The staple food of the Central Eskimo is the seal, particularly _Pagomys
fœtidus_. The methods of hunting this animal differ materially at
different seasons, as its mode of life depends on the state of the ice.
In the winter it takes to the smooth parts of the floe a few miles from
the coast, where it scratches breathing holes through the ice, in which
it rises to blow. It shuns hummocky ice and floes of more than one
year’s age. Wherever the edge of the ice is at a great distance from the
settlements, the only way of procuring seals is by watching for them at
these holes. For the pursuit a light harpoon is used, called unang. The
shape of this weapon has been somewhat changed since the introduction of
rod iron. Formerly it consisted of a shaft having at one end an ivory
point firmly attached by thongs and rivets, the point tapering toward
the end. The point was slanting on one side so as to form almost an
oblique cone. Thus it facilitated the separation of the harpoon head
from the unang. On the opposite end of the shaft another piece of ivory
was attached, generally forming a knob. The material used in making the
shaft was wood, bone, or ivory, according to the region in which it was
manufactured. In Iglulik and in Aggo the narwhal’s horn was the favorite
material for the whole implement, a single horn being sufficient to make
a whole shaft. Wherever wood could be procured small pieces were
ingeniously lashed together. As the shaft is apt to be broken by the
struggles of the animal when struck by the weapon, it was strengthened
by a stout thong running along the whole length of the shaft. In all
other respects the old design corresponds to the modern one.
Unfortunately I have seen no specimen of this description, but a figure
may be seen in Ross II, p. 272, in the hand of one of the natives. In
Alaska a similar harpoon is in use, a specimen of which is represented
in Fig. 390. It consists of a wooden shaft, with a stout ivory point at
the lower end and another at the upper end. Both are fastened to the
shaft by whalebone strings. In the upper end a slanting ivory point is
inserted, which serves for attaching the harpoon head to it. The whole
shaft is strengthened by a seal line, as shown in the figure.
The unang now in use in Baffin Land and on the western shore of Hudson
Bay (Fig. 391) consists of a wooden shaft into which an iron rod
(unartenga) is sunk. The latter is pointed at the end (see, also, Fig.
393) in about the same way as the old ivory implement. The socket is
secured by a small ivory ring (unaqiuta) or a string wound around the
end of the shaft. In the socket close to the iron rod a bent nail is
inserted, forming a narrow eye (tagusiarbing). Near the center of the
whole implement a small piece of ivory (tikagung; see, also, Fig. 418)
is fastened to the shaft, forming a support for the hand when throwing
the weapon. At the lower end of the shaft a string of deer sinews or a
thong is fastened, forming a loop (nabiring) which passes through a hole
drilled through the shaft. A stout iron point is also attached to the
lower end of the shaft (tounga).
[Illustration: FIG. 390. harpoon from Alaska. (American Museum of
Natural History, New York.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 391. Modern unang or sealing harpoon. (Museum
für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6729.)]
The natives carry this implement on all their winter excursions, as it
is serviceable for numerous purposes. It is always kept within reach on
the sledge, as the strong iron point is useful for cutting down
hummocks, should any obstruct the passage of the sledges, or for cutting
holes through the ice, or it takes the place of a hatchet in breaking
the frozen meat which is carried along for dogs’ food. The long iron rod
is extremely useful in trying the strength of the ice or the depth of
the snow. By taking precautionary measures of this kind the natives pass
over extensive floes of weak ice.
[Illustration: FIG. 392. Old style naulang or harpoon head. (Museum
für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6692.) 1/1]
The head belonging to the unang is called naulang. Since iron has been
introduced in Baffin Land and Hudson Bay, the natives file their harpoon
heads out of it, but adhere almost exactly to the old pattern. The old
naulang was cut out of bone or more frequently out of ivory (Fig. 392).
It was one inch to two inches long and had a piece of metal inserted
into the slit at the top. Through the middle of the instrument a hole
was drilled parallel to the plane of the blade. The harpoon line passed
through the hole, and as soon as the point struck an animal and a strain
was put upon the line it turned at a right angle to the latter, thus
acting as a toggle. The effect was increased by two points at the lower
end of the naulang, called uming (beard). These pressed into the flesh
or the skin of the animal and prevented the harpoon head from slipping
back.
[Illustration: FIG. 393. Modern naulang or harpoon head (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6729.) ½]
The modern naulang (Fig. 393) is about the same length as the old one,
but much more slender. While the back of the old pattern was straight,
the points of the iron one are bent outward and backward in order to
increase its effect.
The naulang is fastened to the harpoon line (iparang). This part of the
instrument is much longer than the unang, as it must allow for the
struggles of the diving seal. The end of the line passes through the
hole of the naulang and a loop is formed and secured by deer sinew or
arranged as may be seen in Fig. 393. At a distance equal to the length
of the iron rod of the unang a small thong (taguta) is attached to the
line and serves to fasten it to the shaft (see Fig. 391). It is drawn
through the eye formed by the tagusiarbing. As soon as a strain is put
upon the naulang the line parts from the shaft, as the taguta is only
squeezed into the eye and is easily detached. The harpoon line passes
through the nabiring or is fastened by a slipping hitch to the shaft of
the unang.
If the unang has a nabiring the line passes through this loop. A few
feet below it a small piece of ivory (akparaiktung) is attached to the
line, acting as a hook after it has run out. It catches the nabiring and
drags the harpoon along, thus impeding the movements of the animal (see
Fig. 391).
[Illustration: FIG. 394. Qilertuang or leather strap and clasps
for holding coiled up harpoon lines. _a_, _c_ (National Museum,
Washington. _a_, 34128; _c_, 34132.) _b_ (Museum für Völkerkunde,
Berlin.) 1/1]
The rest of the line is coiled up and held by the hunter. The end is
doubled so as to form a loop which serves as a handle when the line runs
out with the diving seal. Generally, a small piece of leather (Fig. 394)
with two slits at one end and an ivory clasp (qilertuang) at the other
is fastened to this loop; it serves to hold the bights together when the
line is detached from the harpoon and rolled up. Some art is bestowed on
the manufacture of this clasp (Fig. 394). Usually it represents a seal,
the head of which forms a hook on which the slits can be fastened. The
clasp is either tied or otherwise secured to the leather strap. Some
specimens in the British Museum, which are about one hundred and fifty
years old, show that these implements have not undergone any change
during that time.
Parry describes another harpoon head used by the Iglulirmiut for the
unang. He calls it a siatko (Fig. 395). I myself have not seen any of a
similar pattern, but Kumlien gives a sketch of one found in a grave at
Exeter Sound (Fig. 396). The principal difference between the naulang
and the siatko is that the edge of the former is parallel to the hole
through which the line passes, while in the latter their directions are
vertical to each other. The head of the whaling harpoon (see Fig. 436)
acts on the same principle.
When the day begins to dawn the Eskimo prepares for the hunt. The dogs
are harnessed to the sledge and the hunting implements are fitted up.
The harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer’s antlers,
which are attached to the hind part of the sledge, a seal or bear skin
is lashed upon the bottom, and the spear secured under the lashing. The
hunter takes up the whip and the dogs set off for the hunting ground.
When near the place where he expects to find seals, the hunter stops the
team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is then turned
upside down. The points of the runners and the short brow antler are
pressed into the snow in order to prevent the dogs from running away.
A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team and the Eskimo
follows his guidance until a seal’s hole is found. In winter it is
entirely covered with snow, but generally a very small elevation
indicates the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge and the
hunter examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by the
seal. Cautiously he cuts a hole through the snow covering and peeps into
the excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice the seal
has left the hole and it would be in vain to expect its return. The
hunter must look for a new hole promising better results.
[Illustration: FIG. 395. Siatko or harpoon head of the Iglulirmiut.
(From Parry II, p. 550.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 396. Siatko found at Exeter Sound. (From a
drawing by L. Kumlien.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 397. Eskimo in the act of striking a seal. (From
a photograph.)]
If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole he marks its
exact center on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep hole with
small blocks of snow. All these preparations must be made with the
utmost precaution, as any change in the appearance of the snow would
frighten away the seal. The Eskimo take particular care that no hairs
from their clothing fall into the hole or remain sticking in the snow,
for they believe that the smell would scare away the animal. The center
of the breathing hole must be marked, as the game remains invisible and
only a stroke into the center will be likely to hit it. If the snow
covering is very thick and strong it is cut down, but is replaced with
loose snow, which is heaped around the end of the harpoon, the latter
being placed upon the central point. After the harpoon has been
extracted a hole remains which forms the mark for the harpooner. If the
Eskimo expects the early return of the seal, he spreads a small piece of
skin, generally that of a young seal, close to the hole and places his
feet upon it, thus keeping them warm. He fastens the naulang to the
harpoon shaft, while the lower end of the line is folded up in a coil,
which he holds in the left hand. The unang is held in both hands, and
thus the hunter sometimes remains for hours, occasionally stooping and
listening, until he hears the blowing of the seal. Then, all of a
sudden, he stands upright, and, with all his strength, sends the harpoon
straight downward into the hole, paying out the line at the same time,
but keeping a firm hold of the loop at its end (Fig. 397). Generally the
seal is struck near the head. If the line is fastened to the shaft by a
slipping hitch it is at once detached and the harpoon either remains
sticking in the snow or falls down by the hole. If the line runs through
the nabiring, the harpoon is dragged into the water and impedes the
movements of the animal. The hunter then begins at once to cut down the
snow covering with his knife, which has been left within easy reach, and
hauls in the line. As soon as the seal comes to the surface to breathe
it is easily dispatched and drawn up on the ice.
[Illustration: FIG. 398. Tutareang or buckle. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6710.) 1/1]
The arrangements at the seal hole are more elaborate if the sealer
expects to wait a long time. If only a few men go out hunting and famine
is impending, he sometimes waits for a whole day or even longer, though
it be cold and the wind rage over the icy fields. He builds up a
semicircular wall of snow blocks to keep off the piercing wind and makes
a seat in the center of it. A skin is spread under his feet and his legs
are tied together with a thong, which is fastened by a peculiar kind of
buckle (tutareang) with two holes (Fig. 398). One end of the thong is
firmly tied to the buckle, passing through one of the holes, while the
opposite end passes tightly through the second hole. The thong may be
quickly opened by a strong effort on the part of the hunter, while it
helps to keep him quiet. At his right hand (Fig. 399; in this drawing it
appears on the left) the snow knife is stuck into the snow, while to the
left the unang is placed upon two pegs. The coil of the line lies in his
lap. His left arm is drawn out of his sleeve, that he may more easily
keep warm. Both sleeves are generally held together by a piece of deer’s
horn with a branch on each side which serves as a hook. Thus the hunter
waits until he hears the breathing of the seal. As it usually stays for
several minutes he is in no hurry to get ready. Cautiously he places his
left arm into the sleeve, having first disengaged it from the hook. He
then takes hold of the coil, picks up his unang, and, having risen,
strikes the center of the hole.
[Illustration: FIG. 399. Eskimo awaiting return of seal to blowhole.
(From a photograph.)]
Ross (II, p. 268) and Rae (I, p. 123) state that the sealing at the hole
is more difficult in daylight than in the dark. I suppose, however, that
when the snow is deep there is no difference; at least the Eskimo of
Davis Strait never complain about being annoyed by the daylight.
Sometimes a small instrument is used in the hunt to indicate the
approach of the seal. It is called qipekutang and consists of a very
thin rod with a knob or a knot at one end (Parry II, p. 550, Fig. 20).
It is stuck through the snow, the end passing into the water, the knob
resting on the snow. As soon as the seal rises to blow, it strikes the
rod, which, by its movements, warns the Eskimo. Generally it is made of
whalebone. Sometimes a string is attached to the knob and fastened by a
pin to the snow, as its movements are more easily detected than those of
the knob. The natives are somewhat averse to using this implement, as it
frequently scares the seals.
[Illustration: FIG. 400. Tuputang or ivory plugs for closing wounds.
_e_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6706.) _b_, _c_, _d_
(National Museum, Washington. _b_, 10192; _c_, 10390; _d_, 9836.)
1/1]
[Illustration: FIG. 401. Wooden case for plugs. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1]
[Illustration: FIG. 402. Another form of plug. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ⅔]
[Illustration: FIG. 403. Qanging for fastening thong to jaw of seal.
_a_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6825.) _b_, _c_ (National
Museum, Washington. _b_, 34126; _c_, 34129.) 1/1]
After the carcass of the animal has been drawn out of the water, the
wounds are closed with ivory plugs (tuputang) (Fig. 400), which are
carried in a wooden or leathern case (Fig. 401) and are either
triangular or square. The plug is pushed under the skin, which is
closely tied to its head. Another form of plug which, however, is rarely
used, is represented in Fig. 402. The skin is drawn over the plug and
tied over one of the threads of the screw cut into the wood. After the
dead animal’s wounds are closed, a hole is cut through the flesh beneath
the lower jaw and a thong is passed through this hole and the mouth.
A small implement called qanging is used for fastening it to the seal.
It usually forms a toggle and prevents the line from slipping through
the hole. The patterns represented in Fig. 403 are very effective. The
hole drilled through the center of the instrument is wider at the lower
end than elsewhere, thus furnishing a rest for a knot at the end of the
thong. The points are pressed into the flesh of the seal, and thus a
firm hold is secured for the whole implement. The Eskimo display some
art in the manufacture of this implement, and frequently give it the
shape of seals and the like (Fig. 404). Fig. 405 represents a small
button, which is much less effective than the other patterns. A very few
specimens consist merely of rude pieces of ivory with holes drilled
through them. Fig. 406 shows one of these attachments serving for both
toggle and handle.
[Illustration: FIG. 404. Qanging in form of a seal. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6825.) 1/1]
[Illustration: FIG. 405. Qanging in form of a button. (National
Museum, Washington. 34130.) 1/1]
[Illustration: FIG. 406. Qanging serving for both toggle and handle.
(National Museum, Washington. 10400.) ⅔]
[Illustration: FIG. 407. Qidjarung or whirl for harpoon line.
(National Museum, Washington. 34121.) 1/1]
[Illustration: FIG. 408. Simpler form of whirl. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1]
In order to prevent the line from getting out of order, a whirl
(qidjarung) is sometimes used. Fig. 407 represents one brought from
Cumberland Sound by Kumlien, and is described by him (p. 38). There was
a ball in the hollow body of this instrument, which could not be pulled
through any of the openings. One line was fastened to this ball, passing
through the central hole, and another one to the top of the whirl.
A simpler pattern is represented in Fig. 408.
On its capture, the seal is dragged to the sledge and after being
covered with the bearskin is firmly secured by the lashing. It freezes
quickly and the hunter sits down on top of it. If the seal happens to
blow soon after the arrival of the hunter, a second one may be procured,
but generally the day is far spent when the first seal is killed.
Wherever water holes are found they are frequently visited during the
winter by the Eskimo, especially by those who have firearms. They lie in
wait at the lower side of the hole, i.e., the side to which the tide
sets, and when the seal blows they shoot him, securing him with the
harpoon after he has drifted to the edge of the ice. These holes can
only be visited at spring tides, as in the intervals a treacherous floe
partly covers the opening and is not destroyed until the next spring
tide.
In March, when the seal brings forth its young, the same way of hunting
is continued, besides which young seals are eagerly pursued. The
pregnant females make an excavation from five to ten feet in length
under the snow, the diving hole being at one end. They prefer snowbanks
and rough ice or the cracks and cavities of grounded ice for this
purpose, and pup in these holes. The Eskimo set out on light sledges
dragged by a few dogs, which quickly take up the scent of the seals. The
dogs hurry at the utmost speed to the place of the hole, where they stop
at once. The hunter jumps from the sledge and breaks down the roof of
the excavation as quickly as possible, cutting off the retreat of the
seal through its hole if he can. Generally the mother escapes, but the
awkward pup is taken by surprise, or, if very young, cannot get into the
water. The Eskimo draws it out by means of a hook (niksiang) and kills
it by firmly stepping on the poor beast’s breast. An old pattern of the
hook used is represented according to Kumlien’s drawing in Fig. 409;
another, made from a bear’s claw, in Fig. 410; the modern pattern, in
Fig. 411.
Sometimes the natives try to catch the old seal in a most cruel way, by
using the love of the dam for her pup to lure her to the surface of the
hole. They tie a thong to the hind flipper of the pup and throw it into
the hole. It dives at once, crying pitifully. When it comes up to
breathe the hunter pushes it back, and frequently the dam returns to her
young and attempts to draw it away. As soon as she is seen the harpoon
is plunged into her body and she is quickly drawn out of the water and
killed.
The young seal is also pursued by foxes, which drag it from the
excavation and leave nothing but the skin, which becomes a welcome find
for the Eskimo.
[Illustration: FIG. 409. Old pattern of hook for drawing out
captured seal.]
[Illustration: FIG. 410. Seal hook of bear’s claw. Actual size,
3 feet. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6728.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 411. Modern form of seal hook. (From a drawing
by Kumlien.)]
As the season advances and the rays of the sun become warmer the seals
break down the snow roofs and are seen basking beside their holes. The
young ones remain with their dams until late in June.
At this season a new method of hunting is practiced, by which seals are
caught with greater ease than in winter. The hunter approaches the
animal from the windward side until he is within seventy or eighty yards
of it. He then lies down, after having fastened a piece of skin under
his left arm, upon which he reclines. The skin protects him from the
melting snow, facilitates speed, and diminishes the noise as he creeps.
He moves on toward the seal, resting on his left arm and side and
pushing himself forward with his right foot and left arm (Fig. 412). The
seal frequently raises his head and gazes around to make sure that no
danger threatens. As long as the seal is looking around the hunter lies
flat and keeps perfectly still, or, if he is somewhat close to the
animal, imitates its movements by raising his head and rolling and
playing with his hands and feet as a seal does with its flippers. Some
natives will utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal or use a
small sledge with a white screen to conceal themselves from view. The
sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is
difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance. If the
hunter succeeds in deceiving the animal it lies down again to sleep and
he pushes himself on. As the naps of the seal last but a few moments,
the Eskimo approaches very slowly. At last he is near enough. He levels
his gun and tries to hit the animal’s head, as it must be killed by the
first shot, else it jumps into the hole and escapes. If the snow is hard
and water has not yet appeared on the top of the ice, a seal may be
killed in this way in twenty or thirty minutes. If the snow is very soft
and deep it is almost impossible to get near enough, as it is extremely
difficult to push one’s self along. The approach is rather easy through
rough ice, which conceals the hunter, but the seals seldom frequent such
places. Sometimes they are found at the edges of rough ice or near the
shore and are easily caught when in this position.
[Illustration: FIG. 412. Eskimo approaching seal. (From a
photograph.)]
Formerly, the harpoon was used instead of the gun, and is even now
preferred by some hunters. The hunter gets near enough to reach the seal
with the harpoon, and having struck his prey has a better chance of
securing it, as the weapon prevents its escape.
After the shot has been fired or the harpoon thrown, the Eskimo at once
jumps to his feet in order to prevent the escape of the animal to its
hole, to which it takes if only wounded. An expert hunter can kill from
ten to fifteen seals in one day.
Rae, in describing the method of hunting, states (I, p. 170) that the
women at Repulse Bay are very skillful, and when they have no harpoon
frequently use a small wooden club, with which they strike the seal on
the nose, killing it.
Generally two men go sealing together. They set out early in the morning
on one sledge, and while one creeps toward the seals the other keeps the
dogs quiet. A single hunter cannot hunt successfully at this season with
a sledge, for when he leaves it the dogs will either follow him or, if
made fast to the ice, raise such a howling that the seal is put upon its
guard. Therefore it is necessary that a continuous watch be kept on the
dogs. When the shot is fired and they perceive that the seal is killed,
no amount of whipping will restrain them; they rush forward until they
have reached the victim, which is then lashed on the sledge.
The hunters go on in search of a second seal, at the sight of which the
dogs are again stopped. When the Eskimo intend to remain out only a few
hours they leave the dead animals at their holes and load them on the
sledge on the return journey. A single hunter cannot leave the
settlement for a long distance, but is limited to sealing near the
village and killing no more animals than he can drag to it himself.
Sometimes it happens that the seals are fast asleep. Then the hunter can
go up to them without any precaution and kill them immediately, and even
a dog team running at full speed can take them by surprise. In winter a
similar method of hunting is followed whenever the edge of the floe is
close to the land. In such places all kinds of seals lie on the ice,
even in the midst of winter, and are pursued in the way which has been
already described.
A strange method of hunting is reported by Ross (II, p. 451) as
practiced by the Netchillirmiut. Eight men slowly approached the basking
seal until it raised its head, when those in front stopped and shouted
as loud as they could; on which three others ran up with incredible
swiftness and the leader struck it with the spear.
Still later in the season, when the snow is all gone, a very successful
method of hunting is practiced. All the inhabitants of the settlements
set out at once, men, women, and children, and occupy every seal hole
over a large area. The men keep their harpoons ready to strike the
animal when it comes up to blow, while the women and children are
provided with sticks only, with which they frighten away the seals
whenever they rise where they are standing. The animals are compelled to
rise somewhere, as otherwise they would be drowned, and thus an ample
supply is secured in a short time.
After the breaking up of the ice the natives take to their kayaks and
the summer hunt is started. As at this season the methods of catching
all kinds of seal and walrus are almost identical, I shall describe them
together; and, first, the most important part of the hunting gear, the
kayak and its belongings.
The kayak (qajaq) is almost exclusively used for hunting by all Eskimo
tribes from Greenland to Alaska. According to Bessels the Ita natives do
not know its use, though they have retained the word. As a connection
exists between this tribe and those of Baffin Land, I have no doubt that
they are acquainted with the use of the boat, though it may be of little
avail in that ice encumbered region. When I first visited the tribes of
Davis Strait no kayak was to be found between Cape Mercy and Cape Raper,
nor had there been any for several years. In the summer of 1884,
however, two boats were built by these natives.
The general principles of their construction are well known. The kayak
of the Nugumiut, Oqomiut, and Akudnirmiut is bulky as compared with that
of Greenland and Hudson Bay. It is from twenty-five to twenty-seven feet
long and weighs from eighty to one hundred pounds, while the Iglulik
boats, according to Lyon (p. 322), range from fifty to sixty pounds in
weight. It may be that the Repulse Bay boats are even lighter still.
According to Hall they are not heavier than twenty-five pounds (II, p.
216).
[Illustration: FIG. 413. Frame of a kayak or hunting boat. (Museum
für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)]
The frame of the kayak (Fig. 413) consists, first, of two flat pieces of
wood which form the gunwale (apumang). From ten to twenty beams (ajang)
keep this frame on a stretch above. The greatest width between them is a
little behind the cock pit (p. 487). A strong piece of wood runs from
the cross piece before the hole (masing) to the stem, and another from
the cross piece abaft the hole (itirbing) to the stern (tuniqdjung). The
proportion of the bow end to the stern end, measured from the center of
the hole, is 4 to 3. The former has a projection measuring one-fourth of
its whole length. Setting aside the projection, the hole lies in the
very center of the body of the kayak. A large number of ribs (tikping),
from thirty to sixty, are fastened to the gunwales and kept steady by a
keel (kujang), which runs from stem to stern, and by two lateral strips
of wood (siadnit), which are fastened between gunwale and keel. The stem
projection (usujang), which rises gradually, begins at a strong beam
(niutang) and its rib (qaning). The extreme end of the stern (aqojang)
is bent upward. The bottom of the boat is partly formed by the keel,
partly by the side supports. The stern projection has a keel, but in the
body of the boat the side supports are bent down to the depth of the
keel, thus forming a flat bottom. Rising again gradually they terminate
close to the stern. Between the masing and the itirbing is the hole (pa)
of the kayak, the rim of which is formed by a flat piece of wood or
whalebone bent into a hoop. It is flattened abaft and sharply bent at
the fore part. The masing sometimes rests upon a stud.
[Illustration: FIG. 414. Kayak with covering of skin. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin.)]
The whole frame is covered with skins (aming) tightly sewed together and
almost waterproof (Fig. 414). Usually the cover consists of three or
four skins of _Pagomys fœtidus_. When put upon the frame it is
thoroughly wetted and stretched as much as possible so as to fit
tightly. It is tied by thongs to the rim of the hole. A small piece of
ivory is attached to each side of the niutang and serves to fasten a
thong which holds the kayak implements. Two more thongs are sewed to the
skin just before the hole, another one behind it, and two smaller ones
near the stern.
The differences between this boat and that of the Iglulirmiut may be
seen from Lyon’s description (page 320). Their kayak has a long peak at
the stern, which turns somewhat upward. The rim round the hole is higher
in front than at the back, whereas that of the former has the rim of an
equal height all around. At Savage Islands Lyon saw the rims very neatly
edged with ivory. The bow and the stern of the Iglulik kayaks were
equally sharp and they had from sixty to seventy ribs. While the kayaks
of the Oqomiut have only in exceptional cases two lateral supports
between keel and gunwale, Lyon found in the boats of these natives seven
siadnit, but no keel at all. These boats are well represented in Parry’s
engravings (II, pp. 271 and 508). Instead of the thongs, ivory or wooden
holders are fastened abaft to prevent the weapons from slipping down.
If the drawing in Lyon’s book (p. 14) be correct, the kayak of the
Qaumauangmiut (Savage Islands) has a very long prow ending in a sharp
peak, the proportion to the stern being 2 to 1. Its stern is much
shorter and steeper than that of the northern boats and carries the same
holders as that of the Iglulirmiut.
[Illustration: FIG. 415. Model of a Repulse Bay kayak. (National
Museum, Washington. 68126.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 416. Sirmijaung or scraper for kayak. (Museum
für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ½]
[Illustration: FIG. 417. Large kayak harpoon for seal and walrus.
Actual length, 6½ feet. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 418. Tikagung or support for the hand. _a_, _b_,
_c_ (National Museum, Washington. _a_, 30000; _b_, 30005; _c_,
30004.) _d_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)]
The model of a Repulse Bay kayak is represented in Fig. 415. The rim of
the hole is in the same position as in the Iglulik kayak, the fore part
resting on a rib bent like a hoop, whereas in the others it rests on a
beam. The stern resembles closely that of the Cumberland Sound boats,
while the head is less peaked, the keel having a sharper bend at the
beginning of the projection, which does not turn upward. Early in the
spring and in the autumn, when ice is still forming, a scraper
(sirmijaung) (Fig. 416) is always carried in the kayak for removing
the sleet which forms on the skin. When the boat has been pulled on
shore, it is turned upside down and the whole bottom is cleaned with
this implement. A double bladed paddle (pauting) is used with the boat.
It has a narrow handle (akudnang), which fits the hand of the boatman
and widens to about four inches at the thin blades (maling), which are
edged with ivory. Between each blade and the handle there is a ring
(qudluqsiuta).
The kayak gear consists of the large harpoon and its line (to which the
sealskin float is attached), the receptacle for this line, the bird
spear (with its throwing board), and two lances.
[Illustration: FIG. 419. Qatirn or ivory head of harpoon shaft.
(National Museum, Washington. 34101.) ⅔]
[Illustration: FIG. 420. Manner of attaching the two principal parts
of the harpoon.]
[Illustration: FIG. 421. Tokang or harpoon point in sheath. (In the
possession of Captain John O. Spicer, Groton. Conn.) ⅔]
The large harpoon (Fig. 417) is used for hunting seals and walrus from
the kayak. The shaft (qijuqtenga) consists of a stout pole from four and
a half to five feet in length, to which an ivory knob is fastened at the
lower end. At its center of gravity a small piece of ivory (tikagung) is
attached, which serves to support the hand in throwing the weapon.
A remarkable pattern of this tikagung, which nicely fits the hand of the
hunter, is represented in the first of the series of Fig. 418, and
another one, which differs only in size from that of the unang, in the
second. At right angles to the tikagung a small ivory knob is inserted
in the shaft and serves to hold the harpoon line. At this part the shaft
is greatly flattened and the cross section becomes oblong or rhombic. At
the top it is tenoned, to be inserted into the mortice of the ivory head
(qatirn). The latter fits so closely on the tenon that it sticks without
being either riveted or tied together. The qatirn is represented in Fig.
419. Into the cavity at its top a walrus tusk is inserted and forms with
it a ball and socket joint (igimang).
The tusk and the qatirn are fastened to each other in a most ingenious
way, which may be readily made out from the engraving (Fig. 420). The
principal effect of this arrangement of the holes and the thong is that
the tusk is kept steady by two parallel thongs that prevent it from
tipping over and only allow a movement in the plane of the flattening of
the shaft as soon as any considerable force is applied to the tusk.
The harpoon head used in connection with this weapon is the tokang. To
prevent it from being injured, it is carried in a wooden sheath (Fig.
421). The iron point is secured by a string of whalebone or sealskin;
the lower part is fastened to the sheath as indicated in the figure. The
tokang differs from the naulang in that it is larger and stouter. In
some cases great care is bestowed upon the finishing of this important
weapon.
An interesting specimen of this variety of harpoon head was found by
Kumlien in Cumberland Sound (Fig. 422). It was taken from a whale and
differs from the device of that country. The back is bent similar to
that of the iron naulang and the barbs have two points each instead of
one. The front part is sharply ridged. The specimen is very nicely
finished. A few very old harpoon heads of the same pattern are deposited
in the British Museum and were of Hudson Strait manufacture; therefore I
conclude that Kumlien’s specimen is from the same part of the country.
[Illustration: FIG. 422. Tokang or harpoon head taken from a whale
in Cumberland Sound. (National Museum, Washington. 34069.) ⅔]
Fig. 423 represents an ancient harpoon head of the same style, the
locality of which is unfortunately unknown. The specimen is of
particular interest, as it shows the method of fastening the stone to
the ivory part. A similar specimen is in the collections of the British
Museum; it formed part of the Sloane collection. Both these specimens
show perforations at the lower end of the harpoon head which are not
found in the modern ones. Probably these served for holding the harpoon
head to the shaft by means of a thin line, in order to prevent the head
from coming off before the seal or walrus was struck. These holes are
similar to the ones shown in Figs. 395 and 436.
[Illustration: FIG. 423. Ancient tokang or harpoon head. (In
A. Sturgis’s collection, New York.)]
The harpoon line (alirn) is attached to the tokang in the same way as
the iparang is to the naulang. When it is fastened to the igimang, the
bend of the tusk facilitates the disengagement of the harpoon head,
which turns its back to that of the tusk. Attached to the line at the
level of the ivory knob which has been mentioned is the teliqbing (Fig.
424), into the hole of which the knob fits closely. As the line from the
tokang to the teliqbing is just long enough to allow it to be pulled
down far enough to reach the knob, it holds shaft and head firmly
together so long as the tusk remains in its position. As soon as a
lateral strain is put upon the tusk the distance between the head and
the knob is diminished and the teliqbing slips off, thus disengaging the
line with the harpoon head from the shaft. Sometimes the teliqbing has
two holes, one being used when the line is wet and longer, the other
when it is dry and shorter.
In Iglulik the spear is called qatilik (Fig. 425). In pattern it is the
same as that of Akudnirn and Oqo, the only difference, according to
Parry’s description, being that the toung (the tusk) is straight and has
a notch near its socket (see Fig. 425), while the harpoon head which
belongs to it has only a single point at its lower end.
[Illustration: FIG. 424. Teliqbing, which is fastened to harpoon
line. (National Museum, Washington. 34123.) 1/1]
[Illustration: FIG. 425. Qatilik or spear from Iglulik (From Parry
II, p. 550.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 426. Avautang or sealskin float. (National
Museum, Washington. 30009.)]
This harpoon is placed on the right side of the prow of the kayak, with
the point directed towards its head. The harpoon line, with the tokang,
lies just before the hunter in a flat receptacle (asedlun), which
consists of a wooden ring with a handle, held by thongs before the hole
of the kayak. The receptacle rests on the skin cover, having no feet, as
has the Greenland one. In Hudson Strait it is secured upon holders. The
harpoon line is rolled up in a coil, but its end is fastened to the seal
float, which lies behind the hunter and is held in place by a thong. The
line passes along the right side of the kayak hole. The float (avautang)
(Fig. 426) consists of a whole sealskin which had been removed from the
animal dexterously, its entire body being pulled through the mouth,
which is enlarged by means of a cut along the throat. The nails of the
flippers are frequently extracted and the openings sewed up, the hind
flippers and the tail being cut off and firmly tied together by a thong,
thus forming a neck (atauta), to which the harpoon line is attached. At
the head a pipe for blowing up the skin (poviutang) is inserted (Fig.
427); the skin is firmly tied to the ring of the pipe, on which the
stopper is secured as soon as the skin is sufficiently inflated. This
device is a very convenient one, for it is difficult to inflate the skin
without some kind of mouthpiece. If there are any holes in the float
they are closed by a button similar to the one shown in Fig. 427 _a_,
which, however, is without a hole.
[Illustration: FIG. 427. Different styles of poviutang or pipe for
inflating the float. (National Museum, Washington. _a_, 29986; _b_,
34118; _c_, 34119; _d_, 34120.)]
If the harpoon is to be used for hunting large animals, such as walrus
or whales, a very ingenious contrivance is sometimes inserted between
the line and the float in the shape of a wooden hoop with a seal or deer
skin stretched over it (niutang) (see Fig. 437). Three or four thongs of
equal length are fastened to the hoop at equal distances and bound
together. At their point of union they are attached to the line. As soon
as a walrus is struck and starts to swim away, the hoop is thrown at
right angles to the stretched line and exerts a strong resistance when
dragged along, thus diminishing the speed of the animal and quickly
exhausting its strength. The float prevents its escape, as it is too
buoyant to be drawn under water. The animal cannot dive, and thus the
hunter does not lose sight of his prey.
For small seals a similar weapon is used, the agdliaq (Fig. 428), the
main difference being that it is much smaller and has a seal bladder for
a float attached to the shaft. I have not seen this weapon myself, but
Kumlien has brought away parts of it. Fig. 429 shows that its point
differs only in size from the large igimang. The head (probably the
naulang) is tied to the shaft, which acts as a drag.
The points are fastened to the shaft in almost the same way as the
former, the only difference being that they are straight; the drill
holes do not cross one another. Fig. 430 represents the heads belonging
to this spear; Fig. 431, a large one which is used with the large
harpoon. As the lines in all these run as is represented in Fig. 429
_b_, they cannot act as harpoons. I had no opportunity of seeing any of
these weapons myself.
[Illustration: FIG. 428. Agdliaq or spear for small seals. (From
Parry II, p. 550.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 429. Agdliaq points. (National Museum,
Washington. _a_, 90165; _b_, 2991; _c_, 34098; _d_, 34063.)]
In hunting walrus a lance (anguvigang) (Fig. 432) is used which is
similar to the igimang. The shaft and the joint are alike in both, only
the knob for the teliqbing being absent. The head is made of bone or the
straight part of a walrus tusk and has an iron blade on the top. The
lance serves to dispatch the animal after it has been harpooned with the
igimang.
The joint prevents the shaft from being broken by the struggles of the
animal. Its place is behind the hunter on the right side of the kayak,
the point being directed toward the stern. Generally a second lance is
carried on the left side of the boat parallel with the other. It is
either of the same kind or a slender shaft with a long point firmly
inserted in it (kapun, ipun). The point is about one and one-third of a
foot to one and one-half feet long. This weapon, however, is more
particularly in use for hunting deer in the lakes and ponds.
[Illustration: FIG. 430. Spear heads. (National Museum, Washington.
_a_, 34076: _b_, 34068.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 431. Large spear head. (National Museum,
Washington. 10136.) ½]
The last implement in the kayak gear to be described is the bird spear,
nuirn (Fig. 433), with its throwing board, nuqsang (Fig. 434). It has a
shaft of about four feet in length, flattened at the lower end. Among
the natives on the east and southeast of Baffin Land it has an iron
prong at its point, whereas in Iglulik it has two points of unequal
length, with double barbs. Three double barbed prongs are attached to
the center of the shaft. They have a sharp bend at their lower part, the
points running parallel to the shaft. The prongs of the Greenland dart
are straight and diverge from the shaft. The lower end of the bird spear
fits into the groove of the throwing board. Therefore the end of the
shaft is squared. The ivory knob at the end of the spear contains a
small hole for the insertion of the spike which is in the end of the
groove. When the board is used it is held firmly in the right hand, the
first finger passing through the hole by the side of the groove, the
thumb clasping the notch on the left side (Fig. 434 _b_), the other
fingers those on the right side. The shaft is held by the points of the
fingers. When the spear is hurled the posterior point of the groove
describes a wide circle, and the fingers let go the shaft, which,
remaining in its first position, is driven forward by the spike with
great violence, and thus it attains considerable velocity.
[Illustration: FIG. 432. Anguvigang or lance. Museum für Völkerkunde
Berlin.]
[Illustration: FIG. 433. Nuirn or bird spear. (Museum für
Völkerkunde, Berlin.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 434. Nuqsang or throwing board, (_a_ front and
(_b_ back view. National Museum, Washington. 30013.]
I will now give a description of the methods of hunting seals and walrus
during the summer. As long as ice cakes are drifting in the bays the
natives do not use their seal floats, which would be severed from the
line and easily torn to pieces. They paddle to a small cake, on which
they lift their kayaks, and cautiously move the cake towards another one
on which a seal or walrus is asleep. After they have come within range
of their game they shoot it. As an abundance of all kinds of seals and
walrus are basking on the ice plenty of food can be obtained.
An ingenious way of walrusing during this season is described by Lyon
(p. 330):
When the hunters, in their canoes, perceive a large herd sleeping
on the floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some other
piece near them, which is small enough to be moved. On this they
lift their canoes, and then bore several holes, through which they
fasten their tough lines, and when everything is ready, they
silently paddle the hummock towards their prey, each man sitting
by his own line and spear. In this manner they, reach the ice on
which the walruses are lying snoring; and if they please, each man
may strike an animal, though, in general, two persons attack the
same beast. The wounded and startled walrus rolls instantly to the
water, but the siatko, or harpoon, being well fixed, he cannot
escape from the hummock on which the Eskimo have fastened the
line. When the animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches
his canoe, and lying out of his reach, spears him to death.
When the ice is gone seals are shot or harpooned with the igimang and
the agdliaq. The float prevents their escape and they are killed with
the anguvigang or the qapun. Later in summer, when they begin to shed
their fur, they lose almost all their blubber and sink when shot;
therefore they must be hunted with the harpoon and the float. As the
walrus is a dangerous foe should it turn upon the hunters in their light
boats, the harpoon is thrown from a great distance, and the animal is
not attacked at close quarters until it is well nigh exhausted by
dragging the float and the niutang and by loss of blood. A great number
of walrus are shot or harpooned while basking on the low islands and
rocks.
There are a few shoals and narrow inlets in Frobisher Bay and Cumberland
Sound in which great numbers of seals are caught during the summer. In
hunting them at those places some of the Eskimo in kayaks occupy the
shallow entrance of the inlet, while others scare the seals from its
head. As the seals approach its outlet they are speared by those who are
lying in wait for them. Since the natives have procured firearms seals
are shot from the boats, and in whale boats they even attack the walrus,
though they prefer to have drifting ice near at hand in case the fierce
animal should turn upon them and tear the boat with its powerful tusks.
This method of hunting is very successful in openings which intersect
the land floe in spring. To these places an enormous number of seals and
walrus resort, and they are shot either when basking at the edge of the
water or when blowing.
In the fall, when the small bays are covered with ice and newly formed
floes drift to and fro in the open sea, the natives go sealing at the
edge of the land ice (Fig. 435). The seals are shot on the drifting ice
or in the water and are secured by means of the unang, in the following
manner: The hunter jumps upon a small cake, which he pushes on with his
spear until he is near the body of the animal, and then drags it upon
the land floe with the harpoon line. This method is almost the same as
the one used in sealing and walrusing during the winter wherever the
open water is close to the shore.
[Illustration: FIG. 435. Sealing at the edge of the ice. (From a
photograph.)]
This hunt is described by Gilder in the following words (pp. 182-184):
Usually there are two hunters who approach the walrus, one hiding
behind the other, so that the two appear but as one. When the
spear is thrown, both hold on to the line, which is wound around
their arms so as to cause as much friction as possible, in order
to exhaust the animal speedily. * * * When the line is nearly run
out the end of the spear shaft is passed through a loop in the end
of the line and held firmly by digging a little hole in the ice
for the end of the spear to rest in, the foot resting upon the
line and against the spear to steady it. This gives the hunter an
immense advantage over his powerful game, and if he is fortunate
enough to secure this hold there is no escape for the walrus
except that the line may cut on the edge of the sharp ice, or the
thin ice break off, and hunter, line, and all be precipitated into
the water--a not unusual experience in walrus hunting. Another
cause of misfortune is for the line to become entangled around the
arm of the hunter so that he cannot cast it off, in which case he
is most assuredly drawn into the sea, and in nine cases out of ten
drowned, for his knife is seldom at hand for an emergency and no
amount of experience will ever induce an Inung [Eskimo] to provide
against danger.
Sometimes the hunter is alone when he strikes a walrus, and in
that case it requires considerable dexterity to secure the spear
hold in the ice; or if he fails to get that he may sit down and
brace his feet against a small hummock, when it comes to a sheer
contest of muscle between the hunter and the walrus. In these
contests victory generally perches upon the banner of the walrus,
though the Inung [Eskimo] will never give up until the last
extremity is reached. Often he is dragged to the very edge of the
ice before he finds a protuberance against which to brace his
feet, and often he is drawn down under the ice before he will
relinquish his hold. He is very tenacious under such circumstances,
for he knows that when he loses the walrus he loses his line and
harpoon also.
Hall (I, p. 459) describes the hunt, according to his observations in
Frobisher Bay, as follows:
The line is coiled, and hung about the neck of the hunter; thus
prepared he hides himself among the broken drifting ice, and
awaits the moment for striking his game. The spear is then thrown
and the hunter at once slips the coil of line off his head,
fastens the end to the ice by driving a spear through a loop in
it, and waits till the walrus comes to the surface of the water,
into which he has plunged on feeling the stroke of the harpoon;
then the animal is quickly despatched by the use of a long lance.
Sometimes the walrus when swimming under an extensive floe of new ice
are drowned by being frightened down every time they try to come up to
blow.
Formerly whaling was one of the favorite hunts of the Central Eskimo and
in some places it is even continued to this day. Whales are either
pursued in kayaks or in skin boats. If the kayak is used, they are
harpooned in the same way as the walrus, a very large float (avautapāq´)
being attached to the harpoon head. The whale is pursued by a great
number of kayaks and every boatman endeavors to drive his harpoon into
the animal, which, by the loss of blood and the resistance of the
niutang and floats, is tired out and killed with lances.
More frequently it is pursued in skin boats (p. 527), which for the
purpose are propelled by means of paddles (angun). In this case the crew
consists entirely of men, although on other occasions the rowing falls
to the women’s share; a skillful boatman steers the boat and the
harpooner stands in the bow watching his opportunity to strike the
whale. The implement used in this pursuit is represented in Fig. 436.
I could not procure the weapon itself (sakurpāng´, i.e., the largest
weapon), but had a model made by an Akudnirmio, of which the figure is a
drawing. The shaft is said to be very long and heavy, measuring from ten
to twelve feet. To this shaft a bone point tapering towards the end is
firmly attached. The harpoon head consists of two pieces similar to the
siatko of the Iglulirmiut (see Fig. 395). The iron edge is inserted into
a flat piece of bone, which fits into the slit of a large head. The
latter is made from the jawbone of a whale and is extremely heavy. When
the whale is struck, both parts, the head and the edge, are disengaged
from the shaft and separated from each other, but both enter the flesh
of the whale and work in the same way as the tokang.
[Illustration: FIG. 436. Model of sakurpāng´ or whaling harpoon.]
[Illustration: FIG. 437. Niutang, with floats.]
The long harpoon line is coiled up on the first thwart of the boat. On
the second one the niutang and five large floats (Fig. 437), which were
fastened to the line, are kept ready and heaved overboard as soon as the
harpoon is fast to a whale. The buoys and the niutang tire it out
quickly and the boat can easily follow it up. It is lanced with the
kalugiang whenever it comes up to blow. This lance consists of a heavy
handle with a long point of rod iron; formerly bone or narwhal ivory,
with an iron edge inserted into its point, was used for this purpose.
The narwhal and the white whale are hunted in the same way as the walrus
and the right whale. There are a few shallow bays to which the white
whale resorts in the summer. If a shoal of them has entered such a bay,
the Eskimo take to their boats and kayaks, and by throwing stones
frighten them into the shallowest part, where they are easily harpooned.