a higher degree of philosophy, temperance, and

justice will be necessary, as they live at their ease in the full plenty

of every sensual pleasure. It is evident, therefore, that these virtues

are necessary in every state that would be happy or worthy; for he who

is worthless can never enjoy real good, much less is he qualified to

be at rest; but can appear good only by labour and being at war, but

in peace and at rest the meanest of creatures. For which reason virtue

should not be cultivated as the Lacedaemonians did; for they did not

differ from others in their opinion concerning the supreme good, but in

[1334b] imagining this good was to be procured by a particular virtue;

but since there are greater goods than those of war, it is evident

that the enjoyment of those which are valuable in themselves should be

desired, rather than those virtues which are useful in war; but how and

by what means this is to be acquired is now to be considered. We have

already assigned three causes on which it will depend; nature, custom,

and reason, arid shown what sort of men nature must produce for this

purpose; it remains then that we determine which we shall first begin by

in education, reason or custom, for these ought always to preserve the

most entire harmony with each other; for it may happen that reason may

err from the end proposed, and be corrected by custom. In the first

place, it is evident that in this as in other things, its beginning

or production arises from some principle, and its end also arises from

another principle, which is itself an end. Now, with us, reason and

intelligence are the end of nature; our production, therefore, and our

manners ought to be accommodated to both these. In the next place, as

the soul and the body are two distinct things, so also we see that the

soul is divided into two parts, the reasoning and not-reasoning, with

their habits which are two in number, one belonging to each, namely

appetite and intelligence; and as the body is in production before the

soul, so is the not-reasoning part of the soul before the reasoning; and

this is evident; for anger, will and desire are to be seen in children

nearly as soon as they are born; but reason and intelligence spring up

as they grow to maturity. The body, therefore, necessarily demands our

care before the soul; next the appetites for the sake of the mind; the

body for the sake of the soul.

CHAPTER XVI

If then the legislator ought to take care that the bodies of the

children are as perfect as possible, his first attention ought to be

given to matrimony; at what time and in what situation it is proper that

the citizens should engage in the nuptial contract. Now, with respect

to this alliance, the legislator ought both to consider the parties and

their time of life, that they may grow old at the same part of time, and

that their bodily powers may not be different; that is to say, the man

being able to have children, but the woman too old to bear them; or, on

the contrary, the woman be young enough to produce children, but the man

too old to be a father; for from such a situation discords and disputes

continually arise. In the next place, with respect to the succession of

children, there ought not to be too great an interval of time between

them and their parents; for when there is, the parent can receive no

benefit from his child's affection, or the child any advantage from his

father's protection; [1335a] neither should the difference in years be

too little, as great inconveniences may arise from it; as it prevents

that proper reverence being shown to a father by a boy who considers him

as nearly his equal in age, and also from the disputes it occasions in

the economy of the family. But, to return from this digression, care

ought to be taken that the bodies of the children may be such as will

answer the expectations of the legislator; this also will be affected

by the same means. Since season for the production of children is

determined (not exactly, but to speak in general), namely, for the man

till seventy years, and the woman till fifty, the entering into the

marriage state, as far as time is concerned, should be regulated by

these periods. It is extremely bad for the children when the father

is too young; for in all animals whatsoever the parts of the young are

imperfect, and are more likely to be productive of females than males,

and diminutive also in size; the same thing of course necessarily holds

true in men; as a proof of this you may see in those cities where the

men and women usually marry very young, the people in general are very

small and ill framed; in child-birth also the women suffer more, and

many of them die. And thus some persons tell us the oracle of Traezenium

should be explained, as if it referred to the many women who were

destroyed by too early marriages, and not their gathering their fruits

too soon. It is also conducive to temperance not to marry too soon; for

women who do so are apt to be intemperate. It also prevents the bodies

of men from acquiring their full size if they marry before their growth

is completed; for this is the determinate period, which prevents any

further increase; for which reason the proper time for a woman to marry

is eighteen, for a man thirty-seven, a little more or less; for when

they marry at that time their bodies are in perfection, and they will

also cease to have children at a proper time; and moreover with respect

to the succession of the children, if they have them at the time which

may reasonably be expected, they will be just arriving into perfection

when their parents are sinking down under the load of seventy years.

And thus much for the time which is proper for marriage; but moreover

a proper season of the year should be observed, as many persons do now,

and appropriate the winter for this business. The married couple ought

also to regard the precepts of physicians and naturalists, each of whom

have treated on these [1335b] subjects. What is the fit disposition of

the body will be better mentioned when we come to speak of the education

of the child; we will just slightly mention a few particulars. Now,

there is no occasion that any one should have the habit of body of a

wrestler to be either a good citizen, or to enjoy a good constitution,

or to be the father of healthy children; neither should he be infirm or

too much dispirited by misfortunes, but between both these. He ought to

have a habit of labour, but not of too violent labour; nor should that

be confined to one object only, as the wrestler's is; but to such things

as are proper for freemen. These things are equally necessary both for

men and women. Women with child should also take care that their diet is

not too sparing, and that they use sufficient exercise; which it will be

easy for the legislator to effect if he commands them once every day

to repair to the worship of the gods who are supposed to preside over

matrimony. But, contrary to what is proper for the body, the mind ought

to be kept as tranquil as possible; for as plants partake of the nature

of the soil, so does the child receive much of the disposition of the

mother. With respect to the exposing or bringing up of children, let

it be a law, that nothing imperfect or maimed shall be brought

up,.......... As the proper time has been pointed out for a man and a

woman to enter into the marriage state, so also let us determine

how long it is advantageous for the community that they should have

children; for as the children of those who are too young are imperfect

both in body and mind, so also those whose parents are too old are weak

in both: while therefore the body continues in perfection, which (as

some poets say, who reckon the different periods of life by sevens)

is till fifty years, or four or five more, the children may be equally

perfect; but when the parents are past that age it is better they should

have no more. With respect to any connection between a man and a woman,

or a woman and a man, when either of the parties are betrothed, let

it be held in utter detestation [1336a] on any pretext whatsoever;

but should any one be guilty of such a thing after the marriage is

consummated, let his infamy be as great as his guilt deserves.

CHAPTER XVII

When a child is born it must be supposed that the strength of its body

will depend greatly upon the quality of its food. Now whoever will

examine into the nature of animals, and also observe those people who

are very desirous their children should acquire a warlike habit, will

find that they feed them chiefly with milk, as being best accommodated

to their bodies, but without wine, to prevent any distempers: those

motions also which are natural to their age are very serviceable; and

to prevent any of their limbs from being crooked, on account of their

extreme ductility, some people even now use particular machines that

their bodies may not be distorted. It is also useful to enure them to

the cold when they are very little; for this is very serviceable for

their health; and also to enure them to the business of war; for which

reason it is customary with many of the barbarians to dip their children

in rivers when the water is cold; with others to clothe them very

slightly, as among the Celts; for whatever it is possible to accustom

children to, it is best to accustom them to it at first, but to do it

by degrees: besides, boys have naturally a habit of loving the cold, on

account of the heat. These, then, and such-like things ought to be the

first object of our attention: the next age to this continues till

the child is five years old; during which time it is best to teach him

nothing at all, not even necessary labour, lest it should hinder his

growth; but he should be accustomed to use so much motion as not to

acquire a lazy habit of body; which he will get by various means and by

play also: his play also ought to be neither illiberal nor too laborious

nor lazy. Their governors and preceptors also should take care what sort

of tales and stories it may be proper for them to hear; for all these

ought to pave the way for their future instruction: for which reason

the generality of their play should be imitations of what they are

afterwards to do seriously. They too do wrong who forbid by laws

the disputes between boys and their quarrels, for they contribute to

increase their growth--as they are a sort of exercise to the body:

for the struggles of the heart and the compression of the spirits give

strength to those who labour, which happens to boys in their disputes.

The preceptors also ought to have an eye upon their manner of life, and

those with whom they converse; and to take care that they are never

in the company of slaves. At this time and till they are seven [1336b]

years old it is necessary that they should be educated at home. It

is also very proper to banish, both from their hearing and sight,

everything which is illiberal and the like. Indeed it is as much the

business of the legislator as anything else, to banish every indecent

expression out of the state: for from a permission to speak whatever is

shameful, very quickly arises the doing it, and this particularly with

young people: for which reason let them never speak nor hear any such

thing: but if it appears that any freeman has done or said anything that

is forbidden before he is of age to be thought fit to partake of the

common meals, let him be punished by disgrace and stripes; but if a

person above that age does so, let him be treated as you would a

slave, on account of his being infamous. Since we forbid his speaking

everything which is forbidden, it is necessary that he neither sees

obscene stories nor pictures; the magistrates therefore are to take care

that there are no statues or pictures of anything of this nature, except

only to those gods to whom the law permits them, and to which the law

allows persons of a certain age to pay their devotions, for themselves,

their wives, and children. It should also be illegal for young persons

to be present either at iambics or comedies before they are arrived at

that age when they are allowed to partake of the pleasures of the table:

indeed a good education will preserve them from all the evils which

attend on these things. We have at present just touched upon this

subject; it will be our business hereafter, when we properly come to

it, to determine whether this care of children is unnecessary, or,

if necessary, in what manner it must be done; at present we have only

mentioned it as necessary. Probably the saying of Theodoras, the tragic

actor, was not a bad one: That he would permit no one, not even the

meanest actor, to go upon the stage before him, that he might first

engage the ear of the audience. The same thing happens both in our

connections with men and things: what we meet with first pleases best;

for which reason children should be kept strangers to everything which

is bad, more particularly whatsoever is loose and offensive to good

manners. When five years are accomplished, the two next may be very

properly employed in being spectators of those exercises they will

afterwards have to learn. There are two periods into which education

ought to be divided, according to the age of the child; the one is from

his being seven years of age to the time of puberty; the other from

thence till he is one-and-twenty: for those who divide ages by the

number seven [1337a] are in general wrong: it is much better to follow

the division of nature; for every art and every instruction is intended

to complete what nature has left defective: we must first consider if

any regulation whatsoever is requisite for children; in the next place,

if it is advantageous to make it a common care, or that every one should

act therein as he pleases, which is the general practice in most cities;

in the third place, what it ought to be.

BOOK VIII

CHAPTER I

No one can doubt that the magistrate ought greatly to interest himself

in the care of youth; for where it is neglected it is hurtful to the

city, for every state ought to be governed according to its particular

nature; for the form and manners of each government are peculiar to

itself; and these, as they originally established it, so they usually

still preserve it. For instance, democratic forms and manners a

democracy; oligarchic, an oligarchy: but, universally, the best manners

produce the best government. Besides, as in every business and art there

are some things which men are to learn first and be made accustomed to,

which are necessary to perform their several works; so it is evident

that the same thing is necessary in the practice of virtue. As there is

one end in view in every city, it is evident that education ought to be

one and the same in each; and that this should be a common care, and

not the individual's, as it now is, when every one takes care of his own

children separately; and their instructions are particular also, each

person teaching them as they please; but what ought to be engaged in

ought to be common to all. Besides, no one ought to think that any

citizen belongs to him in particular, but to the state in general; for

each one is a part of the state, and it is the natural duty of each part

to regard the good of the whole: and for this the Lacedaemonians may be

praised; for they give the greatest attention to education, and make

it public. It is evident, then, that there should be laws concerning

education, and that it should be public.

CHAPTER II

What education is, and how children ought to be instructed, is what

should be well known; for there are doubts concerning the business of

it, as all people do not agree in those things they would have a child

taught, both with respect to their improvement in virtue and a happy

life: nor is it clear whether the object of it should be to improve

the reason or rectify the morals. From the present mode of education

we cannot determine with certainty to which men incline, whether to

instruct a child in what will be useful to him in life; or what tends to

virtue, and what is excellent: for all these things have their separate

defenders. As to virtue, there is no particular [1337b] in which they

all agree: for as all do not equally esteem all virtues, it reasonably

follows that they will not cultivate the same. It is evident that what

is necessary ought to be taught to all: but that which is necessary

for one is not necessary for all; for there ought to be a distinction

between the employment of a freeman and a slave. The first of these

should be taught everything useful which will not make those who know

it mean. Every work is to be esteemed mean, and every art and every

discipline which renders the body, the mind, or the understanding of

freemen unfit for the habit and practice of virtue: for which reason all

those arts which tend to deform the body are called mean, and all those

employments which are exercised for gain; for they take off from the

freedom of the mind and render it sordid. There are also some liberal

arts which are not improper for freemen to apply to in a certain degree;

but to endeavour to acquire a perfect skill in them is exposed to the

faults I have just mentioned; for there is a great deal of difference

in the reason for which any one does or learns anything: for it is not

illiberal to engage in it for one's self, one's friend, or in the cause

of virtue; while, at the same time, to do it for the sake of another

may seem to be acting the part of a servant and a slave. The mode of

instruction which now prevails seems to partake of both parts.

CHAPTER III

There are four things which it is usual to teach children--reading,

gymnastic exercises, and music, to which (in the fourth place) some add

painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular use in life,

and gymnastic exercises, as productive of courage. As to music, some

persons may doubt, as most persons now use it for the sake of pleasure:

but those who originally made it part of education did it because,

as has been already said, nature requires that we should not only be

properly employed, but to be able to enjoy leisure honourably: for this

(to repeat what I have already said) is of all things the principal.

But, though both labour and rest are necessary, yet the latter is

preferable to the first; and by all means we ought to learn what we

should do when at rest: for we ought not to employ that time at play;

for then play would be the necessary business of our lives. But if this

cannot be, play is more necessary for those who labour than those who

are at rest: for he who labours requires relaxation; which play will

supply: for as labour is attended with pain and continued exertion, it

is necessary that play should be introduced, under proper regulations,

as a medicine: for such an employment of the mind is a relaxation to

it, and eases with pleasure. [1338a] Now rest itself seems to partake of

pleasure, of happiness, and an agreeable life: but this cannot be theirs

who labour, but theirs who are at rest; for he who labours, labours for

the sake of some end which he has not: but happiness is an end which

all persons think is attended with pleasure and not with pain: but all

persons do not agree in making this pleasure consist in the same thing;

for each one has his particular standard, correspondent to his own

habits; but the best man proposes the best pleasure, and that which

arises from the noblest actions. But it is evident, that to live a life

of rest there are some things which a man must learn and be instructed

in; and that the object of this learning and this instruction centres in

their acquisition: but the learning and instruction which is given for

labour has for its object other things; for which reason the ancients

made music a part of education; not as a thing necessary, for it is not

of that nature, nor as a thing useful, as reading, in the common course

of life, or for managing of a family, or for learning anything as useful

in public life. Painting also seems useful to enable a man to judge

more accurately of the productions of the finer arts: nor is it like

the gymnastic exercises, which contribute to health and strength; for

neither of these things do we see produced by music; there remains for

it then to be the employment of our rest, which they had in view who

introduced it; and, thinking it a proper employment for freemen, to them

they allotted it; as Homer sings:

"How right to call Thalia to the feast:"

and of some others he says:

"The bard was call'd, to ravish every ear:"

and, in another place, he makes Ulysses say the happiest part of man's

life is

"When at the festal board, in order plac'd, They hear the song."

It is evident, then, that there is a certain education in which a child

may be instructed, not as useful nor as necessary, but as noble and

liberal: but whether this is one or more than one, and of what sort they

are, and how to be taught, shall be considered hereafter: we are now got

so far on our way as to show that we have the testimony of the ancients

in our favour, by what they have delivered down upon education--for

music makes this plain. Moreover, it is necessary to instruct children

in what is useful, not only on account of its being useful in itself,

as, for instance, to learn to read, but also as the means of acquiring

other different sorts of instruction: thus they should be instructed

in painting, not only to prevent their being mistaken in purchasing

pictures, or in buying or selling of vases, but rather as it makes

[1338b] them judges of the beauties of the human form; for to be always

hunting after the profitable ill agrees with great and freeborn

souls. As it is evident whether a boy should be first taught morals or

reasoning, and whether his body or his understanding should be first

cultivated, it is plain that boys should be first put under the care of

the different masters of the gymnastic arts, both to form their bodies

and teach them their exercises.

CHAPTER IV

Now those states which seem to take the greatest care of their

children's education, bestow their chief attention on wrestling, though

it both prevents the increase of the body and hurts the form of it. This

fault the Lacedaemonians did not fall into, for they made their children

fierce by painful labour, as chiefly useful to inspire them with

courage: though, as we have already often said, this is neither the

only thing nor the principal thing necessary to attend to; and even with

respect to this they may not thus attain their end; for we do not find

either in other animals, or other nations, that courage necessarily

attends the most cruel, but rather the milder, and those who have the

dispositions of lions: for there are many people who are eager both

to kill men and to devour human flesh, as the Achaeans and Heniochi in

Pontus, and many others in Asia, some of whom are as bad, others worse

than these, who indeed live by tyranny, but are men of no courage. Nay,

we know that the Lacedaemonians themselves, while they continued those

painful labours, and were superior to all others (though now they are

inferior to many, both in war and gymnastic exercises), did not acquire

their superiority by training their youth to these exercises,

but because those who were disciplined opposed those who were not

disciplined at all. What is fair and honourable ought then to take place

in education of what is fierce and cruel: for it is not a wolf, nor any

other wild beast, which will brave any noble danger, but rather a good

man. So that those who permit boys to engage too earnestly in these

exercises, while they do not take care to instruct them in what is

necessary to do, to speak the real truth, render them mean and vile,

accomplished only in one duty of a citizen, and in every other respect,

as reason evinces, good for nothing. Nor should we form our judgments

from past events, but from what we see at present: for now they have

rivals in their mode of education, whereas formerly they had not. That

gymnastic exercises are useful, and in what manner, is admitted; for

during youth it is very proper to go through a course of those which

are most gentle, omitting that violent diet and those painful exercises

which are prescribed as necessary; that they may not prevent the growth

of the body: and it is no small proof that they have this effect, that

amongst the Olympic candidates we can scarce find two or three who have

gained a victory both when boys and men: because the necessary exercises

they went through when young deprived them of their strength. When they

have allotted three years from the time of puberty to other parts of

education, they are then of a proper age to submit to labour and a

regulated diet; for it is impossible for the mind and body both to

labour at the same time, as they are productive of contrary evils to

each other; the labour of the body preventing the progress of the mind,

and the mind of the body.

CHAPTER V

With respect to music we have already spoken a little in a doubtful

manner upon this subject. It will be proper to go over again more

particularly what we then said, which may serve as an introduction to

what any other person may choose to offer thereon; for it is no easy

matter to distinctly point out what power it has, nor on what accounts

one should apply it, whether as an amusement and refreshment, as sleep

or wine; as these are nothing serious, but pleasing, and the killers of

care, as Euripides says; for which reason they class in the same order

and use for the same purpose all these, namely, sleep, wine, and music,

to which some add dancing; or shall we rather suppose that music tends

to be productive of virtue, having a power, as the gymnastic exercises

have to form the body in a certain way, to influence the manners so as

to accustom its professors to rejoice rightly? or shall we say, that it

is of any service in the conduct of life, and an assistant to prudence?

for this also is a third property which has been attributed to it. Now

that boys are not to be instructed in it as play is evident; for those

who learn don't play, for to learn is rather troublesome; neither is

it proper to permit boys at their age to enjoy perfect leisure; for to

cease to improve is by no means fit for what is as yet imperfect; but it

may be thought that the earnest attention of boys in this art is for

the sake of that amusement they will enjoy when they come to be men and

completely formed; but, if this is the case, why are they themselves

to learn it, and not follow the practice of the kings of the Medes and

Persians, who enjoy the pleasure of music by hearing others play, and

being shown its beauties by them; for of necessity those must be

better skilled therein who make this science their particular study

and business, than those who have only spent so much time at it as was

sufficient just to learn the principles of it. But if this is a reason

for a child's being taught anything, they ought also to learn the art of

cookery, but this is absurd. The same doubt occurs if music has a power

of improving the manners; for why should they on this account themselves

learn it, and not reap every advantage of regulating the passions or

forming a judgment [1339b] on the merits of the performance by hearing

others, as the Lacedaemonians; for they, without having ever learnt

music, are yet able to judge accurately what is good and what is

bad; the same reasoning may be applied if music is supposed to be the

amusement of those who live an elegant and easy life, why should they

learn themselves, and not rather enjoy the benefit of others' skill.

Let us here consider what is our belief of the immortal gods in this

particular. Now we find the poets never represent Jupiter himself as

singing and playing; nay, we ourselves treat the professors of these

arts as mean people, and say that no one would practise them but a

drunkard or a buffoon. But probably we may consider this subject more

at large hereafter. The first question is, whether music is or is not

to make a part of education? and of those three things which have

been assigned as its proper employment, which is the right? Is it to

instruct, to amuse, or to employ the vacant hours of those who live at

rest? or may not all three be properly allotted to it? for it appears

to partake of them all; for play is necessary for relaxation, and

relaxation pleasant, as it is a medicine for that uneasiness which

arises from labour. It is admitted also that a happy life must be an

honourable one, and a pleasant one too, since happiness consists in both

these; and we all agree that music is one of the most pleasing things,

whether alone or accompanied with a voice; as Musseus says, "Music's the

sweetest joy of man;" for which reason it is justly admitted into every

company and every happy life, as having the power of inspiring joy.

So that from this any one may suppose that it is necessary to instruct

young persons in it; for all those pleasures which are harmless are not

only conducive to the final end of life, but serve also as relaxations;

and, as men are but rarely in the attainment of that final end, they

often cease from their labour and apply to amusement, with no further

view than to acquire the pleasure attending it. It is therefore useful

to enjoy such pleasures as these. There are some persons who make play

and amusement their end, and probably that end has some pleasure annexed

to it, but not what should be; but while men seek the one they accept

the other for it; because there is some likeness in human actions to the

end; for the end is pursued for the sake of nothing else that attends

it; but for itself only; and pleasures like these are sought for, not

on account of what follows them, but on account of what has gone before

them, as labour and grief; for which reason they seek for happiness in

these sort of pleasures; and that this is the reason any one may easily

perceive. That music should be pursued, not on this account only, but

also as it is very serviceable during the hours of relaxation from

labour, probably no [1340a] one doubts; we should also inquire whether

besides this use it may not also have another of nobler nature--and we

ought not only to partake of the common pleasure arising from it (which

all have the sensation of, for music naturally gives pleasure, therefore

the use of it is agreeable to all ages and all dispositions); but also

to examine if it tends anything to improve our manners and our souls.

And this will be easily known if we feel our dispositions any way

influenced thereby; and that they are so is evident from many other

instances, as well as the music at the Olympic games; and this

confessedly fills the soul with enthusiasm; but enthusiasm is an

affection of the soul which strongly agitates the disposition. Besides,

all those who hear any imitations sympathise therewith; and this when

they are conveyed even without rhythm or verse. Moreover, as music is

one of those things which are pleasant, and as virtue itself consists in

rightly enjoying, loving, and hating, it is evident that we ought not

to learn or accustom ourselves to anything so much as to judge right and

rejoice in honourable manners and noble actions. But anger and mildness,

courage and modesty, and their contraries, as well as all other

dispositions of the mind, are most naturally imitated by music and

poetry; which is plain by experience, for when we hear these our very

soul is altered; and he who is affected either with joy or grief by the

imitation of any objects, is in very nearly the same situation as if he

was affected by the objects themselves; thus, if any person is pleased

with seeing a statue of any one on no other account but its beauty, it

is evident that the sight of the original from whence it was taken

would also be pleasing; now it happens in the other senses there is no

imitation of manners; that is to say, in the touch and the taste; in the

objects of sight, a very little; for these are merely representations of

things, and the perceptions which they excite are in a manner common

to all. Besides, statues and paintings are not properly imitations of

manners, but rather signs and marks which show the body is affected by

some passion. However, the difference is not great, yet young men ought

not to view the paintings of Pauso, but of Polygnotus, or any other

painter or statuary who expresses manners. But in poetry and music there

are imitations of manners; and this is evident, for different harmonies

differ from each other so much by nature, that those who hear them are

differently affected, and are not in the same disposition of mind when

one is performed as when another is; the one, for instance, occasions

grief 13406 and contracts the soul, as the mixed Lydian: others soften

the mind, and as it were dissolve the heart: others fix it in a firm

and settled state, such is the power of the Doric music only; while the

Phrygian fills the soul with enthusiasm, as has been well described by

those who have written philosophically upon this part of education; for

they bring examples of what they advance from the things themselves. The

same holds true with respect to rhythm; some fix the disposition, others

occasion a change in it; some act more violently, others more liberally.

From what has been said it is evident what an influence music has over

the disposition of the mind, and how variously it can fascinate it:

and if it can do this, most certainly it is what youth ought to be

instructed in. And indeed the learning of music is particularly adapted

to their disposition; for at their time of life they do not willingly

attend to anything which is not agreeable; but music is naturally one

of the most agreeable things; and there seems to be a certain connection

between harmony and rhythm; for which reason some wise men held the soul

itself to be harmony; others, that it contains it.

CHAPTER VI

We will now determine whether it is proper that children should be

taught to sing, and play upon any instrument, which we have before made

a matter of doubt. Now, it is well known that it makes a great deal of

difference when you would qualify any one in any art, for the person

himself to learn the practical part of it; for it is a thing very

difficult, if not impossible, for a man to be a good judge of what he

himself cannot do. It is also very necessary that children should have

some employment which will amuse them; for which reason the rattle of

Archytas seems well contrived, which they give children to play with,

to prevent their breaking those things which are about the house; for

at their age they cannot sit still: this therefore is well adapted to

infants, as instruction ought to be their rattle as they grow up; hence

it is evident that they should be so taught music as to be able to

practise it. Nor is it difficult to say what is becoming or unbecoming

of their age, or to answer the objections which some make to this

employment as mean and low. In the first place, it is necessary for them

to practise, that they may be judges of the art: for which reason this

should be done when they are young; but when they are grown older the

practical part may be dropped; while they will still continue judges of

what is excellent in the art, and take a proper pleasure therein, from

the knowledge they acquired of it in their youth. As to the censure

which some persons throw upon music, as something mean and low, it is

not difficult to answer that, if we will but consider how far we propose

those who are to be educated so as to become good citizens should be

instructed in this art, [1341a] and what music and what rhythms they

should be acquainted with; and also what instruments they should play

upon; for in these there is probably a difference. Such then is the

proper answer to that censure: for it must be admitted, that in some

cases nothing can prevent music being attended, to a certain degree,

with the bad effects which are ascribed to it; it is therefore clear

that the learning of it should never prevent the business of riper

years; nor render the body effeminate, and unfit for the business of war

or the state; but it should be practised by the young, judged of by the

old. That children may learn music properly, it is necessary that they

should not be employed in those parts of it which are the objects of

dispute between the masters in that science; nor should they perform

such pieces as are wondered at from the difficulty of their execution;

and which, from being first exhibited in the public games, are now

become a part of education; but let them learn so much of it as to be

able to receive proper pleasure from excellent music and rhythms; and

not that only which music must make all animals feel, and also slaves

and boys, but more. It is therefore plain what instruments they should

use; thus, they should never be taught to play upon the flute, or any

other instrument which requires great skill, as the harp or the like,

but on such as will make them good judges of music, or any other

instruction: besides, the flute is not a moral instrument, but rather

one that will inflame the passions, and is therefore rather to be used

when the soul is to be animated than when instruction is intended. Let

me add also, that there is something therein which is quite contrary to

what education requires; as the player on the flute is prevented from

speaking: for which reason our forefathers very properly forbade the use

of it to youth and freemen, though they themselves at first used it; for

when their riches procured them greater leisure, they grew more animated

in the cause of virtue; and both before and after the Median war their

noble actions so exalted their minds that they attended to every part of

education; selecting no one in particular, but endeavouring to collect

the whole: for which reason they introduced the flute also, as one

of the instruments they were to learn to play on. At Lacedaemon the

choregus himself played on the flute; and it was so common at Athens

that almost every freeman understood it, as is evident from the tablet

which Thrasippus dedicated when he was choregus; but afterwards they

rejected it as dangerous; having become better judges of what tended to

promote virtue and what did not. For the same reason many of the ancient

instruments were thrown aside, as the dulcimer and the lyre; as also

those which were to inspire those who played on them with pleasure, and

which required a nice finger and great skill to play well on. What the

ancients tell us, by way of fable, of the flute is indeed very rational;

namely, that after Minerva had found it, she threw it away: nor are they

wrong who say that the goddess disliked it for deforming the face of him

who played thereon: not but that it is more probable that she rejected

it as the knowledge thereof contributed nothing to the improvement of

the mind. Now, we regard Minerva as the inventress of arts and sciences.

As we disapprove of a child's being taught to understand instruments,

and to play like a master (which we would have confined to those who are

candidates for the prize in that science; for they play not to improve

themselves in virtue, but to please those who hear them, and gratify

their importunity); therefore we think the practice of it unfit for

freemen; but then it should be confined to those who are paid for doing

it; for it usually gives people sordid notions, for the end they have

in view is bad: for the impertinent spectator is accustomed to make them

change their music; so that the artists who attend to him regulate their

bodies according to his motions.

CHAPTER VII

We are now to enter into an inquiry concerning harmony and rhythm;

whether all sorts of these are to be employed in education, or whether

some peculiar ones are to be selected; and also whether we should

give the same directions to those who are engaged in music as part of

education, or whether there is something different from these two.

Now, as all music consists in melody and rhythm, we ought not to be

unacquainted with the power which each of these has in education; and

whether we should rather choose music in which melody prevails, or

rhythm: but when I consider how many things have been well written upon

these subjects, not only by some musicians of the present age, but also

by some philosophers who are perfectly skilled in that part of music

which belongs to education; we will refer those who desire a very

particular knowledge therein to those writers, and shall only treat

of it in general terms, without descending to particulars. Melody is

divided by some philosophers, whose notions we approve of, into moral,

practical, and that which fills the mind with enthusiasm: they also

allot to each of these a particular kind of harmony which naturally

corresponds therewith: and we say that music should not be applied to

one purpose only, but many; both for instruction and purifying the soul

(now I use the word purifying at present without any explanation, but

shall speak more at large of it in my Poetics); and, in the third place,

as an agreeable manner of spending the time and a relaxation from the

uneasiness of the mind. [1342a] It is evident that all harmonies are to

be used; but not for all purposes; but the most moral in education: but

to please the ear, when others play, the most active and enthusiastic;

for that passion which is to be found very strong in some souls is to be

met with also in all; but the difference in different persons consists

in its being in a less or greater degree, as pity, fear, and enthusiasm

also; which latter is so powerful in some as to overpower the soul: and

yet we see those persons, by the application of sacred music to soothe

their mind, rendered as sedate and composed as if they had employed

the art of the physician: and this must necessarily happen to the

compassionate, the fearful, and all those who are subdued by their

passions: nay, all persons, as far as they are affected with those

passions, admit of the same cure, and are restored to tranquillity with

pleasure. In the same manner, all music which has the power of purifying

the soul affords a harmless pleasure to man. Such, therefore, should be

the harmony and such the music which those who contend with each other

in the theatre should exhibit: but as the audience is composed of two

sorts of people, the free and the well-instructed, the rude the mean

mechanics, and hired servants, and a long collection of the like, there

must be some music and some spectacles to please and soothe them; for as

their minds are as it were perverted from their natural habits, so

also is there an unnatural harmony, and overcharged music which is

accommodated to their taste: but what is according to nature gives

pleasure to every one, therefore those who are to contend upon the

theatre should be allowed to use this species of music. But in education

ethic melody and ethic harmony should be used, which is the Doric, as we

have already said, or any other which those philosophers who are skilful

in that music which is to be employed in education shall approve of.

But Socrates, in Plato's Republic, is very wrong when he [1342b] permits

only the Phrygian music to be used as well as the Doric, particularly as

amongst other instruments he banishes the flute; for the Phrygian music

has the same power in harmony as the flute has amongst the instruments;

for they are both pathetic and raise the mind: and this the practice

of the poets proves; for in their bacchanal songs, or whenever they

describe any violent emotions of the mind, the flute is the instrument

they chiefly use: and the Phrygian harmony is most suitable to these

subjects. Now, that the dithyrambic measure is Phrygian is allowed by

general consent; and those who are conversant in studies of this sort

bring many proofs of it; as, for instance, when Philoxenus endeavoured

to compose dithyrambic music for Doric harmony, he naturally fell back

again into Phrygian, as being fittest for that purpose; as every one

indeed agrees, that the Doric music is most serious, and fittest to

inspire courage: and, as we always commend the middle as being between

the two extremes, and the Doric has this relation with respect to other

harmonies, it is evident that is what the youth ought to be instructed

in. There are two things to be taken into consideration, both what is

possible and what is proper; every one then should chiefly endeavour to

attain those things which contain both these qualities: but this is to

be regulated by different times of life; for instance, it is not easy

for those who are advanced in years to sing such pieces of music as

require very high notes, for nature points out to them those which are

gentle and require little strength of voice (for which reason some who

are skilful in music justly find fault with Socrates for forbidding the

youth to be instructed in gentle harmony; as if, like wine, it would

make them drunk, whereas the effect of that is to render men bacchanals,

and not make them languid): these therefore are what should employ those

who are grown old. Moreover, if there is any harmony which is proper for

a child's age, as being at the same time elegant and instructive, as the

Lydian of all others seems chiefly to be-These then are as it were the

three boundaries of education, moderation, possibility, and decorum.

INDEX

ACHILLES, 76

Act of the city, what, 69

Actions, their original spring, i

Administration, 76;

whether to be shared by the whole community, 203

AEsumnetes, 96

AEthiopia, in what manner the power of the state is there regulated, 112

Alterations in government, whence they arise, 142;

what they are, 143

Ambractia, the government of, changed, 151

Andromadas Reginus, a lawgiver to the Thracian Calcidians, 65

Animals, their different provisions by nature, 14;

intended by nature for the benefit of man, 14;

what constitutes their different species, 113

Animals, tame, why better than wild, 8

Arbitrator and judge, their difference, 49

Architas his rattle, 248

Areopagus, senate of, 63

Argonauts refuse to take Hercules with them, 93

Aristocracies, causes of commotions in them, 157;

chief cause of their alteration, 158;

may degenerate into an oligarchy, 79

Aristocracy, what, 78;

treated of, 120;

its object, 121

Art, works of, which most excellent, 20

Artificers and slaves, their difference, 24

Assemblies, public, advantageous to a democracy, 134

Assembly, public, its proper business, 133

Athens, different dispositions of the citizens of, 149

Barter, its original, 15

Being, what the nature of every one is, 3

Beings, why some command, others obey, 2

Body by nature to be governed, 8;

requires our care before the soul, 232

Calchis, the government of, changed, 151

Calcidians, 65

Carthaginian government described, 60

Census in a free state should be as extensive as possible, 131;

how to be altered, 162

Charondas supposed to be the scholar of Zaleucus, 64

Child, how to be managed when first born, 235;

should be taught nothing till he is five years old, 235;

how then to be educated, 236

Children, the proper government of, 22;

what their proper virtues, 23;

what they are usually taught, 240

Cities, how governed at first, 3;

what, 3;

the work of nature, 3;

prior in contemplation to a family, or an individual, 4

Citizen, who is one? 66, 68;

should know both how to command and obey, 73

Citizens must have some things in common, 26;

should be exempted from servile labour, 51;

privileges different in different governments, 68;

if illegally made, whether illegal, 69;

who admitted to be, 75;

in the best states ought not to follow merchandise, 216

City, may be too much one, 27, 35;

what, 66, 82;

when it continues the same, 70;

for whose sake established, 76;

its end, 83;

of what parts made up, 113;

best composed of equals, 126

City of the best form, what its establishment ought to be, 149;

wherein its greatness consists, 149;

may be either too large or too small, 209;

what should be its situation, 211;

whether proper near the sea, 211;

ought to be divided by families into different sorts of men, 218

City and confederacy, their difference, 37;

wherein it should be one, 27

Command amongst equals should be in rotation, 101

Common meals not well established at Lacedaemon-well at Crete, 56;

the model from whence the Lacedaemonian was taken, 56;

inferior to it in some respects, 56

Community, its recommendations deceitful, 34;

into what people it may be divided, 194

Community of children, 29, 30;

inconveniences attending it, 31

Community of goods, its inconveniences, 28;

destructive of modesty and liberality, 34

Community of wives, its inconveniences, 27

Contempt a cause of sedition, 146

Courage of a man different from a woman's, 74

Courts, how many there ought to be, 140

Courts of justice should be few in a small state, 192

Cretan customs similar to the Lacedasmonian, 57;

assembly open to every citizen, 58

Cretans, their power, 58;

their public meals, how conducted 58

Crete, the government of, 57;

description of the island of 57

Customs at Carthage, Lacedaemon, and amongst the Scythians and

Iberians, concerning those who had killed an enemy, 204, 205

Dadalus's statues, 6.

Delphos, an account of a sedition there, 150

Demagogues, their influence in a democracy, 116.

Democracies, arose out of tyrannies, 100;

whence they arose, 142;

when changed into tyrannies, 153;

their different sorts, 184, 188;

general rules for their establishment, 185;

should not be made too perfect, 191

Democracy, what, 79, 80;

its definition, 112, 113;

different sorts of, 115, 118;

its object, 122;

how subverted in the Isle of Cos, 152

Democracy and aristocracy, how they may be blended together, 163

Democratical state, its foundation, 184

Despotic power absurd, 205

Dion, his noble resolution, 171

Dionysius, his taxes, 175

Dissolution of kingdoms and tyrannies, 169

Domestic employments of men and women different, 74

Domestic government, its object, 77

Domestic society the first, 3

Draco, 65

Dyrrachium, government of, 101

Economy and money-getting, difference, 17

Education necessary for the happiness of the city, 90;

of all things most necessary to preserve the state, 166;

what it ought to be, 166;

the objects of it, 228, 229;

should be taken care of by the magistrate, and correspond to

the nature of government, 238;

should be a common care, and regulated by laws, 238

Employment, one to be allotted to one person in an extensive government, 136

Employments in the state, how to be disposed of, 88-90;

whether all should be open to all, 216

Ephialtes abridges the power of the senate of Areopagus, 63

Ephori, at Sparta, their power too great, 54;

improperly chosen, 54;

flattered by their kings, 54;

the supreme judges, 55;

manner of life too indulgent, 55

Epidamnus, an account of a revolution there, 150

Equality, how twofold, 143;

in a democracy, how to be procured, 186

Euripides quoted, 72

Family government, of what it consists, 5

Father should not be too young, 232

Females and slaves, wherein they differ, 2;

why upon a level amongst barbarians, 3

Forfeitures, how to be applied, 192

Fortune improper pretension for power, 91

Freemen in general, what power they ought to have, 86

Free state treated of, 121;

how it arises out of a democracy and oligarchy, 122, 123

Friendship weakened by a community of children, 31

General, the office of, how to be disposed of, 98

Gods, why supposed subject to kingly government, 3

Good, relative to man, how divided, 201

Good and evil, the perception of, necessary to form a family and a city, 4

Good fortune something different from happiness, 202

Government should continue as much as possible in the same hands, 28;

in what manner it should be in rotation, 28;

what, 66;

which best, of a good man or good laws, 98;

good, to what it should owe its preservation, 124;

what the best, 225

Government of the master over the slave sometimes reciprocally useful, ii

Governments, how different from each other, 67;

whether more than one form should be established, 76;

should endeavour to prevent others from being too powerful--

instances of it, 93;

how compared to music, in;

in general, to what they owe their preservation, 160

Governments, political, regal, family, and servile, their difference

from each other, i

Governors and governed, whether their virtues are the same or different, 23;

whether they should be the same persons or different, 227

Grecians, their superiority over other people, 213

Guards of a king natives, 96,168;

of a tyrant foreigners, 96, 168

Gymnastic exercises, when to be performed, 223;

how far they should be made a part of education, 242, 243

Happiness, wherein it consists, 207

Happy life, where most likely to be found, 202

Harmony, whether all kinds of it are to be used in education, 251

Helots troublesome to the Lacedaemonians, 87

Herdsmen compose the second-best democracy, 189

Hippodamus, an account of, 46;

his plan of government, 46, 47:

objected to, 47, 48

Homer quoted, 95, 116

Honours, an inequality of, occasions seditions, 44

Horse most suitable to an oligarchy, 195

Houses, private, their best form, 221

Human flesh devoured by some nations, 242

Husbandmen compose the best democracy, 189;

will choose to govern according to law, 118

Husbandry, art of, whether part of money-getting, 13

Instruments, their difference from each other, 6;

wherein they differ from possessions, 6

Italy, its ancient boundary, 218

Jason's declaration, 72

Judge should not act as an arbitrator, 48, 49;

which is best for an individual, or the people in general, 98, 99

Judges, many better than one, 102;

of whom to consist, 102;

how many different sorts are necessary, 141

Judicial part of government, how to be divided, 140

Jurymen, particular powers sometimes appointed to that office, 68

Justice, what, 88;

the course of, impeded in Crete, 59;

different in different situations, 74

King, from whom to be chosen 60;

the guardian of his people 168

King's children, what to be done with, 100

King's power, what it should be 100;

when unequal, 143

Kingdom, what, 78

Kingdoms, their object, 167;

how bestowed, 168;

causes of their dissolution, 173;

how preserved, 173

Kingly government in the heroic times, what, 96

Kingly power regulated by the laws at Sparta in peace, 95;

absolute in war, 95

Kings formerly in Crete, 58;

their power afterwards devolved to the kosmoi, 58;

method of electing them at Carthage, 60

Knowledge of the master and slave different from each other, ii

Kosmoi, the power of, 58;

their number, 58;

wherein inferior to the ephori, 58;

allowed to resign their office before their time is elapsed, 59

Lacedamonian customs similar to the Cretan, 57

Lacedaemonian government much esteemed, 41;

the faults of it, 53-56;

calculated only for war, 56;

how composed of a democracy and oligarchy, 124

Lacedaemonian revenue badly raised, 56, 57

Lacedaemonians, wherein they admit things to be common, 33

Land should be divided into two parts, 219

Law makes one man a slave, another free, 6;

whether just or not, 9;

at Thebes respecting tradesmen, 75;

nothing should be done contrary to it, 160

Law and government, their difference, 107, 108

Laws, when advantageous

to alter them, 49,50, 52;

of every state will be like the state, 88;

whom they should be calculated for, 92;

decide better than men, 101;

moral preferable to written, 102;

must sometimes bend to ancient customs, 117;

should be framed to the state, 107;

the same suit not all governments, 108

Legislator ought to know not only what is best, but what is practical, n

Legislators should fix a proper medium in property, 46

Liberty, wherein it partly consists, 184, 185

Life, happy, owing to a course of virtue, 125;

how divided, 228

Locrians forbid men to sell their property, 43

Lycophron's account of law, 82

Lycurgus gave over reducing the women to obedience, 53;

made it infamous for any one to sell his possessions, 53;

some of his laws censured, 54;

spent much time at Crete, 57;

supposed to be the scholar of Thales, 64

Lysander wanted to abolish the kingly power in Sparta, 143

Magistrate, to whom that name is properly given, 136

Magistrates, when they make the state incline to an oligarchy, 61;

when to an aristocracy, 61;

at Athens, from whom to be chosen, 64;

to determine those causes which the law cannot be applied to, 88;

whether their power is to be the same, or different

in different communities, 137;

how they differ from each other, 138;

in those who appoint them, 138;

should be continued but a short time in democracies, 161;

how to be chosen in a democracy, 185;

different sorts and employments, 196

Making and using, their difference, 6

Malienses, their form of government, 131

Man proved to be a political animal, 4;

has alone a perception of good and evil, 4;

without law and justice the worst of beings, 5

Master, power of, whence it arises, as some think, 5

Matrimony, when to be engaged in, 232

Meals, common, established in Crete and Italy, 218;

expense of, should be defrayed by the whole state, 219

Mechanic employments useful for citizens, 73

Mechanics, whether they should be allowed to be citizens, 74, 75;

cannot acquire the practice of virtue, 75;

admitted to be citizens in an oligarchy, 75

Medium of circumstances best, 126

Members of the community, their different pretences to the employments

of the state, 90;

what natural dispositions they ought to be of, 213

Men, some distinguished by nature for governors, others to be governed, 7;

their different modes of living, 13;

worthy three ways, 226

Merchandise, three different ways of carrying it on, 20

Middle rank of men make the best citizens, 127;

most conducive to the preservation of the state, 128;

should be particularly attended to by the legislators, 130

Military, how divided, 194

Mitylene, an account of a dispute there, 150

Monarch, absolute, 100

Monarchies, their nature, 95, 96;

sometimes elective, 95;

sometimes hereditary, 95;

whence they sometimes arise, 146;

causes of corruption in them, 167;

how preserved, 173

Money, how it made its way into commerce, 16;

first weighed, 16;

afterwards stamped, 16;

its value dependent on agreement, 16;

how gained by exchange, 19

Money--getting considered at large, 17, 18

Monopolising gainful, 21; sometimes practised by cities, 21

Monopoly of iron in Sicily, a remarkable instance of the profit of it, 21

Music, how many species of it, in;

why a part of education, 240;

how far it should be taught, 242, 243;

professors of it considered as mean people, 244;

imitates the disposition of the mind, 246;

improves our manners, 246;

Lydian, softens the mind, 247;

pieces of, difficult in their execution, not to be taught to children, 249

Nature requires equality amongst equals, 101

Naval power should be regulated by the strength of the city, 212

Necessary parts of a city, what, 215

Nobles, the difference between them, no;

should take care of the poor, 193

Oath, an improper one in an oligarchy, 166

Officers of state, who they ought to be, 135;

how long to continue, 135;

who to choose them, 136

Offices, distinction between them, 67;

when subversive of the rights of the people, 130

Offspring, an instance of the likeness of, to the sire, 30

Oligarchies arise where the strength of the state consists in horse, no;

whence they arose, 142

Oligarchy admits not hired servants to be citizens, 75;

its object, 79;

what, 79, 81;

its definition, 112;

different sorts of, 117, 119;

its object, 122;

how it ought to be founded, 195

Onomacritus supposed to have drawn up laws, 64

Ostracism, why established, 93, 146;

its power, 93;

a weapon in the hand of sedition, 94

Painting, why it should be made a part of education, 241

Particulars, five, in which the rights of the people will be undermined, 130

Pausanias wanted to abolish the ephori, 143

People, how they should be made one, 35;

of Athens assume upon their victory over the Medes, 64;

what best to submit to a kingly government, 104;

to an aristocratic, 104;

to a free state, 104;

should be allowed the power of pardoning, not of condemning, 135

Periander's advice to Thrasy-bulus, 93, 169

Pericles introduces the paying of those who attended the court of justice, 64

Philolaus, a Theban legislator, quits his native country, 64

Phocea, an account of a dispute there, 150

Physician, his business, 86

Physicians, their mode of practice in Egypt, 98;

when ill consult others, 102

Pittacus, 65

Plato censured, 180

Poor excused from bearing arms and from gymnastic exercises in

an oligarchy, 131;

paid for attending the public assemblies in a democracy, 131

Power of the master, its object, 77

Power, supreme, where it ought to be lodged, 84;

why with the many, 85, 87

Powers of a state, different methods of delegating them to the citizens,

132-134

Preadvisers, court of, 135

Priesthood, to whom to be allotted, 217

Prisoners of war, whether they may be justly made slaves, 9

Private property not regulated the source of sedition, 42;

Phaleas would have it equal, 42;

how Phaleas would correct the irregularities of it, 43;

Plato would allow a certain difference in it, 43

Property, its nature, 12;

how it should be regulated, 32, 33;

the advantages of having it private, 34;

what quantity the public ought to have, 44;

ought not to be common, 219

Public assemblies, when subversive of the liberties of the people, 130

Public money, how to be divided, 193

Qualifications necessary for those who are to fill the first departments

in government, 164

Quality of a city, what meant by it, 129

Quantity, 129

Rest and peace the proper objects of the legislator, 230

Revolutions in a democracy, whence they arise, 152;

in an oligarchy, 156

Rich fined in an oligarchy for not bearing arms and attending the

gymnastic exercises, 131;

receive nothing for attending the public assemblies in a democracy, 131

Rights of a citizen, whether advantageous or not, 203

Seditions sometimes prevented by equality, 45;

their causes, 144-146;

how to be prevented, 163

Senate suits a democracy, 185

Shepherds compose the second-best democracy, 189

Slave, his nature and use, 6;

a chattel, 7;

by law, how, 9

Slavery not founded in nature but law, as some think, 6

Slaves, an inquiry into the virtues they are capable of, 23;

difficult to manage properly, 51;

their different sorts, 73

Society necessary to man, 77

Society, civil, the greatest blessing to man, 4;

different from a commercial intercourse, 82

Socrates, his mistakes on government, Book II. passim;

his division of the inhabitants, 38;

would have the women go to war, 38;

Aristotle's opinion of his discourses, 38;

his city would require a country of immeasurable extent, 39;

his comparison of the human species to different kinds of metals, 40;

his account of the different orders of men in a city imperfect, 3

Sojourners, their situation, 66

Solon's opinion of riches, 14;

law for restraining property, 43;

alters the Athenian government, 63

Soul by nature the governor over the body, and in what manner, 8;

of man how divided, 228, 231

Speech a proof that man was formed for society, 4

State, each, consists of a great number of parts, 109;

its disproportionate increase the cause of revolutions, 147;

firm, what, 159

Stealing, how to be prevented, 44

Submission to government, when it is slavery, 206

Supreme power should be ultimately vested in the laws, 101

Syracuse, the government of, languid, 151

Temperance in a man different from a woman, 74

Temples, how to be built, 223

Thales, his contrivance to get money, 21;

supposed to be the companion of Onomacritus, 64

Things necessary to be known for the management of domestic affairs, 19, 20;

necessary in the position of a city, 220

Tribunals, what different things they should have under their

jurisdictions, 137

Tyrannies, how established, 168;

how preserved, 174, 176;

of short duration, 180;

instances thereof, 180

Tyranny, what, 79;

not natural, 103;

whence it arises, 108;

treated of, 124;

contains all that is bad in all governments, 125

Tyrant, from whom usually chosen, 167;

his object, 168;

his guards, 168

Tyrants, many of them originally enjoyed only kingly power, 168;

the causes of their being conspired against, 169, 170;

always love the worst of men, 175

Uses of possessions, two, 15

Usury detested, 19

Venality to be guarded against, IDS

Village, what, 3

Virtue of a citizen has reference to the state, 71;

different in different governments, 71

Virtues different in different persons, 23, 24;

whether the same constitute a good man and a valuable citizen, 71

Walls necessary for a city, 222

War, what is gained by it in some degree a natural acquisition, 14;

not a final end, 205, 229

Wife, the proper government of, 22

Women, what their proper virtue, 23;

not to be indulged in improper liberties, 52;

had great influence at Lacedaemon, 52;

of great disservice to the Lacedemonians, 52;

why indulged by them, 53;

their proper time of marrying, 233;

how to be managed when with child, 234

Zaleucus, legislator of the Western Locrians, 64;

supposed to be the scholar of Thales, 64