[1] It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can be
trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of
Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (_Festschrift_, 1900, p.
163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate)
copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might be
based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg
documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J.
Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at Mainz,
forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even provided with
four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March 24, 1424)
purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a fictitious
sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents French and German
texts were published about 1800-1802; the forger lived for twenty
years afterwards but never undeceived the public. He enriched the
Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. In fact Bodmann had
trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and documents; he openly
boasted of his abilities in this respect, and used them, sometimes to
amuse his friends who were searching for Gutenberg documents,
sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in Gutenberg's life. (For two
or three more specimens of his capacities see A. Wyss in _Zeitschr.
fur Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens_, xv. 9 sqq.) To one of his friends
(Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him as librarian of Mainz)
one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. There are, moreover,
serious misgivings as to documents said to have been _discovered_
about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed the honour of the
invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the then archivist of
Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and canon of St Thomas's
at Strassburg). For instance, of the above document of 1434 no
original has ever come to light; while the draft of the transaction,
alleged to have been written at the time in a register of contracts,
and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, has also disappeared
with the register itself. The document (now only known from a copy
said to have been taken by Wencker from the draft) is upheld as
genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention of printing at
Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though supporting Gutenberg and Mainz,
declares it to be a fiction (_Gutenberg-Feier_, Mainz, 1900, pp.
24-33). Again, suspicions are justified with respect to the documents
recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 1439 at Strassburg. Bockenheimer
explains at great length (_l.c._ pp. 41-72) that they are forgeries.
He even explains (_ibid._ pp. 97-107) that the so-called Helmasperger
document of November 6, 1455, may be a fabrication of the Faust von
Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured to claim Johann Fust as their
ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment of a fictitious "press," said
to have been constructed by Gutenberg in 1441, and to have been
discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a forged imprint with the date
1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's _Dialogues_, really printed at
Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged rubric in a copy of the
_Tractatus de celebratione missarum_, from which it would appear that
Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister had presented it on June 19,
1463, to the Carthusian monastery near Mainz: (4) four forged copies
of the Indulgence of 1455, in the Culemann Collection in the Kastner
Museum at Hanover, &c. (see further, Hessels, "The so-called
Gutenberg Documents," in _The Library_, 1909).
[2] Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of
Donatus, _De octo partibus orationis_, 27 lines to a page, of one of
which two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered
at Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them
having, but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the
_Turk-Kalendar_ for 1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich);
(3) the _Cisianus_ (preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and
perhaps others now lost.
[3] Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that
Gutenberg and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in
missals. It has been said that this description applies to the
42-line Bible, as its type is as large as that of most missals
printed before 1500, and that the size now called missal type (double
pica) was not used in missals until late in the 16th century. This is
no doubt true of the smaller missals printed before 1500, some of
which are in even smaller type than the 42-line Bible. But many of
the large folio missals, as that printed at Mainz by Peter Schoffer
in 1483, the Carthusian missal printed at Spires by Peter Drach about
1490, and the Dominican missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at
Venice in 1496, are in as large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter
Schoffer (1425-1502) of Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who
was a copyist in Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant
(_famulus_), is said by Trithemius to have discovered an easier way
of founding characters, whence Lambinet and others concluded that
Schoffer invented the punch. Schoffer himself, in the colophon of the
Psalter of 1457, a work which some suppose to have been planned and
partly printed by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics
and coloured capitals.
[4] The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr
Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic
numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make it
look very suspicious.
GUTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11
m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 7375. It
is a seat of silk and cotton industries, and has a large trade in
Westphalian hams and sausages. Printing, brewing and distilling are also
carried on, and the town is famous for its rye-bread (_Pumpernickel_).
Gutersloh has two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a
synagogue, a school and other educational establishments.
See Eickhoff, _Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gutersloh_
(Gutersloh, 1904).
GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859- ), Scottish painter, and one of the leaders
of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was born at Greenock. Though
in his youth he was influenced by John Pettie in London, and
subsequently studied in Paris, his style, which is remarkable for grasp
of character, breadth and spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him
by observation of nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he
benefited in Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the last century. In
his early works, such as "The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight is
Past and Gone" (1882), and the "Funeral Service in the Highlands," he
favoured a thick impasto, but with growing experience he used his colour
with greater economy and reticence. Subsequently he devoted himself
almost exclusively to portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of
the Glasgow artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but
soon found recognition in his native country. He was elected associate
of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full member in 1892,
succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the Royal Scottish Academy in
1902, and was knighted in 1903. His painting "Schoolmates" is at the
Ghent Gallery. Among his most successful portraits are those of his
mother, Mr R. Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and
Mrs Watson.
GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born at Brechin,
Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered the university of
Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and continued to attend classes
there for more than ten years. On the 2nd of February 1825 the
presbytery of Brechin licensed him as a preacher in connexion with the
Church of Scotland, and in 1826 he was in Paris studying natural
philosophy, chemistry, and comparative anatomy. For two years he acted
as manager of his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first
charge, Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic
style of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers and
weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in the pastorate of
Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once attracted notice as a great
pulpit orator. Towards the close of 1840 he became minister of St John's
church, Victoria Street, Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from
London and from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement
which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is thenceforth
associated with the Free Church, for which he collected L116,000 from
July 1845 to June 1846 to provide manses for the seceding ministers. In
1844 he became a teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his
life by the publication of his first "Plea for Ragged Schools." This
pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord Jeffrey.
A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which has been the parent
of many similar institutions elsewhere, though Guthrie's relation to the
movement is best described as that of an apostle rather than a founder.
He insisted on bringing up all the children in his school as
Protestants; and he thus made his schools proselytizing as well as
educational institutions. This interference with religious liberty led
to some controversy; and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie
founded the United Industrial School, giving combined secular and
separate religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was
conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in 1850 William
Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law of Thomas Chalmers, was
inducted as his colleague in Free St John's Church.
In 1850 Guthrie published _A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and against
Drunkenness_, which was followed by _The Gospel in Ezekiel_ (1855); _The
City: its Sins and Sorrows_ (1857); _Christ and the Inheritance of the
Saints_ (1858); _Seedtime and Harvest of Ragged Schools_ (1860),
consisting of his three _Pleas for Ragged Schools_. These works had an
enormous sale, and portions of them were translated into French and
Dutch. His advocacy of temperance had much to do with securing the
passing of the Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and
shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially quoted him
in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 he was moderator of
the Free Church General Assembly; but he seldom took a prominent part in
the business of the church courts. His remarkable oratorical talents,
rich humour, genuine pathos and inimitable power of story-telling,
enabled him to do good service to the total abstinence movement. He was
one of the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his
health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as pastor of
Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal connexion with the
congregation ceased only with his death. Guthrie had occasionally
contributed papers to _Good Words_, and, about the time of his
retirement from the ministry, he became first editor of the _Sunday
Magazine_, himself contributing several series of papers which were
afterwards published separately. In 1865 he was presented with L5000 as
a mark of appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent
mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months' duration
he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.
In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number of
books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, such
as _Speaking to the Heart_ (1862); _The Way to Life_ (1862); _Man and
the Gospel_ (1865); _The Angel's Song_ (1865); _The Parables_ (1866);
_Our Father's Business_ (1867); _Out of Harness_ (1867); _Early Piety_
(1868); _Studies of Character from the Old Testament_ (1868-1870);
_Sundays Abroad_ (1871).
See _Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir_, by his sons
(2 vols., London, 1874-1875).
GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856- ), known by the pseudonym of F. Anstey,
English novelist, was born in Kensington, London, on the 8th of August
1856. He was educated at King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall,
Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of
his story _Vice-Versa_ (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a
father for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist
of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, _The Giant's
Robe_; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and again in 1889
with _The Pariah_) that it was not as a serious novelist but as a
humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As such his
reputation was further confirmed by _The Black Poodle_ (1884), _The
Tinted Venus_ (1885), _A Fallen Idol_ (1886), and other works. He became
an important member of the staff of _Punch_, in which his "Voces populi"
and his humorous parodies of a reciter's stock-piece ("Burglar Bill,"
&c.) represent his best work. In 1901 his successful farce _The Man from
Blankley's_, based on a story which originally appeared in _Punch_, was
first produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London.
GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Logan
county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood creek, and lying one mile
south of the Cimarron river. Pop. (1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907)
11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) 11,654. It is served by the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno &
Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above the sea, in a
prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and the cultivation of
Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, particularly peaches.
Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the Federal courts in the state,
the other being Muskogee. The principal public buildings at Guthrie are
the state Capitol, the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie
library, the Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the
schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf and
dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding country and
has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries and machine shops;
among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton goods, flour,
cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and furniture. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $1,200,662. The municipality owns and
operates the waterworks. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was
opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the Territory,
and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it became the state capital.
GUTHRUM (GODRUM) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first appears in the
_English Annals_ in the year 875, when he is mentioned as one of three
Danish kings who went with the host to Cambridge. He was probably
engaged in the campaigns of the next three years, and after Alfred's
victory at Edington in 878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in
Somersetshire and was baptized there under the name of Aethelstan. He
stayed there for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather
Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Aethelstan died: he is then spoken of as "se
nor[Pd]erna cyning" (probably) "the Norwegian king," referring to the
ultimate origin of his family, and we are told that he was the first
(Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. Guthrum is perhaps to be
identified with Gormr (= Guthrum) hinn heimski or hinn riki of the
Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father of Hor[Pd]aknutr, the father of
Gorm the old. There is a treaty known as the peace of Alfred and
Guthrum.
GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887), German historian and
Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz (Dresden). After
holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Konigsberg (1873), and Jena (1876), he
was finally appointed professor of history at Tubingen, where he died on
the 2nd of March 1887. He devoted himself to the study of Eastern
language and history in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and
contributed largely to the literature of the subject.
WORKS.--_Uber die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus_ (supplementary vol.
of _Jahrbucher fur klass. Phil._, 1857); _Die makedonische Anagraphe_
(1864); _Beitrage zur Gesch. des alten Orients_ (Leipzig, 1858); _Neue
Beitrage zur Gesch. des alt. Or._, vol. i., _Die Assyriologie in
Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1876); _Die Glaubwurdigkeit der armenischen
Gesch. des Moses von Khoren_ (1877); _Untersuchungen uber die syrische
Epitome des eusebischen Canones_ (1886); _Untersuch. uber die Gesch.
des Konigreichs Osraene_ (1887); _Gesch. Irans_ (Alexander the Great
to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tubingen, 1887). He wrote on Persia and
Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A collection of minor
works entitled _Kleine Schriften_ was published by F. Ruhl at Leipzig
(1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his writings. See article
by Ruhl in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlix. (1904).
GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1759-1839), German teacher and
the principal founder of the German school system of gymnastics, was
born at Quedlinburg on the 9th of August 1759. He was educated at the
gymnasium of his native town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he
went to Schnepfenthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His
method of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various handbooks;
and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics very soon came to occupy
such an important position in the school system of Germany. He also did
much to introduce a better method of instruction in geography. He died
on the 21st of May 1839.
His principal works are _Gymnastik fur die Jugend_ (1793); _Spiele zur
Ubung und Erholung des Korpers und Geistes fur die Jugend_ (1796);
_Turnbuch_ (1817); _Handbuch der Geographie_ (1810); and a number of
books constituting a _Bibliothek fur Padagogik, Schulwesen, und die
gesammte padagogische Literatur Deutschlands_. He also contributed to
the _Vollstandiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung_, and along
with Jacobi published _Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk_, the first
part, _Deutsches Land_, being written by him.
GUTTA (Latin for "drop"), an architectural term given to the small
frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below the triglyph and
under the regula of the entablature of the Doric Order. They are
sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of "tree-nail," and resemble
the wooden pins which in framed timber work or in joinery are employed
to fasten together the pieces of wood; these are supposed to be derived
from the original timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the
pins, driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and,
according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the taenia to
hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples of the Doric Order
at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely isolated from the
architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in
front of it, as if to enable the pin to be driven in more easily. In
later examples they are partly attached to the architrave. Similar
guttae are carved under the mutules of the Doric cornice, representing
the pins driven through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the
temples at Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where
the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut in the
soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant employment in the
Doric temples suggests that, although originally of constructive origin,
they were subsequently employed as decorative features.
GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky fluid or latex
furnished by several trees chiefly found in the islands of the Malay
Archipelago. The name is derived from two Malay words, _getah_ meaning
gum, and _pertja_ being the name of the tree--probably a Bassia--from
which the gum was (erroneously) supposed to be obtained.
_Botanical Origin and Distribution._--The actual tree is known to the
Malays as taban, and the product as _getah taban_. The best gutta percha
of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is known as _getah
taban merah_ (red) or _getah taban sutra_ (silky). The trees in
question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, have now been
definitely identified, the first as _Dichopsis gutta_ (Bentham and
Hooker), otherwise _Isonandra gutta_ (Hooker) or _Palaquium gutta_
(Burck), and the second as _Dichopsis oblongifolia_ (Burck). Allied
trees of the same genus and of the same natural order yield similar but
usually inferior products. Among them may be mentioned species of
_Payena_ (_getah soondie_).
Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and the trunk
has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to be mature when
about thirty years old. The leaves of _Dichopsis_, which are
obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, occur in clusters at
the end of the branches, and are bright green and smooth on the upper
surface but on the lower surface are yellowish-brown and covered with
silky hairs. The leaves are usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in.
wide at the centre. The flowers are white, and the seeds are contained
in an ovoid berry about 1 in. long.
The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is almost
entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate
neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and south
of the equator and 93 deg.-119 deg. longitude, where the temperature
ranges from 66 deg. to 90 deg. F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly
moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings. Some
planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far been done to
acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent information seems to
point to the possibility of growing the tree in Ceylon and on the west
coast of Africa.
_Preparation of Gutta Percha._--The gutta is furnished by the greyish
milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted in cylindrical
vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, between the bark and
the wood (or cambium). Latex also occurs in the leaves of the tree to
the extent of about 9% of the dried leaves, and this may be removed from
the powdered leaves by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process
is not practicable commercially. The latex flows slowly where an
incision is made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the
rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the Malays
usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which is done by
chopping off the branches and removing circles of the bark, forming
cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various points about a foot
apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and fills these channels, from
which it is removed and converted into gutta by boiling in open vessels
over wood fires. The work is usually carried on in the wet season when
the latex is more fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is
thick water is added to it before boiling.
The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees about thirty
years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 lb. of gutta. Older trees do not
appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, whilst younger trees are said
to furnish less and of inferior quality. The trees have been so
extensively felled for the gutta that there has been a great diminution
in the total number during recent years, which has not been compensated
for by the new plantations which have been established.
_Uses of Gutta Percha._--The Chinese and Malays appear to have been
acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha of softening
in warm water and of regaining its hardness when cold, but this plastic
property seems to have been only utilized for ornamental purposes, the
construction of walking-sticks and of knife handles and whips, &c.
The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious material to
Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It was then regarded as a
form of wood, to which the name of "mazer" wood was given on account of
its employment in making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given
in a book published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled _Musaeum
Tradescantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth
near London_. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of the
world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, but the specimen of
"mazer wood" no longer exists.
In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr William
Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the Society of Arts, and
in the same year Dr Jose d'Almeida sent samples to the Royal Asiatic
Society. Gutta percha was also exhibited at the Great Exhibition of
1851.
Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led to many
experiments being made with the material. Casts of medals were
successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in conjunction with
Werner von Siemens, then made the first experiments with the material as
an insulating covering for cable and telegraph wires, which led to the
discovery of its important applications in this connexion and to a
considerable commercial demand for the substance.
The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that is its
richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other impurities which
interfere with its physical characters, and especially its insulating
power or inability to conduct electricity.
The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. Other
minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking impressions of
medals, &c. It has also found application in the preparation of belting
for machinery, as well as for the construction of the handles of knives
and surgical instruments, whilst the inferior qualities are used for
waterproofing.
_Commercial Production._--The amount of gutta percha exported through
Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the East is subject to
considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on the demand for cable and
telegraph construction. In 1886 the total export from Singapore was
40,411 cwt., of which Great Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export
was 51,982 cwt. of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in
1905, 42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It has
to be remembered that the official returns include not only gutta
percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior products
sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are referred to below
under the head of substitutes. The value of gutta percha cannot
therefore be correctly gauged from the value of the imports. In the ten
years 1896-1906 the best qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to
about 7s. per lb. Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special
purposes, and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter
of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.
_Characters and Properties._--Gutta percha appears in commerce in the
form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often
exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the
nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials,
such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its
appearance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic
but not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed
in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65
deg.-66 deg. C. in the case of gutta of the first quality, the
temperature of softening being dependent on the quality of the gutta
employed. In this condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is
still inelastic. On cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness
without becoming brittle. In this respect gutta percha differs from
india-rubber or caoutchouc, which does not become plastic and unlike
gutta percha is elastic. This property of softening on heating and
solidifying when cooled again, without change in its original
properties, enables gutta percha to be worked into various forms,
rolled into sheets or drawn into ropes. The specific gravity of the
best gutta percha lies between 0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not
dissolved by most liquids, although some remove resinous constituents;
the best solvents are oil of turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon
bisulphide and chloroform, and light petroleum when hot. Gutta percha
is not affected by alkaline solutions or by dilute acids. Strong
sulphuric acid chars it when warm, and nitric acid effects complete
oxidation.
When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates,
oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.
_Chemical Composition._--Chemically, gutta percha is not a single
substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions of
these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the
properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical
purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric
strength and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these
properties is influenced by the resinous constituents present.
The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta, a
hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C10H16. It is therefore isomeric
with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of turpentine.
Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous
constituents--albane C10H16O and fluavil C20H32O--which can be
separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is
not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the
resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta
exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta
percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently
determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the
higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha.
The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees
of the genus _Dichopsis_ or _Palaquium_:--
+--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
| | Gutta | Resin |
| | per cent. | per cent.|
+--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
|Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia | 88.8 | 11.2 |
| " " " gutta | 82.0 | 18.0 |
| " " " polyantha | 49.3 | 50.7 |
| " " " pustulata | 47.8 | 52.2 |
| " " " Maingayi | 24.4 | 75.6 |
+--------------------------------------+-----------+----------+
The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in chemical
constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high temperature both
are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons, isoprene
(C5H8) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C10H16), and the latter by
further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a hydrocarbon of known
constitution which has been produced synthetically and spontaneously
reverts to caoutchouc. The precise relationship of isoprene to gutta
has not been ascertained, but recently Harries has further elucidated
the connexion between gutta and caoutchouc by showing that under the
action of ozone both break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen
peroxide, but differ in the proportions of these products they
furnish. The two materials must therefore be regarded as very closely
related in chemical constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is
able to combine with sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found
some commercial applications.
_Manufacture of Gutta Percha._--Among the earliest patents taken out
for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles Hancock, the
first of which is dated 1843.
Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is
cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or
sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and forced
through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. It is
then kneaded or "masticated" by machinery to remove the enclosed
water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic to the
rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different
thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha is
resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents by
the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.
_Substitutes for Gutta Percha._--For some purposes natural and
artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The
similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield
gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes,
of which the material known as "balata" or "Surinam gutta percha," is
the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, _Mimusops balata_
(bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta percha
trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height of 80
to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South America,
and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. The latex
which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the bark and
wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are tapped by
making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber trees, and the
balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. Crude balata varies
in composition. It usually contains nearly equal proportions of resin
and true gutta. The latter appears to be identical with the chief
constituent of gutta percha. The properties of balata correspond with
its composition, and it may therefore be classed as an inferior gutta
percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 8d. per lb.
Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned the
evaporated latices derived from _Butyrospermum Parkii_ (shea-butter
tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), _Calotropis gigantea_
(Madar tree of India), and _Dyera costulata_ of Malaya and Borneo,
which furnishes the material known as "Pontianac." All these contain a
small amount of gutta-like material associated with large quantities
of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a few pence per
lb., and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.
Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented
chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of
mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some
cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.
For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of
the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, _Les Plantes
a caoutchouc et a gutta_ (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach, "Cantor
Lectures on Gutta Percha," _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 1898.
(W. R. D.)
GUTTER (O. Fr. _goutiere_, mod. _gouttiere_, from Lat. _gutta_, drop),
in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived to carry away
the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge down a vertical
pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more specifically, but loosely, the
similar channel at the side of a street, below the pavement. In Greek
and Roman temples the cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the
water was discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were
carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried along the
flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the lower edge of
the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested partly on the top of
the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the water was discharged
through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, a parapet or pierced balustrade
was carried on the corbel table enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a
more ordinary class the parapet is only a continuation of the wall
below, and the gutter is set back and carried in a trough resting on the
lower end of the roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves
gutter which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured
to and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture
generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition work was
replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. In France a compromise
was effected, whereby instead of the horizontal coping of the ordinary
balustrade a richly carved cresting was employed, of which the earliest
example is in the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This
exists throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief
characteristic features.
GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist and dramatist, was
born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin, where his father held a
clerkship in the war office. After leaving school he studied theology
and philosophy at the university of his native town, and while still a
student, began his literary career by the publication in 1831 of a
periodical entitled _Forum der Journalliteratur_. This brought him to
the notice of Wolfgang Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist
in the editorship of the _Literaturblatt_. At the same time he continued
his university studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he
published anonymously at Hamburg _Briefe eines Narren an eine Narrin_,
and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart _Maha-Guru, Geschichte eines Gottes_,
a fantastic and satirical romance. In 1835 he went to Frankfort, where
he founded the _Deutsche Revue_. In the same year appeared _Wally, die
Zweiflerin_, from the publication of which may be said to date the
school of writers who, from their opposition to the literary, social and
religious traditions of romanticism, received the name of "Young
Germany." The work was directed specially against the institution of
marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever interest it might
have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the
German federal diet, which condemned Gutzkow to three months'
imprisonment, decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet
write, and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within
the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim,
Gutzkow employed himself in the composition of his treatise _Zur
Philosophie der Geschichte_ (1836). On obtaining his freedom he returned
to Frankfort, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a
new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy _Richard
Savage_ (1839), which immediately made the round of all the German
theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority are now neglected;
but a few have obtained an established place in the repertory of the
German theatre--especially the comedies _Zopf und Schwert_ (1844), _Das
Urbild des Tartuffe_ (1847), _Der Konigsleutnant_ (1849) and the blank
verse tragedy, _Uriel Acosta_ (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden,
where he succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre.
Meanwhile he had not neglected the novel. _Seraphine_ (1838) was
followed by _Blasedow und seine Sohne_, a satire on the educational
theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared _Die Ritter vom
Geiste_, which may be regarded as the starting-point for the modern
German social novel. _Der Zauberer von Rom_ is a powerful study of Roman
Catholic life in southern Germany. The success of _Die Ritter vom
Geiste_ suggested to Gutzkow the establishment of a journal on the model
of Dickens' _Household Words_, entitled _Unterhaltungen am hauslichen
Herd_, which first appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864
he had an epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided
traces of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels
_Hohenschwangau_ (1868) and _Fritz Ellrodt_ (1872), _Lebensbilder_
(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and _Die Sohne
Pestalozzis_ (1870), the plot of which is founded on the story of Kaspar
Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous malady, Gutzkow in 1873
made a journey to Italy, and on his return took up his residence in the
country near Heidelberg, whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying
there on the 16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of
his comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he
exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany; and his
works will always be of interest as the mirror in which the intellectual
and social struggles of his time are best reflected.
An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876,
new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of Gutzkow's
_Meisterdramen_ (1892) and _Wally die Zweiflerin_ (1905). His more
important novels have been frequently reprinted. For Gutzkow's life
see his various autobiographical writings such as _Aus der Knabenzeit_
(1852), _Ruckblicke auf mein Leben_ (1876), &c. For an estimate of his
life and work see J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892); also H.
H. Houben, _Studien uber die Dramen Gutzkows_ (1898) and
_Gutzkow-Funde_ (1901).
GUTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851), German missionary to China,
was born at Pyritz in Pomerania on the 8th of July 1803. When still
apprenticed to a saddler in Stettin, he made known his missionary
inclinations to the king of Prussia, through whom he went to the
Padagogium at Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Janike
in Berlin. In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary
Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. Leaving
the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August of the same
year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the Bible into Siamese. In
1829 he married an English lady, who aided him in the preparation of a
dictionary of Cochin Chinese, but she died in August 1831 before its
completion. Shortly after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where,
and subsequently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible
into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote in Chinese
various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In 1834 he published at
London a _Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831,
1832 and 1833_. He was appointed in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the
English commission, and during the opium war of 1840-42 and the
negotiations connected with the peace that followed he rendered valuable
service by his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese
authorities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the
interior, Gutzlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native
missionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years
as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work among their
fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on the 9th of August 1851.
Gutzlaff also wrote _A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern_
(London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at Stuttgart in
1847; China Opened (1838); and the _Life of Taow-Kwang_ (1851; German
edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A complete collection of his
Chinese writings is contained in the library at Munich.
GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of Siward or Seguard
of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign wars wins in marriage Felice
(the Phyllis of the well-known ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt,
earl of Warwick. Soon after his marriage he is seized with remorse for
the violence of his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife
and fortune to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of
absence he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Aethelstan
from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and Gonelaph,
by slaying in single fight their champion the giant Colbrand. Local
tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near Winchester. Making his way to
Warwick he becomes one of his wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to
a hermitage in Arden, only revealing his identity at the approach of
death. The versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we
possess are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a
_roman d'aventures_, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in
Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with fights with
dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel of the tradition
evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which represents, or at least
is symbolic[1] of an historical fact. The religious side of the legend
finds parallels in the stories of St Eustachius and St Alexius,[2] and
makes it probable that the Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through
monastic hands. Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's
adventures under Aethelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf
Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern counties of
England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in Southampton.
Winchester was saved, however, not by the valour of an English champion,
but by the payment of money. This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with
Anlaf Cuaran or Havelok (i.e.).
The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. _wig_ = war) may be fairly
connected with the family of Wigod, lord of Wallingford under Edward the
Confessor, and a Filicia, who belongs to the 12th century and was
perhaps the Norman poet's patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the
Ardens, descended from Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's
Cliffe, near Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp,
earl of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not
correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the romance.
The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even though it may be
vaguely connected with the family history of the Ardens and the
Wallingford family, but it was accepted as authentic fact in the
chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of Langtoft) written at the end
of the 13th century. The adventures of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his
tutor Heraud of Arden, who had also educated Guy, have much in common
with his father's history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated
as a separate romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and
Count Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is
transferred to the English hero in the _Speculum Gy of Warewyke_ (_c_.
1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. Morrill, 1898.
The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been printed,
but is described by Emile Littre in _Hist. litt. de la France_ (xxii.,
841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in Paris, 1525, and
subsequently (see G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_, _s.v._ "Guy de
Warvich"); the English metrical romance exists in four versions,
dating from the early 14th century; the text was edited by J. Zupitza
(1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge University Lib. Paper MS.
Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, extra series, Nos. 42, 49,
59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College MSS. The popularity of the
legend is shown by the numerous versions in English: _Guy of Warwick_,
translated from the Latin of Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into
English verse by John Lydgate between 1442 and 1468; _Guy of Warwick_,
a poem (written in 1617 and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane,
the MS. of which (Brit. Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father
of the poet; _The Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick_ (c. 1607),
by Samuel Rowlands; _The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of
Warwicke_ (William Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and
C. Bates; chapbooks and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: _The
Tragical History, Admirable Achievements and Curious Events of Guy,
Earl of Warwick_, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical
with a play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and
entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; three
verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their edition of
the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is described by J.
A. Herbert (_An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick_, London, 1905).
See also M. Weyrauch _Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy_ (2
pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in _Silzungsber. d.
phil.-hist. Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss._ (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874),
and _Zur Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick_ (Vienna, 1873); a
learned discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of
Romances_ (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the
_Dictionary of National Biography_.