little is returned, to propitiate the angry sprite of the well.
_Manners at Table._
"Whereas other learned and wise nations keep their heads covered while
they are at meals, the Magyars uncover themselves at table. Perhaps they
follow this custom because they remember the words of St. Paul (1 Cor.
ii.), who says that every man praying, having his head covered,
dishonoureth his head; the Magyars, however, not only often commence
their meals with a prayer, but mention the Deity as often as they drink,
and wish to those, in whose honour they lift their glasses, good luck
and bliss, and pray to God for these, which custom is not always
followed by other nations. Therefore they think it is better not to
cover the head than to be obliged to uncover themselves so many
times."[122]--_From "A Kopaszsagnac diczireti" (the praise of baldness).
Kolozsvár, 1589; author unknown._
_Drinking Custom._--The Finnish word "ukko," at the present day, means
"the host," "the master of the house;" formerly "yli-jumala" meant "the
chief-God," "the God of the weather and fertility." Wherefore
Väinämõinen prays to him when sowing the first seed (Kalevala, I. runes
317-330).
The heathen Finns, after spring sowing,[123] sacrificed with "Ukko's
cup" (Ukon malja). Jacob Grimm compares Ukko's cup to Thor's drinking
vessel.[124]
In 1886, or thereabouts, the Magyar Academy of Science came into
possession of some XVIth and XVIIth century deeds written in Magyar, and
relating to the sale of certain vine-yards in the Hegyalja, where the
famous vines of Tokaj[125] grow. From these deeds it appears, that in
each case the bargaining for the vineyard was followed by a
drinking-bout, at which one of the men would lift up his glass; and if
nobody objected to the sale the bargain became confirmed and binding
upon all parties concerned. The ceremony of lifting up the cup that
should serve as a sign that the bargain was struck was called "Ukkon
poharat fölmutatui," = show up Ukko's glass, and the name of the person
who performed the ceremony is mentioned in the deed in every case. Thus,
in one of these documents, dated "Tállya, December 28, 1623," we read as
follows: "In witness thereof, we the above named magistrates and sworn
men, in conformity with the living old custom of our ancestors, have
drunk áldomás[126] &c. Ukko's glass was held up[127] by John Kantuk de
Liszka."
Thus, while the Finnish Agricola in 1551 condemns the custom of
"drinking Ukko's cup" of the ancient Finns as a superstition, in
Hungary, in the Hegyalja, it was, according to deeds bearing dates from
1596 to 1660, a ceremony "in accordance with the old law and living
custom."[128]
See Paul Hunfalvy's "Magyarország Ethnographiája," Budapest, 1876, pp.
242 & seq.
[1] "Aladár," in Hungarian tradition.
[2] _Enc. Britt._ "Huns."
[3] See "Rege a csoda-szarvasról, by Arany János, an English translation
of which has been published by Mr. Butler in his _Legends, Folk Songs,
&c._, from the Hungarian." Cf. _Hungary_, by Professor Vambéry, cap.
iii.
[4] According to Hungarian history, Árpád found numerous small
nationalities inheriting Attila's realm, with each of whom he had to
settle separately. The number of nationalities has been further
increased by fresh arrivals from Asia, and immigrants from Western
Europe during the past ten centuries: thus we hear of the continuous
irruption of Besseni (Petchenegs) during the reign of Stephen the Saint
(first King of Hungary, A.D. 1000); of Cumani in the time of Salamon
(A.D. 1060) and his successors; and of Tartars under Batu Khan (A.D.
1285) in the time of Béla IV. During this last invasion large tracts of
land became depopulated, the inhabitants having either perished or fled;
so that the king was obliged to invite immigrants from Western Europe,
and this was the origin of the Saxon settlements in Transylvania. This
will to some extent show the difficulties which beset the writer who
attempts to give a sketch of the races inhabiting modern Hungary. A
further difficulty, in tracing the origin of such races, is due to the
variety of spelling adopted by different writers in describing the same
race, and the unscrupulous use of the names Huns, Scythae, &c. when
writing about tribes inhabiting regions beyond the borders of the then
known civilised world. _Vide infra_, p. x.
[5] We have attempted to give but a brief sketch of the Magyars, feeling
that when there is so lucid a work as "Hungary," by so well-known an
authority as Professor Vambéry, within the reach of all, and dealing
with this subject in a way that it would be folly for us to attempt, we
may content ourselves with referring all readers to that work, and to
_Der Ursprung der Magyaren_ by the same author.
[6] The Székely (in German "Székler," in Latin "Siculus") inhabit the
eastern parts of Transylvania, the territory occupied by them forming an
oblong strip between the Saxon settlement of Besztercze and Brassó
(Kronstadt), with two branches to the west known as Marosszék and
Udvarhelyszék. Another district (szék) inhabited by them, Aranyos-szék,
lies in the western part of Transylvania between the districts of Torda
and Alsó-Fejér.
[7] _The Nationality of the Huns and Avars_, a paper read before the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Oct. 4, 1881. Cf. also "The Origin of the
Magyars," by the same author.
[8] See p. 380, _infra_.
[9] Kozma says, that in the two above-mentioned countries the word
"Huns" was used, up to the thirteenth century, among the people as
equivalent to giants, who figured in fairy tales. Simrock and Grimm are
inclined to see real persons in them, and say they were the Huns, and in
later history the Magyars.
[10] 1883, vol. i. pp. 466, 467.
[11] _Cornhill Magazine_, May, 1882.
[12] The first edition appeared in 1520. Cf. _Diccionario Bibliographico
Portuguez_ (Lisboa, 1859) _sub voce_ "Barros."
[13] He asserts that his chronicle is a translation of "ex lingua
Ungara." So far as one knows, the _original_ remains undiscovered and
unknown!
[14] Cf. Geo. Fejér, _Henricus Portagulliae Comes origine Burgundus non
Hungarus_, Budæ 1830, and other dissertations by M. Holéczy, &c. in the
British Museum. Press Mark 10632/1.
[15] _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, by Vigfusson and Powell. Oxford, 1883,
p. lxi, vol. i.
[16] _Historia de Gentium Septentrionalium variis conditionibus &c._
(Basileæ, 1567). Lib. ii. cap. xviii.
[17] _De Hunnis et Herulis_ Libri Sex. Joannes Magnus died in 1544. His
chronicle appeared interspersed with Olaus Magnus' work. Cf. Lib. viii.
cap. xiii.
[18] Cf. Paul Hunfalvy's polemic work, _A Székelyek_. Budapest, 1880.
The same learned writer in his well-known _Ethnography of Hungary_,
disputes the separate origin of the Székelys, and maintains that they
are not a distinct people from the Magyars, but that they are Magyars
who have migrated from Hungary Proper into their modern Transylvanian
homes. This assertion gave rise to severe criticism on the part of the
defenders of the old tradition like Dr. John Nagy, Farkas Deák, and
others; and the above mentioned pamphlet was a reply, wherein the author
further defends his assertion, on the testimony of comparative philology
and history. One powerful argument in favour of the separate origin is,
that for centuries the Székely population has kept distinct not only
from the Saxons, but also from the Magyars in Transylvania; they had
privileges which were denied to the Magyars. Their administration until
recently was quite distinct. Their name first occurs in a deed signed by
William, Bishop of Transylvania, dated 1213, in which the Bishop
renounces his right of collecting tithes from settlers in the Bárczasâg
"a waste and uninhabited" track of land, if those settlers be neither
Magyars nor Székelys.
[19] Abu-Ali Achmed ben Omar ibn Dastás. _Information regarding the
Kozars, Burtás, Bulgarians, Magyars, Slavs and Russ._ Edited by D. A.
Chvolson, St. Petersburg, 1869 (in Russian); quoted by Hunfalvy in his
_Ethnography of Hungary_.
[20] Abn Dolif Misaris ben Mohalhal _De Intinere Asiatico_--Studio Kurd
de Schloezer. Berolini, 1845. Cf. Defrémery _Fragments de Geographes,
&c._ in _Journ. Asiat._ ser. iv. tom. xiii. 466. Both quoted by Colonel
Yule in _Cathay and the Way Thither_. London, 1866. Vol. i. pp. cxi. and
clxxxvii.
[21] On the river Vág (in the North of Hungary Proper).
[22] Hunfalvy _The Székelys_, pp. 40-42.
[23] _Ib._ p. 41.
[24] Cf. _Republica Hungarica_, ex off. Elzeviriana, 1634, p. 12. "Nemo
apud illos (Ciculos) ignobilis esse censetur, etiam si manu aratrum
tractet, aut caprino gregi praesit."
[25] Georgius Rákóczy. Dei Gratia Princeps Transylvaniæ ... et Siculorum
Comes, &c.
[26] Prior to 1876, the Székelys administered their own affairs, and
were divided into five "széks" (_sedes_).
[27] His essay, entitled "A few words on the Székely Dialects," was
published at the end of his work, _Vadrózsâk_, vol. i.
[28] Quoted _infra_, p. xix.
[29] _Vide infra_, p. 380.
[30] _Opus citatum_, p. 34.
[31] Such as Klaproth.
[32] Cf. Hunfalvy _Ethnography_, p. 408.
[33] Cf. _The History of the Cumanians_, and also _The Nationality and
Language of the Jazygo-Cumanians_, by Stephen Gyárfás. Budapest, 1882.
[34] Budapest, 1880. The original MS. is in the Bibliotheca Marciana in
Venice. It was discovered by Cornides in 1770. Klaproth first made it
known in his "Mémoirs relatifs à l'Asie," III. and Roesler published a
specimen of its grammar in his "Romänische Studien," pp. 352-356.
[35] Count Géjza Kuun has, we are glad to say, not yet spoken his last
word; for that indefatigable scholar is busily engaged on a large work
on his favorite subject, which, judging by the extracts he read (June
1st, 1885) before the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, promises to rank
with the best writings of modern philologists.
It may be of interest here to quote one of the Cumanian children's
rhymes:
Heli, heli, jáde üzürmény
üzbe her!
Zeboralle, sarmamamile,
Alo bizon sasarma,
Düzüsztürmö dücsürmö
Hej ala hilala
Zeboralle dücsürmö.
(Wolan, wolan, ich löse das Gelübde,
Der Lenz ist da!
Mit Gebeten, Zauberzeichen
Mache ich den Zauber
Unschädlich. Ich preise dich!
Es ist nur ein Gott.
Mit Gebeten preise ich dich).
_Vide Ungarische Revue_, viii.-ix., Heft. 1885, p. 644.
[36] How dangerous a practice it is to build up history upon no other
ground than the mere similarity in the sound of the names of
nationalities is shewn in the history of the modern Jazyges. This name
has led many a chronicler astray. Their Magyar proper name is "Jász,"
which, according to Hunfalvy (_Ethnography of Hungary_, p. 376) is
derived from the word "ijász," i.e. "an archer," or "bowman," a name
describing their original occupation. In some old deeds of the xivth and
xvth centuries, they are called "Jassones" and "Pharetrarii," and things
kept straight until Ranzanus the Papal Nuncio at the Court of Matthias
Corvinus appeared on the scene, and, struck by the sound of the name
"Jassones" and finding that they lived on the very territory which,
according to Ptolemy, was occupied by the Jazyges: Metanastae in his
time, at once jumped to the conclusion that they were lineal descendants
of the wild horsemen mentioned by the classic author. We know how hard
anything false dies, and so we find this statement copied by subsequent
writers, and even disfiguring the pages of so excellent a work as
Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, sub. art. "Jazyges."
A still wilder mistake was made by a scribe of King Sigismund, who
re-christened the Jász folk "Philistæi," which afterwards appears in
many deeds. It would appear to be reasoned out thus; a "Jász," or
"bowman," must naturally handle a bow and arrow; but an arrow is called
"pfeil" in German, which comes from the old German "phil," hence
Jász-Philistæi, Q. E. D! Cf. Hunfalvy's _Ethnography loco citato_.
[37] _Vide infra_, p. 412, &c.
[38] _Ethnography of Hungary_, p. 362.
[39] The true born Magyar repudiates with scorn the idea that there is
any such thing as a dialect, boasting that rich and poor speak the same
tongue. Cf. _Galeoti Martii, de Matthiæ egregie, sapienter, fortiter et
jocose dictis ac factis libellus_, ed. Cassoviæ, 1611. "Unde fit ut
carmen lingua Hungarica compositum rusticis et civibus, mediis et
extremis, eodem tenore intelligatur." Galeoti was an Italian by birth,
and Papal Nuncio at the Court of Matthias I. (Corvinus), King of
Hungary.
[40] There is a passage in the writings of Nicolaus Oláh (_Hungaria et
Attila_, cap. xix. § 3) which at first sight seems to ascribe a separate
language to each of the peoples named in the text. According to him,
"the whole of Hungary in our days (xvith century) contains various
nations, viz., Magyars, Germans, Czechs, Slováks, Croats, Saxons,
Székelys, Wallachs, Servians, Cumans, Jazyges, Ruthens, and finally
Turks, and all these (nations) "differenti inter se utuntur lingua,"
except that some of the words may appear somewhat similar and identical
in sound in consequence of (their) protracted use and (the continuous)
contact (of the said nations with each other)." Against this, we may
urge, that if the language of the Székelys, for example, differed no
more from the Magyar than the German speech from that of the Saxons,
they can scarcely be described as two different languages. Moreover,
another writer says, that the "Hungari nobiles ejusdem regionis
(Transylvaniæ) passim intermixti Saxonibus, cum Ciculis propemodum tam
sermone, quam vestitu et armis conveniunt." See _Respublica Hungarica_,
1634. We have good reasons for believing that the passage has been
copied by the Elzevirian compiler from the _Chronigraphica Transylvaniæ_
of George Reijchersdorffer, 1550.
[41] Cf. Simpleton stories and lying stories, many of which as told in
Hungary, Finland, and Flanders, and even amongst the Lapps, are
identical with those we hear in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland,
and Norfolk.
[42] Professor Vambéry says: there are many features in Hungarian
Folk-Tales which can be found in the tales of China, and other Asiatic
countries, ancient and modern. The characteristics of the chief
personages in the tales show that the tales have been imported by the
Magyars from their old Asiatic homes, although a Slavonic influence
cannot be denied.
[43] P. 239 _infra_. See also remains of the Turkish occupation and
their barbarous doings in the children's rhyme:
"Lady bird, lady bird, fly away, fly away,
For the Turks are coming!
They will throw you into a well full of salt water:
They will take you out, and break you on the wheel."
Dark wine produced at Eger (Erlau) is called "Turk's blood."
[44] Pp. 70, 118.
[45] P. 5, _infra_.
[46] "Stephen the Murderer," "Fisher Joe," and the "Baa Lambs" in this
collection. Cf. "Die Engel-lämmer" _Aus der im Auftrage der
Kisfaludy-Gesellschaft von Lad Arany und Paul Gyulai besorgten_.
Ungarische Revue viii. ix. Heft, 1885, p. 640, and note, which says:
"Eines der wenigen ungarischen Volkmärchen, in welche die christliche
Mythologie hineinspielt."
[47] Cf. Such stories as "Handsome Paul," p. 29 _infra et seq._
[48] See all this beautifully sketched by Czuczor, in his poem _Joannes
Háry_.
[49] That the Magyar soldier can tell stories may be seen in Gaál's
tales, most of which Arany tells us have a most undesirable flavour of
the barracks about them.
[50] John Erdélyi (born 1814, died 1868), Hungarian poet and author,
elected Member of the Hungarian Academy of Science, 1839.
[51] These tales were collected from soldiers: and are full of
unnecessary flourishes and coarse barrack-room jokes.
[52] John Kriza (born 1812, died 1875), born in a small village of
Székely parents. Unitarian minister, professor, poet, and author,
elected Member of the Academy, 1841.
[53] A second volume has, I believe, since appeared.
[54] Ladislaus Arany objects to this collection, on the ground that the
collector has tried to improve on the original popular form, and
endeavoured to produce something classic, and thus spoiled the stories.
[55] Giant in Magyar is: "Óriás" i. e. a tall man, tall father. Cf. pp.
99, 147, 318, 340. Cf, numerous stories of giants and what they are like
in Friis. _Lappiske Eventyr_ and Hofberg. _Svenska Sägner_.
[56] See pp. 146 and 388.
[57] See "Knight Rose," p. 57.
[58] See "Knight Rose," p. 55.
[59] Cf. "Handsome Paul," p. 26 _infra_, where another illustration of
their size will be found; also the giant in Swedish tale who travelled
from Dalecarlia to Stockholm, and the bread was still warm in his
knapsack when he ended his journey.
[60] Cf. _Friis_. "Jetanis." _Hofberg._ "Bron öfver Kalmarsund"
"Ulfgrytstenarna" "Ruggabron" and "Stenen i Grönan dal."
[61] Vide pp. 345 and 392 _infra_.
[62] Vide "Prince Mirkó," p. 72.
[63] In Hungary, the village blacksmith is a gipsy as a rule.
[64] Vide "Shepherd Paul," p. 244 and note p. 407.
[65] Cf. "A Lincolnshire tale," p. 363.
[66] Cf. Story as found in Finland, Lapland, and Sweden, of Kaleva's
daughter, who, finding a man, put him and his horse and plough into her
apron, and carrying them off to her mother, asked what sort of a dung
beetle this was she had found scratching the earth, receiving a similar
answer to the above-mentioned one. Cf. Hofberg. _Svenska Sägner_, Jätten
Puke. Dybeck, _Runa_ 1845, p. 15, and Thiel _Danmarks. Folksagn_ ii. p.
228.
[67] Vide "Handsome Paul" and "Fairy Elizabeth."
[68] See "Prince Mirkó."
[69] Cf. _Rancken_, "Munsala," 22 i.: Wörå, 22: where a description of
buried treasures will to be found. Also _Hofberg_, "Den forlärade
skatten," "Guldvaggan," "Skatten i Säbybäcken," "Skattgräfvarna," vide
_infra_. pp. xxx. xxxvii.
[70] Amongst the numerous stories of hidden treasures, I may note two I
heard in my own parish lately. There is a chest of gold buried in Mumby
Hill, and an old man went by "his'sen," and dug and dug, and would have
got it, but so many little devils came round him, he had to give up.
The other tale is a long story of a man who went to an old house, and
every thing he did "a little devil" did, and as the man could not be
frightened a vast hidden treasure was revealed to him.--W. H. J.
[71] Rancken, _Några åkerbruksplägseder i Finland_. Munsala, 22, c. and
d. Hofberg. _Svenska Sägner_ "Skogsrået och Sjörået," and
"Ysätters-Kajsa."
[72] "Fairy Elizabeth," "Handsome Paul," "Knight Rose," and "Prince
Mirkó" are full of the doings of fairies.
[73] Cf. Ralston, _Russian Folk-Tales_, "The Baba Yaga," p. 143.
_Afanassieff_, i. No. 3 b.
[74] This is the nearest translation. In the original a hyphen between
gold and mountain, silver and valley, alters the meaning.
[75] _i.e._ "For ever." A form of orientalism which frequently occurs in
Magyar folk-poetry. For instance,
Cf. "My rose I will not marry you
Until there are no fish in the lake,
And as there always will be
You see, my rose, I cannot marry you."
[76] The waters of the two rivers flow into the Theiss, this into the
Danube, and the Danube into the Black Sea.
[77] Baron Orbán's _Székelyland_.
[78] Bishop Arnold Ipolyi, _Magyar Mythology_.
[79] Ladislaus Köváry, _Historical Antiquities_.
[80] In consequence of the Turkish rule over Hungary. Buda was 157 years
in the hands of the Turks.
[81] _Vide_ Baron Orbán, _Székelyland_.
[82] One must be careful not to confound, as many writers do, the
witches of fairy tales, with the old women who are designated as witches
by the common people.
[83] Cf. Many Lincolnshire and Yorkshire tales.
[84] Cf. _Rancken_, "Purmo" 27, and "Munsala," 25.
[85] It is interesting to note that, although prosecution for witchcraft
was only abolished in England under George II. in 1736, in Hungary it
was abolished under Coloman the Learned, who reigned 1095-1114, for a
very cogent reason, "Witches are not to be prosecuted, as they do not
exist!"
[86] The Hungarian cattle have long erect horns like those of the Roman
campagna.
[87] Cf. p. 203 _infra._
[88] As the wolf in the Finnish tale, "The Golden Bird."
[89] See _Folk Medicine_.
[90] Charm-weed.
[91] Square pieces of linen without seam or hem, wrapped round the bare
foot, instead of socks.
[92] Only lately, a man in my own parish said that when "Maud was a
young 'un, she was amazin' badly. The doctors could do nowt for her: she
was all skin and bone. Doctors said it wor a decline; but a' didn't
believe it, for she did sqweäl amazin'. It was all an owd woman who used
to sell pins and needles." It appears, this old woman always gave, and
insisted upon giving, Maud, some little thing; and at last they
perceived the child was "witched"; so the next time the old woman
appeared, another daughter ordered her off, and the child recovered; the
same old woman is said to have "witched" another child in the parish in
like manner. I may add "Maud" is now a fine strapping girl, and vows
vengeance on the witch.--W. H. J.
[93] Cf. _Hofberg_, "Bissen," the manner of "laying ghosts," is noticed,
_ib._ "Herrn till Rosendal."
[94] In some parts of Finland the same superstition is, or was, current
(_e.g._ in Munsala). Unbaptized children are specially liable to be
changed by the trolls, but this may be prevented by putting Holy
Scripture in the cradle, or silver coins, scissors, or other sharp
tools. Cf. _Hofberg_, Svenska Folksägner "Bortbytingen."
[95] Cf. _Hofberg_ "Mylingen," "Tomten." See also _Några
åkerbruksplägseder bland svenskarne i Finland_ af Dr. J. Oscar I.
Rancken.
[96] Cf. _Rancken_. "Munsala," 22 g.
[97] This belonged formerly to a well-known medicine man, who practised
over three countries. There are hundreds and hundreds of cures in it.
[98] This class of ingredients occupied an important place in the
pharmacopœia of the physicians of the middle ages. Cf. _Liber
Secundus Practicae Haly_ cap. 51, "De stercoribus et fimis," p. 178
(Lyons 1523).
[99]
"I physicks 'em, I bleeds 'em, I sweats 'em,
And if they _will_ die, I lets 'em."
[100] See "Christmas Day."
[101] Steel and flint are still in extensive use among smokers in rural
districts.
[102] The Magyar name of quinsy is torokgyik, _i.e._ throat-lizard.
[103] Varga does not seem to know anything about
"The dead, shrivelled hand ...
... of the gentleman dangling up there."
[104] So far is this day considered unlucky in Portugal that we heard of
a Portuguese young lady who had ordered a harp from England: it
unfortunately arrived at her house on Friday, and was sent away till
Saturday, although she was "dying to try it!" Tuesday is also regarded
as unlucky in Portugal.
On St. Peter's Day, in Portugal, the saint is said to have a holiday,
and take the keys with him, and the fisher-folk assert that if anyone is
drowned on that day the chances are he will be sent to the "wrong
place."
Cf. "Ma foi sur l'avenir bien fou qui se fiera,
Tel qui rit vendredi, dimanche pleurera."--
Racine au commencement de la comédie des Plaideurs.
[105] One is said to be most liable to be punished at this time on this
account.
[106] Garlic is said to be a charm against evil. See _Notes and
Queries_, 6 S. ix. 5.
[107] It is a common superstition in many parts of Yorkshire that fire
must not go out of the house between New and Old Christmas Day. An old
nurse told us she once went home during this time and her neighbours
would not even give her a match that she might light her candle and so
find her own.
[108] Cf. Yorkshire, Yule-candle.
[109] Lead is cast in Finland to see whether fortune or misfortune is in
store; in these degenerate days "stearine," has been used by impatient
souls. See also Burnaby, _Ride to Khiva_, cap. xxii.
[110] Elton's _Origins of English History_, 270, 271.
[111] See _Glossaire de la langue Romane_, par J. B. B. Roquefort.
Paris, 1808.
[112] See Cormac's Glossary, under "Beltene," _Revue Celtique_, iv. 193;
Grimm, _Deutsche Mythol._ 579.