_PITMAN'S TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SERIES_
_Edited by Roberts Beaumont, M.Sc., M.I.Mech.E._
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
HOSIERY
MANUFACTURE
BY
WILLIAM DAVIS M.A.
_Principal of the Buceleuch Technical Institute, Hawick._
_WITH 61 ILLUSTRATIONS
including many original photo-micrographs._
LONDON: SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.
BATH, MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK
PRINTED BY SIR ISAAC PITMAN
& SONS, LTD., LONDON, BATH,
MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK
PREFACE
This work is being issued at a period of unparalleled development in the
industry of knitted fabrics, when our British manufacturers are
straining every nerve towards attaining a dominating position in this
vital branch of the production of textile goods. It is highly gratifying
and full of promise to note the spirit of enterprise which animates our
younger generation of manufacturers, and the keenness and alertness
which permeate the industry at the present time. Increased concentration
by our machine builders on the numerous mechanical improvements being
brought out in rapid succession from time to time is certain to have a
great influence on the further expansion of the industry, and has the
effect of considerably extending the horizon to the maker of knitted
goods. With so many new firms springing up in different parts of the
country, there has arisen an increased demand for books dealing with the
knitting industry, and this work is presented in the hope that it will
do something towards satisfying this widespread desire. The study of
looped fabric structure is wide in scope, and none the less difficult
because, on a first view, it appears simple and elementary. The prospect
of the maker of knitted goods of all kinds, is further enhanced by the
enormous production possible on the present-day knitting machinery and
on the fact that the garments are made ready-to-wear. In this work an
effort is made to outline the principles underlying the technology of
the industry, and endeavours have been made to clarify certain problems
of fabric structure which require still greater attention from the
students of technology before they can be regarded as solved. Emphasis
has also been laid on the fundamentals of the knitting process as
performed on various mechanisms, for, if these basic principles are
clearly comprehended, the foundation is securely laid for a further
grasp of the industry and its technology.
Special attention is given to the structure and properties of knitting
yarns, for in this texture it can be said with truth that the yarn is
the fabric, seeing that the bulk of the productions are made from the
single thread looped upon itself. Several problems relating to the
weight of knitted fabric and similar questions are fully demonstrated,
and the formulae explained from fundamental principles. A contribution
is also made to the difficult subject of the setting of looped textures,
generally so imperfectly understood in its theoretical significance.
That this volume may contribute towards a fuller knowledge of the
technology of the knitting industry is the earnest wish of the Author,
WILLIAM DAVIS.
TECHNICAL INSTITUTE,
HAWICK, 1920.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
CHAPTER I
DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC 1-8
Peculiarities of Knitted Structure-Knitting Trade
Definitions-Hand Knitting and Crochet
CHAPTER II
KNITTING AND WEAVING COMPARED 9-15
Hand Knitting-The Knitting Process-The Cut-up Trade-The
Full-fashioned Trade-The Seamless Branch
CHAPTER III
LATCH NEEDLE KNITTING 16-26
Loop Formation with the Latch Needle-The Flat Knitter-Working
of Cam Boxes to Give the Various Stitches-Patterns Produced
CHAPTER IV
TYPES OF KNITTING YARNS 27-36
Lamb's Wool, Shetland, Natural, and Fingering Knitting
Yarns-Worsted Spun Underwear Yarns
CHAPTER V
SYSTEMS OF NUMBERING HOSIERY YARNS 37-45
Yarn Testing for Counts-Conversion from one Count into
Another-Formulae for Calculating the Weight of Knitted
Fabric, allowing for varying Take-up of Yarn-Calculations for
Width, Counts, and Courses per inch
CHAPTER VI
CALCULATIONS FOR FOLDED KNITTING YARNS 46-56
Explanation of Formulae-Estimations for Plated Goods and Weight
Percentages for Mixed Garments
CHAPTER VII
BEARDED NEEDLE KNITTING 57-66
Stages of Loop Formation with the Bearded Needle-Hand-frame
Knitting Process, and the System of Knitting on Cotton's
Patent Machine
CHAPTER VIII
SETTING OF KNITTED FABRICS 67-75
Texture Variation on individual Frames-Variation of Yarn and
Effect of Yarn Quality-Variation in the Length of
Loop-Comparison of Courses and Wales
CHAPTER IX
VARIOUS KNITTING YARNS 76-89
Cotton, Mercerised, and Various Silk Yarns-Silk-and-Wool and
Cotton-and-Wool Mixture Yarns-Cashmere, Angora Rabbit, Camel
Hair, and Alpaca-Nettle Fibre Yarn
CHAPTER X
WINDING OF HOSIERY YARNS 90-98
Description of a Modern Winding Machine, Bobbin Building and
the Differential-Damping and Methods Adopted
CHAPTER XI
CIRCULAR KNITTING 99-106
Stocking Knitting Machine-Making of a Ribbed
Sock-Full-fashioned Hosiery-English and French Foot
CHAPTER XII
COLOUR IN KNITTED GOODS 107-116
Naturals, Horizontal Stripes, Vertical Stripes, Tuck Work on
Flat and Circular Frames-Check Designs and Spot Effects
CHAPTER XIII
COLOUR HARMONY AND CONTRAST 117-126
Attributes of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary
Colours-Application of Colour Principles to the Hosiery Trade
CHAPTER XIV
DEFECTS IN FABRICS 127-134
Sinker and Needle Lines-Slurgalling and Pinholes-Stitches of
Variable Symmetry
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. RIGHT SIDE KNITTED FABRIC 3
2. WRONG SIDE KNITTED FABRIC 3
3. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF THE PLAIN KNITTED LOOP 4
4 & 5. KNITTING ON THE HAND PINS 7
6 & 7. WORKING OF CROCHET STITCH 7
8. THE LATCH NEEDLE 17
9. STITCH FORMATION ON THE LATCH NEEDLE 17
10. THE DOUBLE-HEADED NEEDLE 17
11. SIDE ELEVATION OF THE LAMB FLAT KNITTER 20
12. VIEW OF THE CAM BOX 20
13, 14, DIFFERENT NEEDLE ARRANGEMENTS ON THE FLAT KNITTER 20
15.
16. TWO-AND-TWO RIB FABRIC 20
17-20. ARRANGEMENT OF CAMS TO PRODUCE RIB, CIRCULAR, AND 24
CARDIGAN STITCHES
21. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY WHEELING KNITTING YARN 28
22. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY WOOLLEN SPUN KNITTING 29
THREAD
23. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF HOSIERY LAMB'S WOOL YARN 30
24. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY NATURAL SHETLAND YARN 31
25. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY FINGERING YARN FOR HOSIERY 33
26 & 27. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY UNDERWEAR YARNS, CONTINENTAL 33-35
SPUN
28. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY UNDERWEAR YARN 35
29. THE BEARDED NEEDLE 58
30-33. LOOP FORMATION ON THE BEARDED NEEDLE 58
34. STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE OLD HAND-FRAME 63
35. STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE COTTON'S PATENT FRAME 63
36. SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE OF YARN DIAMETER IN THE 69
BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME
37. SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE IN LOOP LENGTH IN THE BEARDED 71
NEEDLE FRAME
38. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE COTTON HOSIERY YARN 77
39. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE LOOSE TWISTED COTTON YARN FOR 77
BACKING
40. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF MERCERISED COTTON KNITTING YARN 79
41. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF ARTIFICIAL SILK KNITTING YARN 79
42. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN 81
43. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN 81
(GASSED)
44. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SILK AND WOOL KNITTING YARN 82
45. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SILK AND COTTON-AND-WOOL MERINO 84
FOLDED YARN
46. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-PLY PURE CASHMERE KNITTING YARN 85
47. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF YARN SPUN FROM THE NETTLE FIBRE 88
48. THE MODERN HOSIERY WINDING MACHINE 93
49. THREAD CLEARING APPARATUS 93
50. THE GRISWOLD CIRCULAR STOCKING KNITTER 101
51. ACTION OF THE CAMS IN STITCH FORMATION 101
52. STANDARD RIBBED SOCK 101
53. ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES 112
54. TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES 112
55. ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE 113
FRAME
56. TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE 113
FRAME
57. ENLARGEMENT OF THE ONE-AND-ONE TUCK FABRIC 114
58. ENLARGEMENT OF A SINKER LINE IN KNITTED FABRIC 128
59. ENLARGEMENT OF "JACOB'S LADDER" IN KNITTED FABRIC 130
60. ENLARGEMENT OF SLUR GALLING IN KNITTED FABRIC 131
61. ENLARGEMENT OF "PINHOLES" IN KNITTED FABRIC 132
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
CHAPTER I
DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC
There has been in recent years an extraordinary development in the scope
and application of the knitted fabric which may be traced to a variety
of causes. The chief explanation of this growth is to be found in the
structure of the knitted fabric itself, the qualities of which have made
it pre-eminently suitable for special departments of textiles. In its
most elementary form the knitted texture is composed of a series of
loops hung in rows one upon the other and constructed from the curvings
of a single thread which runs continuously through the fabric. One set
of loops is formed on the preceding row and any particular stitch is
dependent for its support on neighbouring stitches above, below, and on
either side of it; if the thread becomes severed at any point the loops
lose contact all round and a considerable opening is incurred. This is
its chief defect, but also its outstanding advantage as a texture; it is
a defect to have the structure destroyed with the severance of the
single ground thread, but it is the mutual interdependence of loops
which accounts for its valuable stretch and elasticity. By virtue of
this elasticity it becomes eminently suitable for articles of
underclothing which have to be worn in close proximity to the cuticle;
the fabric is enabled to yield to the slightest movement of any part and
thus prevents the wearer becoming uncomfortably conscious of the
garment. An inherent yielding quality of the loops causes the article to
stretch and adapt itself to minor irregularities of size and shape; if a
garment is not exactly to dimensions, it contracts to a smaller or
expands to a larger form. This property of stretch must not be unduly
taken advantage of to cover up indifferent systems of manufacturing, but
within certain limits the property is of great value for certain
discrepancies. The knitted fabric is essentially a weft fabric, the
thread being inserted crosswise into the texture after the manner of
filling so that the entire structure presents a horizontal appearance
which is most evident with ground-coloured stripes when the different
colours show themselves crosswise. This proves a serious limitation to
the scope of the plain knitted texture, for the clothing trades have
small use for horizontal effects as compared with vertical coloured
stripes. The knitted structure is quite different in property to woven
cloth where one has two series of separate threads, one being termed the
warp and running longitudinally in the fabric, whilst the other series
is named the weft and is intersected with the warp in the process of
weaving. The warp threads are pre-arranged to the correct length and in
order of pattern on the warp beam whilst the threads of weft are
inserted consecutively during the operation of weaving in the loom. This
mode of intersecting separate series of yarns at right angles to each
other causes the threads to exert a much firmer grip on each other and
the resulting fabric is remarkable for its strength and rigidity. It is
firm and durable in structure, and possessing comparatively little
stretch, it does not yield to the ordinary strains to which it is
subjected. It is pre-eminently the fabric to be used for garments of
outer wear which have to stand the rough service of every-day life,
where a combination of friction, bending and abrasion subject the fabric
to a severe test of endurance. In the case of a knitted texture there is
a right and a wrong side, or face and back, the face comprising the
straight portions of the loops whilst on the back the curved loop
portions predominate. Fig. 1 gives a view of a plain knitted fabric
showing the right side or the face of the texture where the loops may be
distinguished by a characteristic V-shape, these Vs fitting into each
other in a vertical direction. This side of the fabric is always worn
outermost, as it presents the most even surface whilst it is also the
most perfect as all imperfections such as knots, etc., are drawn on to
the back of the cloth. Fig. 2 shows the same fabric on the wrong side
where it will be noted that the chief feature is a series of
interlocking semi-circles which have a distinctly crosswise
determination given to them. The appearance on the back is decidedly raw
and uninteresting, the straightened V-shaped portions of the loops
presenting a much more attractive aspect. On the other hand, most rotary
frames work their fabrics with the back in full view of the worker, and
in case of analysis it is the wrong side of the fabric which will yield
the most definite results to the analyst, for by examination of the
curved loops one can discern more easily the character of the pattern
and the nature of the ornamentation.
[Illustration:
FIGS. l and 2
]
_Peculiarities of Knitted Structure._—An examination of the
photo-micrograph of the plain knitted fabric (back view) shown in Fig. 3
will demonstrate that the loops are intimately dependent on each other
and that the slightest dislocation at any part will at once affect the
adjacent area. The knitted fabric is extremely difficult to make
absolutely perfect, because each stitch is worked on its own needle
distinct from its neighbour, and the slightest irregularity of yarn
delivery affects the whole stitch area concerned. If a loop is drawn
tighter than the normal at any point, then it is curtailed in size and
the adjacent loops have to enlarge themselves to fill out the allotted
space. In the woven fabric a missing thread usually influences that
portion of the fabric only, but if the main thread of a knitted
structure be broken, the entire cloth may be disintegrated with the
slightest pull. The interspaces between the loops shown in Fig. 3 are
intimately connected with the elastic property, because if the spaces
are closed up by tight knitting, the elasticity is considerably reduced,
if, on the other hand, the spaces are too large, the fabric loses its
equilibrium and a slight pull will cause it to lose its form. An
exception to this may be found in the light-weight fabrics so much in
demand in recent seasons for wearing in an intermediate position in
winter whilst in summer they are worn outermost for lightness. These are
purposely knitted flimsy in texture so as to economize material and for
summer they are quite elegant and serviceable when manufactured in
attractive colourings. For winter use they are possessed of a
heat-retaining property which would not be expected from their bulk, but
to attain the best results they must be worn under a fabric of stronger
and more durable construction. The theory of these surprising results is
that free interspaces act as so many air chambers which contribute to
non-conductivity of heat by the garment. Face veils are usually very
flimsy structures, but on account of the "still layer" of air retained
in the vicinity of the face the heat is effectively retained just as if
a fabric of much heavier construction were employed.
[Illustration:
FIG. 3
]
This property should be fully investigated in a scientific manner in the
light of increased cost of raw materials which has now become vital to
the manufacturer and his public. In many circles weight of cloth is
synonymous with warmth, but experience has shown that this is not the
case and that the warmest garments are not always the heaviest. The
latest converts to the light-weight article are the clothing departments
of the services where, as a result of war experience they have altered
many specifications to include fabrics much lighter in weight; formerly
no gauge or sett could be too coarse and thick for their requirements,
but now the products of all gauges in the equipment of the hosiery
manufacturer are utilized. Now the matter is being brought more fully to
the notice of the manufacturer on account of the great rise in the price
of raw materials when it is essential to extract the utmost farthing of
utility from every ounce of material. If we can more fully requisition
the services of the "still layer of air" in this regard it will prove an
inexpensive medium of clothing.
_Knitting Trade Definition._—The meaning of the term hosiery has
undergone a great expansion during the past decade and its present
meaning is an eloquent testimony to the enormous growth which the trade
has recently experienced. Originally the term had reference chiefly to
articles of footwear, it was in this regard that the utility of the
knitted stitch was first recognized. The feet form a delicately
susceptible part of our anatomy and require special care in fabric
selection. In walking the muscles and tendons of the foot are in
constant action and it is of vital importance to the comfort of the
individual that the footwear should be worked in the most suitable
fabric. To have footwear in the woven texture is unthinkable if from no
other reason than the seams which would be necessary, and to have one of
these located at the heel or along the sole of the foot would render the
wearer unable to walk in a very short period. There is further the
matter of perspiration which occurs so profusely at the pedal
extremities, and the knitted texture above all others is adapted to that
intimate sort of interaction between skin and fabric which is required
for the absorption of perspiration. It laps it up and gives it back
again gradually in the form of vapour. In a fabric of less absorbent
qualities the article would soon fill with moisture and giving rise to
wetness cause considerable discomfort to the wearer. The term hosiery
has greatly outgrown its original significance as applied to footwear
only and now embraces underwear, articles used for intermediate garments
and an increasing range of garments suited for outer wear. There are now
very few departments of clothing into which the knitted texture has not
penetrated. For outer garments it is not always advisable to employ the
knitted texture in its entirety because it obviously does not possess
all the properties needed, but great progress has been made in the
direction of giving greater stability by a judicious use of the more
rigid woven texture at given points. For example, in the knitted vest
trade the garment edges are often bound with tapes of woven stuff,
whilst the linings are invariably made from these materials.
Incidentally the colour of these reinforcing materials is so chosen as
to harmonize with the ground so that the whole garment is enhanced in
general appearance. Similarly it is found that the plain knitted loop is
neither heavy nor close enough to give adequate comfort for an outer
garment, which deficiency has been attended to by the hosiery machine
builders who have made such improvements on the machines as will enable
much more yarn to be inserted in a given space. This increases the sett
of the loops and the weight and rigidity of texture, so that fabrics may
now be obtained which are almost equal to the woven fabric in resistant
properties. Such modifications of fabric structure usually result in a
pattern with a prevailing one-sided effect, the wrong side being
deficient in appearance and style. The ordinary plain knitted stitch
_per se_ has little scope for ornamentation unless special machines are
employed and where embellishment is required on a plain garment it often
takes the form of added pieces of crochet.
[Illustration:
FIGS. 4, 5, 6 and 7
]
_Crochet Work._—This is particularly useful in the trade for children's
garments where many factories employ crochet workers who ornament the
edges by crochet patterns worked in the same yarn. For the very tiny
articles of this class it is often found uneconomical to employ
machines, and in certain districts large numbers of such garments are
produced by the hand crochet workers where the greatest freedom of loop
selection is possible. The operation of hand crochet is illustrated in
Figs. 6 and 7 where the hook is marked H; in Fig. 6 the hook with loop A
upon it is about to grip a portion of the new yarn B, and in Fig. 7 this
has been drawn through the old loop to add a new one to the chain. In
this way one can have on a garment effects which could only be produced
by changing to several types of machines, and when articles are small
this changing is not economically sound. There are still a considerable
number of these crochet workers in various parts of the United Kingdom
notably in rural districts of Ireland and in various districts of
Scotland and England. Many large firms have a number of such hands
attached as an outside staff and they are useful for scrutinizing
fashion publications and producing stitches with hand pins which may
with good results be adapted to machine-made goods. They have subsidiary
departments where customers are supplied with articles of distinctly
novel character and for which they are prepared to pay enhanced prices.
The freest of all mediums of ornamentation in this class is undoubtedly
the crochet, and articles are often ornamented with distinctly elegant
results by the use of the crochet hook. By this means yarn same as the
ground is employed so as to render it homogeneous and elegance of
pattern is due to the fact that the worker can select any point of the
fabric for a new move of the pattern. We may have one style being worked
at this point and an inch farther up a distinctly different pattern can
be evolved. In many rural districts the workers have attained remarkable
skill in pattern origination due to their life-long devotion to the
handicraft; from the art view-point it is hoped that they will continue
to secure such an outlet for their work as will reward their skill and
devotion. It is admitted that such products may not hold their own in
fierce competition of the open market, but "Man does not live by bread
alone," and it is hoped that public taste for such artistic productions
may be maintained and developed in contrast to the strictly utilitarian;
the aesthetic sense is one which the British as a nation sadly lack.