a considerable distance, after a violent and single shock fell in parts,
at once exchanging places; the elevated parts opposed the access of the
sea, and parts which had subsided admitted it. Another shock occurred,
and the place recovered its ancient position, except that there was an
alteration (in the surface of the ground) in some places, and none in
others. Perhaps such occurrences are connected with periodical returns
the nature of which is unknown to us. This is said to be the case with
the rise of the waters of the Nile, which exhibits a variety in its
effects, but observes (in general) a certain order, which we do not
comprehend.
27. Next to Ace is the Tower of Strato, with a station for
vessels.[615] Between these places is Mount Carmel, and cities of which
nothing but the names remain, as Sycaminopolis, Bucolopolis,
Crocodeilopolis, and others of this kind; next is a large forest.[616]
28. Then Joppa,[617] where the coast of Egypt, which at first stretches
towards the east, makes a remarkable bend towards the north. In this
place, according to some writers, Andromeda was exposed to the
sea-monster. It is sufficiently elevated; it is said to command a view
of Jerusalem, the capital of the Jews,[618] who, when they descended to
the sea, used this place as a naval arsenal. But the arsenals of robbers
are the haunts of robbers. Carmel, and the forest, belonged to the Jews.
The district was so populous that the neighbouring village Iamneia,[619]
and the settlements around, could furnish forty thousand soldiers.
Thence to Casium,[620] near Pelusium, are little more than 1000 stadia,
and 1300 to Pelusium itself.
29. In the interval is Gadaris,[621] which the Jews have appropriated to
themselves, then Azotus and Ascalon.[622] From Iamneia to Azotus and
Ascalon are about 200 stadia. The country of the Ascalonitæ produces
excellent onions; the town is small. Antiochus the philosopher, who
lived a little before our time, was a native of this place. Philodemus
the Epicurean was a native of Gadara, as also Meleagrus, Menippus the
satirist, and Theodorus the rhetorician, my contemporary.
[CAS. 759] 30. Next and near Ascalon is the harbour of the Gazæi. The
city is situated inland at the distance of seven stadia. It was once
famous, but was razed by Alexander, and remains uninhabited. There is
said to be a passage thence across, of 1260 stadia, to the city
Aila[623] (Aelana), situated on the innermost recess of the Arabian
Gulf. This recess has two branches, one, in the direction of Arabia and
Gaza, is called Ailanites, from the city upon it; the other is in the
direction of Egypt, towards Heroopolis,[624] to which from Pelusium is
the shortest road (between the two seas). Travelling is performed on
camels, through a desert and sandy country, in the course of which
snakes are found in great numbers.
31. Next to Gaza is Raphia,[625] where a battle was fought between
Ptolemy the Fourth and Antiochus the Great.[626] Then Rhinocolura,[627]
so called from the colonists, whose noses had been mutilated. Some
Ethiopian invaded Egypt, and, instead of putting the malefactors to
death, cut off their noses, and settled them at Rhinocolura, supposing
that they would not venture to return to their own country, on account
of the disgraceful condition of their faces.
32. The whole country from Gaza is barren and sandy, and still more so
is that district next to it, which contains the lake Sirbonis,[628]
lying above it in a direction almost parallel to the sea, and leaving a
narrow pass between, as far as what is called the Ecregma.[629] The
length of the pass is about 200, and the greatest breadth 50 stadia. The
Ecregma is filled up with earth. Then follows another continuous tract
of the same kind to Casium,[630] and thence to Pelusium.
33. The Casium is a sandy hill without water, and forms a promontory:
the body of Pompey the Great is buried there, and on it is a temple of
Jupiter Casius.[631] Near this place Pompey the Great was betrayed by
the Egyptians, and put to death. Next is the road to Pelusium, on which
is situated Gerrha;[632] and the rampart, as it is called, of Chabrias,
and the pits near Pelusium, formed by the overflowing of the Nile in
places naturally hollow and marshy.
Such is the nature of Phœnicia. Artemidorus says, that from Orthosia to
Pelusium is 3650 stadia, including the winding of the bays, and from
Melænæ or Melania in Cilicia to Celenderis,[633] on the confines of
Cilicia and Syria, are 1900 stadia; thence to the Orontes 520 stadia,
and from Orontes to Orthosia 1130 stadia.
34. The western extremities of Judæa towards Casius are occupied by
Idumæans, and by the lake [Sirbonis]. The Idumæans are Nabatæans. When
driven from their country[634] by sedition, they passed over to the
Jews, and adopted their customs.[635] The greater part of the country
along the coast to Jerusalem is occupied by the Lake Sirbonis, and by
the tract contiguous to it; for Jerusalem is near the sea, which, as we
have said,[636] may be seen from the arsenal of Joppa.[637] These
districts (of Jerusalem and Joppa) lie towards the north; they are
inhabited generally, and each place in particular, by mixed tribes of
Egyptians, Arabians, and Phœnicians. Of this description are the
inhabitants of Galilee, of the plain of Jericho, and of the territories
of Philadelphia and Samaria,[638] surnamed Sebaste by Herod;[639] but
although there is such a mixture of inhabitants, the report most
credited, [one] among many things believed respecting the temple [and
the inhabitants] of Jerusalem, is, that the Egyptians were the ancestors
of the present Jews.[640]
35. An Egyptian priest named Moses, who possessed a portion of the
country called the Lower [Egypt] * * * *, being dissatisfied with the
established institutions there, left it and came to Judæa with a large
body of people who worshipped the Divinity. He declared and taught that
the Egyptians and Africans entertained erroneous sentiments, [CAS. 761]
in representing the Divinity under the likeness of wild beasts and
cattle of the field; that the Greeks also were in error in making images
of their gods after the human form. For God [said he] may be this one
thing which encompasses us all, land and sea, which we call heaven, or
the universe, or the nature of things.[641] Who then of any
understanding would venture to form an image of this Deity, resembling
anything with which we are conversant? on the contrary, we ought not to
carve any images, but to set apart some sacred ground and a shrine
worthy of the Deity, and to worship Him without any similitude.[642] He
taught that those who made fortunate dreams were to be permitted to
sleep in the temple, where they might dream both for themselves and
others; that those who practised temperance and justice, and none else,
might expect good, or some gift or sign from the God, from time to time.
36. By such doctrine Moses[643] persuaded a large body of right-minded
persons to accompany him to the place where Jerusalem now stands. He
easily obtained possession of it, as the spot was not such as to excite
jealousy, nor for which there could be any fierce contention; for it is
rocky, and, although well supplied with water, it is surrounded by a
barren and waterless territory.[644] The space within [the city] is 60
stadia [in circumference], with rock underneath the surface.
Instead of arms, he taught that their defence was in their sacred things
and the Divinity, for whom he was desirous of finding a settled place,
promising to the people to deliver such a kind of worship and religion
as should not burthen those who adopted it with great expense, nor
molest them with [so-called] divine possessions, nor other absurd
practices.
Moses thus obtained their good opinion, and established no ordinary kind
of government. All the nations around willingly united themselves to
him, allured by his discourses and promises.
37. His successors continued for some time to observe the same conduct,
doing justly, and worshipping God with sincerity. Afterwards
superstitious persons were appointed to the priesthood, and then
tyrants. From superstition arose abstinence from flesh, from the eating
of which it is now the custom to refrain, circumcision, excision,[645]
and other practices which the people observe. The tyrannical government
produced robbery; for the rebels plundered both their own and the
neighbouring countries. Those also who shared in the government seized
upon the property of others, and ravaged a large part of Syria and of
Phœnicia.
Respect, however, was paid to the Acropolis; it was not abhorred as the
seat of tyranny, but honoured and venerated as a temple.
38. This is according to nature, and common both to Greeks and
barbarians. For, as members of a civil community, they live according to
a common law; otherwise it would be impossible for the mass to execute
any one thing in concert (in which consists a civil state), or to live
in a social state at all. Law is two-fold, divine and human. The ancients
regarded and respected divine, in preference to human, law; in those
times, therefore, the number of persons was very great who consulted
oracles, and, being desirous of obtaining the advice of Jupiter, hurried
to Dodona,
“to hear the answer of Jove from the lofty oak.”
The parent went to Delphi,
“anxious to learn whether the child which had been exposed (to
die) was still living;”
while the child itself
“was gone to the temple of Apollo, with the hope of
discovering its parents.”
And Minos among the Cretans,
“the king who in the ninth year enjoyed converse with Great
Jupiter,”
every nine years, as Plato says, ascended to the cave of Jupiter,
received ordinances from him, and conveyed them to men. Lycurgus, his
imitator, acted in a similar manner; for he was often accustomed, as it
seemed, to leave his own country to inquire of the Pythian goddess what
ordinances he was to promulgate to the Lacedæmonians.
[CAS. 762] 39. What truth there may be in these things I cannot say;
they have at least been regarded and believed as true by mankind. Hence
prophets received so much honour as to be thought worthy even of
thrones, because they were supposed to communicate ordinances and
precepts from the gods, both during their lifetime and after their
death; as for example Teiresias,
“to whom alone Proserpine gave wisdom and understanding after
death: the others flit about as shadows.”[646]
Such were Amphiaraus, Trophonius, Orpheus, and Musæus: in former times
there was Zamolxis, a Pythagorean, who was accounted a god among the
Getæ; and in our time, Decæneus, the diviner of Byrebistas. Among the
Bosporani, there was Achaïcarus; among the Indians, were the
Gymnosophists; among the Persians, the Magi and Necyomanteis,[647] and
besides these the Lecanomanteis[648] and Hydromanteis;[649] among the
Assyrians, were the Chaldæans; and among the Romans, the Tyrrhenian
diviners of dreams.[650]
Such was Moses and his successors; their beginning was good, but they
degenerated.
40. When Judæa openly became subject to a tyrannical government, the
first person who exchanged the title of priest for that of king was
Alexander.[651] His sons were Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. While they were
disputing the succession to the kingdom, Pompey came upon them by
surprise, deprived them of their power, and destroyed their fortresses,
first taking Jerusalem itself by storm.[652] It was a stronghold,
situated on a rock, well fortified and well supplied with water[653]
within, but externally entirely parched with drought. A ditch was cut
in the rock, 60 feet in depth, and in width 250 feet. On the wall of the
temple were built towers, constructed of the materials procured when the
ditch was excavated. The city was taken, it is said, by waiting for the
day of fast, on which the Jews were in the habit of abstaining from all
work. Pompey [availing himself of this], filled up the ditch, and threw
bridges over it. He gave orders to raze all the walls, and he destroyed,
as far as was in his power, the haunts of the robbers and the
treasure-holds of the tyrants. Two of these forts, Thrax and Taurus,
were situated in the passes leading to Jericho. Others were Alexandrium,
Hyrcanium, Machærus, Lysias, and those about Philadelphia, and
Scythopolis near Galilee.
41. Jericho is a plain encompassed by a mountainous district, which
slopes towards it somewhat in the manner of a theatre. Here is the
Phœnicon (or palm plantation), which contains various other trees of the
cultivated kind, and producing excellent fruit; but its chief production
is the palm tree. It is 100 stadia in length; the whole is watered with
streams, and filled with dwellings. Here also is a palace and the garden
of the balsamum.[654] The latter is a shrub with an aromatic smell,
resembling the cytisus[655] and the terminthus.[656] Incisions are made
in the bark, and vessels are placed beneath to receive the sap, which is
like oily milk. After it is collected in vessels, it becomes solid. It
is an excellent remedy for headache, incipient suffusion of the eyes,
and dimness of sight. It bears therefore a high price, especially as it
is produced in no other place.[657] This is the case also with the
Phœnicon, which alone contains the caryotes[658] palm, if we except the
Babylonian plain, and the country above it towards the east: a large
revenue is derived from the palms and balsamum; xylobalsamum[659] is
also used as a perfume.
[CAS. 764] 42. The Lake Sirbonis[660] is of great extent. Some say that
it is 1000 stadia in circumference. It stretches along the coast, to the
distance of a little more than 200 stadia. It is deep, and the water is
exceedingly heavy, so that no person can dive into it; if any one wades
into it up to the waist, and attempts to move forward, he is immediately
lifted out of the water.[661] It abounds with asphaltus, which rises,
not however at any regular seasons, in bubbles, like boiling water, from
the middle of the deepest part. The surface is convex, and presents the
appearance of a hillock. Together with the asphaltus, there ascends a
great quantity of sooty vapour, not perceptible to the eye, which
tarnishes copper, silver, and everything bright—even gold. The
neighbouring people know by the tarnishing of their vessels that the
asphaltus is beginning to rise, and they prepare to collect it by means
of rafts composed of reeds. The asphaltus is a clod of earth, liquefied
by heat; the air forces it to the surface, where it spreads itself. It
is again changed into so firm and solid a mass by cold water, such as
the water of the lake, that it requires cutting or chopping (for use).
It floats upon the water, which, as I have described, does not admit of
diving or immersion, but lifts up the person who goes into it. Those who
go on rafts for the asphaltus cut it in pieces, and take away as much as
they are able to carry.
43. Such are the phenomena. But Posidonius says, that the people being
addicted to magic, and practising incantations, (by these means)
consolidate the asphaltus, pouring upon it urine and other fetid fluids,
and then cut it into pieces. (Incantations cannot be the cause), but
perhaps urine may have some peculiar power (in effecting the
consolidation) in the same manner that chrysocolla[662] is formed in
the bladders of persons who labour under the disease of the stone, and
in the urine of children.
It is natural for these phenomena to take place in the middle of the
lake, because the source of the fire is in the centre, and the greater
part of the asphaltus comes from thence. The bubbling up, however, of
the asphaltus is irregular, because the motion of fire, like that of
many other vapours, has no order perceptible to observers. There are
also phenomena of this kind at Apollonia in Epirus.
44. Many other proofs are produced to show that this country is full of
fire. Near Moasada[663] are to be seen rugged rocks, bearing the marks
of fire; fissures in many places; a soil like ashes; pitch falling in
drops from the rocks; rivers boiling up, and emitting a fetid odour to a
great distance; dwellings in every direction overthrown; whence we are
inclined to believe the common tradition of the natives, that thirteen
cities[664] once existed there, the capital of which was Sodom, but that
a circuit of about 60 stadia around it escaped uninjured; shocks of
earthquakes, however, eruptions of flames and hot springs, containing
asphaltus and sulphur, caused the lake to burst its bounds, and the
rocks took fire; some of the cities were swallowed up, others were
abandoned by such of the inhabitants as were able to make their escape.
But Eratosthenes asserts, on the contrary, that the country was once a
lake, and that the greater part of it was uncovered by the water
discharging itself through a breach, as was the case in Thessaly.[665]
45. In the Gadaris, also, there is a lake of noxious water. If beasts
drink it, they lose their hair, hoofs, and horns. At the place called
Taricheæ,[666] the lake supplies the best fish for curing. [CAS. 765]
On its banks grow trees which bear a fruit like the apple. The Egyptians
use the asphaltus for embalming the bodies of the dead.
46. Pompey curtailed the territory which had been forcibly appropriated
by the Jews, and assigned to Hyrcanus the priesthood. Some time
afterwards, Herod, of the same family, and a native of the country,[667]
having surreptitiously obtained the priesthood, distinguished himself so
much above his predecessors, particularly in his intercourse, both civil
and political, with the Romans, that he received the title and authority
of king,[668] first from Antony, and afterwards from Augustus Cæsar. He
put to death some of his sons, on the pretext of their having conspired
against him;[669] other sons he left at his death, to succeed him, and
assigned to each, portions of his kingdom. Cæsar bestowed upon the sons
also of Herod marks of honour,[670] on his sister Salome,[671] and on
her daughter Berenice. The sons were unfortunate, and were publicly
accused. One[672] of them died in exile among the Galatæ Allobroges,
whose country was assigned for his abode. The others, by great interest
and solicitation, but with difficulty, obtained leave to return[673] to
their own country, each with his tetrarchy restored to him.
CHAPTER III.
1. Above Judæa and Cœle-Syria, as far as Babylonia and the river tract,
along the banks of the Euphrates towards the south, lies the whole of
Arabia, except the Scenitæ in Mesopotamia. We have already spoken of
Mesopotamia, and of the nations that inhabit it.[674]
The parts on the other (the eastern) side of the Euphrates, towards its
mouth, are occupied by Babylonians and the nation of the Chaldæans. We
have spoken of these people also.[675]
Of the rest of the country which follows after Mesopotamia, and extends
as far as Cœle-Syria, the part approaching the river, as well as [a part
of] Mesopotamia,[676] are occupied by Arabian Scenitæ, who are divided
into small sovereignties, and inhabit tracts which are barren from want
of water. They do not till the land at all, or only to a small extent,
but they keep herds of cattle of all kinds, particularly of camels.
Above these is a great desert; but the parts lying still more to the
south are occupied by the nations inhabiting Arabia Felix, as it is
called. The northern side of this tract is formed by the above-mentioned
desert, the eastern by the Persian, the western by the Arabian Gulf, and
the southern by [CAS. 766] the great sea lying outside of both the
gulfs, the whole of which is called the Erythræan Sea.[677]
2. The Persian Gulf has the name also of the Sea of Persia. Eratosthenes
speaks of it in this manner: “They say that the mouth is so narrow, that
from Harmozi,[678] the promontory of Carmania, may be seen the
promontory at Macæ, in Arabia. From the mouth, the coast on the right
hand is circular, and at first inclines a little from Carmania towards
the east, then to the north, and afterwards to the west as far as
Teredon and the mouth of the Euphrates.[679] In an extent of about
10,000 stadia, it comprises the coast of the Carmanians, Persians, and
Susians, and in part of the Babylonians. (Of these we ourselves have
before spoken.) Hence directly as far as the mouth are 10,000 stadia
more, according, it is said, to the computation of Androsthenes of
Thasos, who not only had accompanied Nearchus, but had also alone sailed
along the sea-coast of Arabia.[680] It is hence evident that this sea is
little inferior in size to the Euxine.
“He says that Androsthenes, who had navigated the gulf with a fleet,
relates, that in sailing from Teredon with the continent on the right
hand, an island Icaros[681] is met with, lying in front, which contained
a temple sacred to Apollo, and an oracle of [Diana] Tauropolus.
3. “Having coasted the shore of Arabia to the distance of 2400 stadia,
there lies, in a deep gulf, a city of the name of Gerrha,[682] belonging
to Chaldæan exiles from Babylon, who inhabit the district in which salt
is found, and who have houses constructed of salt: as scales of salt
separated by the burning heat of the sun are continually falling off,
the houses are sprinkled with water, and the walls are thus kept firm
together. The city is distant 200 stadia from the sea. The merchants of
Gerrha generally carry the Arabian merchandise and aromatics by land;
but Aristobulus says, on the contrary, that they frequently travel into
Babylonia on rafts, and thence sail up the Euphrates to Thapsacus[683]
with their cargoes, but afterwards carry them by land to all parts of
the country.
4. “On sailing further, there are other islands, Tyre[684] and
Aradus,[685] which have temples resembling those of the Phœnicians. The
inhabitants of these islands (if we are to believe them) say that the
islands and cities bearing the same name as those of the Phœnicians are
their own colonies.[686] These islands are distant from Teredon ten
days’ sail, and from the promontory at the mouth of the gulf at Macæ one
day’s sail.
5. “Nearchus and Orthagoras relate, that an island Ogyris lies to the
south, in the open sea, at the distance of 2000 stadia[687] from
Carmania. In this island is shown the sepulchre of Erythras, a large
mound, planted with wild palms. He [CAS. 767] was king of the country,
and the sea received its name from him. It is said that Mithropastes,
the son of Arsites, satrap of Phrygia, pointed out these things to them.
Mithropastes was banished by Darius, and resided in this island; he
joined himself to those who had come down to the Persian Gulf, and hoped
through their means to have an opportunity of returning to his own
country.
6. “Along the whole coast of the Red Sea, in the deep part of the water
grow trees resembling the laurel and the olive. When the tide ebbs, the
whole trees are visible above the water, and at the full tide they are
sometimes entirely covered. This is the more singular because the coast
inland has no trees.”
This is the description given by Eratosthenes of the Persian Sea, which
forms, as we have said, the eastern side of Arabia Felix.
7. Nearchus says, that they were met by Mithropastes, in company with
Mazenes, who was governor of one of the islands, called Doracta
(Oaracta?)[688] in the Persian Gulf; that Mithropastes, after his
retreat from Ogyris, took refuge there, and was hospitably received;
that he had an interview with Mazenes, for the purpose of being
recommended to the Macedonians, in the fleet of which Mazenes was the
guide.
Nearchus also mentions an island, met with at the recommencement of the
voyage along the coast of Persia, where are found pearls in large
quantities and of great value; in other islands there are transparent
and brilliant pebbles; in the islands in front of the Euphrates there
are trees which send forth the odour of frankincense, and from their
roots, when bruised, a (perfumed) juice flows out; the crabs and sea
hedgehogs are of vast size, which is common in all the exterior seas,
some being larger than Macedonian hats;[689] others of the capacity of
two cotyli; he says also that he had seen driven on shore a whale fifty
cubits in length.
CHAPTER IV.
1. Arabia commences on the side of Babylonia with Mæcene.[690] In front
of this district, on one side lies the desert of the Arabians, on the
other are the marshes[691] opposite to the Chaldæans, formed by the
overflowing of the Euphrates, and in another direction is the Sea of
Persia. This country has an unhealthy and cloudy atmosphere; it is
subject to showers, and also to scorching heat; still its products are
excellent. The vine grows in the marshes; as much earth as the plant may
require is laid upon hurdles of reeds;[692] the hurdle is frequently
carried away by the water, and is then forced back again by poles to its
proper situation.
2. I return to the opinions of Eratosthenes, which he next delivers
respecting Arabia. He is speaking of the northern and desert part, lying
between Arabia Felix, Cœle-Syria, and Judæa, to the recess of the
Arabian Gulf.
From Heroopolis, situated in that recess of the Arabian Gulf which is on
the side of the Nile, to Babylon, towards Petra of the Nabatæi, are 5600
stadia. The whole tract lies in the direction of the summer solstice
(i. e. east and west), and passes through the adjacent Arabian tribes,
namely Nabatæi, Chaulotæi, and Agræi. Above these people is Arabia
Felix, stretching out 12,000 stadia towards the south to the Atlantic
Sea.[693]
[CAS. 768] The first people, next after the Syrians and Jews, who
occupy this country are husbandmen. These people are succeeded by a
barren and sandy tract, producing a few palms, the acanthus,[694] and
tamarisk; water is obtained by digging [wells] as in Gedrosia. It is
inhabited by Arabian Scenitæ, who breed camels. The extreme parts
towards the south, and opposite to Ethiopia, are watered by summer
showers, and are sowed twice, like the land in India. Its rivers are
exhausted in watering plains, and by running into lakes. The general
fertility of the country is very great; among other products, there is
in particular an abundant supply of honey; except horses,[695] there are
numerous herds of animals, mules (asses?), and swine; birds also of
every kind, except geese and the gallinaceous tribe.
Four of the most populous nations inhabit the extremity of the
above-mentioned country; namely, the Minæi the part towards the Red Sea,
whose largest city is Carna or Carnana.[696] Next to these are the
Sabæans, whose chief city is Mariaba.[697] The third nation are the
Cattabaneis,[698] extending to the straits and the passage across the
Arabian Gulf. Their royal seat is called Tamna. The Chatramotitæ[699]
are the furthest of these nations towards the east. Their city is
Sabata.
3. All these cities are governed by one monarch, and are flourishing.
They are adorned with beautiful temples and palaces. Their houses, in
the mode of binding the timbers together, are like those in Egypt. The
four countries comprise a greater territory than the Delta of
Egypt.[700]
The son does not succeed the father in the throne, but the son who is
born in a family of the nobles first after the accession of the king. As
soon as any one is invested with the government, the pregnant wives of
the nobles are registered, and guardians are appointed to watch which of
them is first delivered of a son. The custom is to adopt and educate the
child in a princely manner as the future successor to the throne.
4. Cattabania produces frankincense, and Chatramotitis myrrh; these and
other aromatics are the medium of exchange with the merchants. Merchants
arrive in seventy days at Minæa from Ælana.[701] Ælana is a city on the
other recess of the Arabian Gulf, which is called Ælanites, opposite to
Gaza, as we have before described it.[702] The Gerrhæi arrive in
Chatramotitis in forty days.
The part of the Arabian Gulf along the side of Arabia, if we reckon from
the recess of the Ælanitic bay, is, according to the accounts of
Alexander and Anaxicrates, 14,000 stadia in extent; but this computation
is too great. The part opposite to Troglodytica, which is on the right
hand of those who are sailing from Heroopolis[703] to Ptolemaïs, to the
country where elephants are taken, extends 9000 stadia to the south, and
inclines a little towards the east. Thence to the straits are about 4500
stadia, in a direction more towards the east. The straits at Ethiopia
are formed by a promontory called Deire.[704] There is a small town upon
it of the same name. The Ichthyophagi inhabit this country. Here it is
said is a pillar of Sesostris the Egyptian, on which is inscribed, in
hieroglyphics, an account of his passage (across the Arabian Gulf). For
he appears to have subdued first Ethiopia and Troglodytica,[705] and
afterwards to have passed over into Arabia. He then overran the whole of
Asia. Hence in many places there are dykes called the dykes of
Sesostris, and temples built in honour of Egyptian deities.
The straits at Deire are contracted to the width of 60 stadia; not
indeed that these are now called the Straits, for ships proceed to a
further distance, and find a passage of about 200 [CAS. 769] stadia
between the two continents;[706] six islands contiguous to one another
leave a very narrow passage through them for vessels, by filling up the
interval between the continents. Through these goods are transported
from one continent to the other on rafts; it is this passage which is
called the Straits. After these islands, the subsequent navigation is
among bays along the Myrrh country, in the direction of south and east,
as far as the Cinnamon country, a distance of about 5000 stadia;[707]
beyond this district no one to this time, it is said, has penetrated.
There are not many cities upon the coast, but in the interior they are
numerous and well inhabited. Such is the account of Arabia given by
Eratosthenes. We must add what is related also by other writers.
5. Artemidorus[708] says, that the promontory of Arabia, opposite to
Deire, is called Acila,[709] and that the persons who live near Deire
deprive themselves of the prepuce.
In sailing from Heroopolis along Troglodytica, a city is met with called
Philotera,[710] after the sister of the second Ptolemy; it was founded
by Satyrus, who was sent to explore the hunting-ground for the
elephants, and Troglodytica itself. Next to this is another city,
Arsinoë; and next to this, springs of hot water, which are salt and
bitter; they are precipitated from a high rock, and discharge themselves
into the sea. There is in a plain near (these springs) a mountain, which
is of a red colour like minium. Next is Myus Hormus, which is also
called Aphrodites Hormus;[711] it is a large harbour with an oblique
entrance. In front are three islands; two are covered with olive trees,
and one (the third) is less shaded with trees, and abounds with
guinea-fowls.[712] Then follows Acathartus (or Foul Bay), which, like
Myus Hormus, is in the latitude of the Thebaïs. The bay is really foul,
for it is very dangerous from rocks (some of which are covered by the
sea, others rise to the surface), as also from almost constant and
furious tempests. At the bottom of the bay is situated the city
Berenice.[713]
6. After the bay is the island Ophiodes,[714] so called from the
accidental circumstance [of its having once been infested with
serpents]. It was cleared of the serpents by the king,[715] on account
of the destruction occasioned by those noxious animals to the persons
who frequented the island, and on account of the topazes found there.
The topaz is a transparent stone, sparkling with a golden lustre, which
however is not easy to be distinguished in the day-time, on account of
the brightness of the surrounding light, but at night the stones are
visible to those who collect them. The collectors place a vessel over
the spot [where the topazes are seen] as a mark, and dig them up in the
day. A body of men was appointed and maintained by the kings of Egypt to
guard the place [CAS. 770] where these stones were found, and to
superintend the collection of them.
7. Next after this island follow many tribes of Ichthyophagi and of
Nomades; then succeeds the harbour of the goddess Soteira (the
Preserver), which had its name from the circumstance of the escape and
preservation of some masters [of vessels] from great dangers by sea.
After this the coast and the gulf seem to undergo a great change: for
the voyage along the coast is no longer among rocks, and approaches
almost close to Arabia; the sea is so shallow as to be scarcely of the
depth of two orguiæ,[716] and has the appearance of a meadow, in
consequence of the sea-weeds, which abound in the passage, being visible
through and under the water. Even trees here grow from under the water,
and the sea abounds with sea-dogs.
Next are two mountains,[717] the Tauri (or the Bulls), presenting at a
distance a resemblance to these animals. Then follows another mountain,
on which is a temple of Isis, built by Sesostris; then an island planted
with olive trees, and at times overflowed. This is followed by the city
Ptolemaïs, near the hunting-grounds of the elephants,[718] founded by
Eumedes, who was sent by Philadelphus to the hunting-ground. He
enclosed, without the knowledge of the inhabitants, a kind of peninsula
with a ditch and wall, and by his courteous address gained over those
who were inclined to obstruct the work, and instead of enemies made them
his friends.
8. In the intervening space, a branch of the river Astaboras[719]
discharges itself. It has its source in a lake, and empties part of its
waters [into the bay], but the larger portion it contributes to the
Nile. Then follow six islands, called Latomiæ,[720] after these the
Sabaïtic mouth,[721] as it is called, and in the inland parts a
fortress built by Suchus.[722] Then a lake called Elæa, and the island
of Strato;[723] next Saba[724] a port, and a hunting-ground for
elephants of the same name. The country deep in the interior is called
Tenessis. It is occupied by those Egyptians who took refuge from the
government of Psammitichus.[725] They are surnamed Sembritæ,[726] as
being strangers. They are governed by a queen, to whom also Meroë, an
island in the Nile near these places, is subject. Above this, at no
great distance, is another island in the river, a settlement occupied by
the same fugitives. From Meroë to this sea is a journey of fifteen days
for an active person.
Near Meroë is the confluence of the Astaboras,[727] the Astapus,[728]
and of the Astasobas with the Nile.
9. On the banks of these rivers live the Rhizophagi (or root-eaters) and
Heleii (or marsh-men). They have their name from digging roots in the
adjacent marsh, bruising them with stones, and forming them into cakes,
which they dry in the sun for food. These countries are the haunts of
lions. The wild beasts are driven out of these places, at the time of
the rising of the dog-star, by large gnats.
Near these people live the Spermophagi (or seed-eaters), who, when seeds
of plants fail, subsist upon seeds of trees,[729] [CAS. 771] which they
prepare in the same manner as the Rhizophagi prepare their roots.
Next to Elæa are the watch-towers of Demetrius, and the altars of Conon.
In the interior Indian reeds grow in abundance. The country there is
called the country of Coracius.
Far in the interior was a place called Endera, inhabited by a naked
tribe,[730] who use bows and reed arrows, the points of which are
hardened in the fire. They generally shoot the animals from trees,
sometimes from the ground. They have numerous herds of wild cattle among
them, on the flesh of which they subsist, and on that of other wild
animals. When they have taken nothing in the chase, they dress dried
skins upon hot coals, and are satisfied with food of this kind. It is
their custom to propose trials of skill in archery for those who have
not attained manhood.
Next to the altars of Conon is the port of Melinus, and above it is a
fortress called that of Coraus and the chase of Coraus, also another
fortress and more hunting-grounds. Then follows the harbour of
Antiphilus, and above this a tribe, the Creophagi, deprived of the
prepuce, and the women are excised after the Jewish custom.[731]
10. Further still towards the south are the Cynamolgi,[732] called by
the natives Agrii, with long hair and long beards, who keep a breed of
very large dogs for hunting the Indian cattle which come into their
country from the neighbouring district, driven thither either by wild
beasts or by scarcity of pasturage. The time of their incursion is from
the summer solstice to the middle of winter.
Next to the harbour of Antiphilus is a port called the Grove of the
Colobi (or the Mutilated), the city Berenice[733] of Sabæ, and Sabæ[734]
a considerable city; then the grove of Eumenes.[735]
Above is the city Darada, and a hunting-ground for elephants, called “At
the Well.” The district is inhabited by the Elephantophagi (or
Elephant-eaters), who are occupied in hunting them. When they descry
from the trees a herd of elephants directing their course through the
forest, they do not [then] attack, but they approach by stealth and
hamstring the hindmost stragglers from the herd. Some kill them with
bows and arrows, the latter being dipped in the gall of serpents. The
shooting with the bow is performed by three men, two, advancing in
front, hold the bow, and one draws the string. Others remark the trees
against which the elephant is accustomed to rest, and, approaching on
the opposite side, cut the trunk of the tree low down. When the animal
comes and leans against it, the tree and the elephant fall down
together. The elephant is unable to rise, because its legs are formed of
one piece of bone which is inflexible; the hunters leap down from the
trees, kill it, and cut it in pieces. The Nomades call the hunters
Acatharti, or impure.
11. Above this nation is situated a small tribe the Struthophagi[736]
(or Bird-eaters), in whose country are birds of the size of deer, which
are unable to fly, but run with the swiftness of the ostrich. Some hunt
them with bows and arrows, others covered with the skins of birds. They
hide the right hand in the neck of the skin, and move it as the birds
move their necks. With the left hand they scatter grain from a bag
suspended to the side; they thus entice the birds, till they drive them
into pits, where the hunters despatch them with cudgels. The skins are
used both as clothes and as coverings for beds. The Ethiopians called
Simi are at war with these people, and use as weapons the horns of
antelopes.
12. Bordering on this people is a nation blacker in complexion than the
others,[737] shorter in stature, and very short-lived. They rarely live
beyond forty years; for the flesh [CAS. 772] of their bodies is eaten
up with worms.[738] Their food consists of locusts, which the south-west
and west winds, when they blow violently in the spring-time, drive in
bodies into the country. The inhabitants catch them by throwing into the
ravines materials which cause a great deal of smoke, and light them
gently. The locusts, as they fly across the smoke, are blinded and fall
down. They are pounded with salt, made into cakes, and eaten as food.
Above these people is situated a desert tract with extensive pastures.
It was abandoned in consequence of the multitudes of scorpions and
tarantulas, called tetragnathi (or four-jawed), which formerly abounded
to so great a degree as to occasion a complete desertion of the place
long since by its inhabitants.
13. Next to the harbour of Eumenes, as far as Deire and the straits
opposite the six islands,[739] live the Ichthyophagi, Creophagi, and
Colobi, who extend into the interior.
Many hunting-grounds for elephants, and obscure cities and islands, lie
in front of the coast.
The greater part are Nomades; husbandmen are few in number. In the
country occupied by some of these nations styrax grows in large
quantity. The Icthyophagi, on the ebbing of the tide, collect fish,
which they cast upon the rocks and dry in the sun. When they have well
broiled them, the bones are piled in heaps, and the flesh trodden with
the feet is made into cakes, which are again exposed to the sun and used
as food. In bad weather, when fish cannot be procured, the bones of
which they have made heaps are pounded, made into cakes and eaten, but
they suck the fresh bones. Some also live upon shell-fish, when they are
fattened, which is done by throwing them into holes and standing pools
of the sea, where they are supplied with small fish, and used as food
when other fish are scarce. They have various kinds of places for
preserving and feeding fish, from whence they derive their supply.
Some of the inhabitants of that part of the coast which is without water
go inland every five days, accompanied by all their families, with
songs and rejoicings, to the watering-places, where, throwing themselves
on their faces, they drink as beasts until their stomachs are distended
like a drum. They then return again to the sea-coast. They dwell in
caves or cabins, with roofs consisting of beams and rafters made of the
bones and spines of whales, and covered with branches of the olive tree.
14. The Chelonophagi (or Turtle-eaters) live under the cover of shells
(of turtles), which are large enough to be used as boats. Some make of
the sea-weed, which is thrown up in large quantities, lofty and
hill-like heaps, which are hollowed out, and underneath which they live.
They cast out the dead, which are carried away by the tide, as food for
fish.
There are three islands which follow in succession, the island of
Tortoises, the island of Seals, and the island of Hawks. Along the whole
coast there are plantations of palm trees, olive trees, and laurels, not
only within, but in a great part also without the straits.
There is also an island [called the island] of Philip, opposite to it
inland is situated the hunting-ground for elephants, called the chase of
Pythangelus; then follows Arsinoë, a city with a harbour; after these
places is Deire, and beyond them is a hunting-ground for elephants.
From Deire, the next country is that which bears aromatic plants. The
first produces myrrh, and belongs to the Icthyophagi and the Creophagi.
It bears also the persea, peach or Egyptian almond,[740] and the
Egyptian fig. Beyond is Licha, a hunting-ground for elephants. There are
also in many places standing pools of rain-water. When these are dried
up, the elephants, with their trunks and tusks, dig holes and find
water.
On this coast there are two very large lakes extending as far as the
promontory Pytholaus.[741] One of them contains salt water, and is
called a sea; the other, fresh water, and is the haunt of hippopotami
and crocodiles. On the margin grows the papyrus. The ibis is seen in the
neighbourhood of this place. The people who live near the promontory of
Pytholaus (and beginning from this place) do not [CAS. 774] undergo any
mutilation in any part of their body. Next is the country which produces
frankincense; it has a promontory and a temple with a grove of poplars.
In the inland parts is a tract along the banks of a river bearing the
name of Isis, and another that of Nilus,[742] both of which produce
myrrh and frankincense. Also a lagoon filled with water from the
mountains; next the watch-post of the Lion, and the port of Pythangelus.
The next tract bears the false cassia. There are many tracts in
succession on the sides of rivers on which frankincense grows, and
rivers extending to the cinnamon country. The river which bounds this
tract produces (phlous) rushes[743] in great abundance. Then follows
another river, and the port of Daphnus,[744] and a valley called
Apollo’s, which bears, besides frankincense, myrrh and cinnamon. The
latter is more abundant in places far in the interior.
Next is the mountain Elephas,[745] a mountain projecting into the sea,
and a creek; then follows the large harbour of Psygmus, a watering-place
called that of Cynocephali, and the last promontory of this coast,
Notu-ceras (or the Southern Horn).[746] After doubling this cape towards
the south, we have no more descriptions, he says, of harbours or
places, because nothing is known of the sea-coast beyond this
point.[747]
15. Along the coast there are both pillars and altars of Pytholaus,
Lichas, Pythangelus, Leon, and Charimortus, that is, along the known
coast from Deire as far as Notu-ceras; but the distance is not
determined. The country abounds with elephants and lions called myrmeces
(ants).[748] They have their genital organs reversed. Their skin is of a
golden colour, but they are more bare than the lions of Arabia.
It produces also leopards of great strength and courage, and the
rhinoceros. The rhinoceros is little inferior to the elephant; not,
according to Artemidorus, in length to the crest,[749] although he says
he had seen one at Alexandreia, but it is somewhat about [* * *
less][750] in height, judging at least from the one I saw. Nor is the
colour the pale yellow of box-wood, but like that of the elephant.[751]
It was of the size of a bull. Its shape approached very nearly to that
of the wild boar, and particularly the forehead; except the front, which
is furnished with a hooked horn, harder than any bone. It uses it as a
weapon, like the wild boar its tusks. It has also two hard welts, like
folds of serpents, encircling the body from the chine to the belly, one
on the withers, the other on the loins. This description is taken from
one which I myself saw. Artemidorus adds to his account of this animal,
that it is peculiarly inclined to dispute with the elephant for the
place of pasture; thrusting its forehead under the belly [of the
elephant] and ripping it up, unless prevented by the trunk and tusks of
his adversary.
16. Camel-leopards are bred in these parts, but they do not in any
respect resemble leopards, for their variegated skin is more like the
streaked and spotted skin of fallow deer. The [CAS. 775] hinder
quarters are so very much lower than the fore quarters, that it seems as
if the animal sat upon its rump, which is the height of an ox; the fore
legs are as long as those of the camel. The neck rises high and straight
up, but the head greatly exceeds in height that of the camel. From this
want of proportion, the speed of the animal is not so great, I think, as
it is described by Artemidorus, according to whom it is not to be
surpassed. It is not however a wild animal, but rather like a
domesticated beast; for it shows no signs of a savage disposition.
This country, continues Artemidorus, produces also sphinxes,[752]
cynocephali,[753] and cebi,[754] which have the face of a lion, and the
rest of the body like that of a panther; they are as large as deer.
There are wild bulls also, which are carnivorous, and greatly exceed
ours in size and swiftness. They are of a red colour. The crocuttas[755]
is, according to this author, the mixed progeny of a wolf and a dog.
What Metrodorus the Scepsian relates, in his book “on Custom,” is like
fable, and is to be disregarded.
Artemidorus mentions serpents also of thirty cubits in length, which can
master elephants and bulls: in this he does not exaggerate.[756] But the
Indian and African serpents are of a more fabulous size, and are said to
have grass growing on their backs.
17. The mode of life among the Troglodytæ is nomadic. Each tribe is
governed by tyrants. Their wives and children are common, except those
of the tyrants. The offence of corrupting the wife of a tyrant is
punished with the fine of a sheep.
The women carefully paint themselves with antimony. They wear about
their necks shells, as a protection against fascination by witchcraft.
In their quarrels, which are for pastures, they first push away each
other with their hands, they then use stones, or, if wounds are
inflicted, arrows and daggers. The women put an end to these disputes,
by going into the midst of the combatants and using prayers and
entreaties.
Their food consists of flesh and bones pounded together, wrapped up in
skins and then baked, or prepared after many other methods by the cooks,
who are called Acatharti, or impure. In this way they eat not only the
flesh, but the bones and skins also.
They use (as an ointment for the body?) a mixture of blood and milk; the
drink of the people in general is an infusion of the paliurus
(buckthorn);[757] that of the tyrants is mead; the honey being expressed
from some kind of flower.
Their winter sets in when the Etesian winds begin to blow (for they have
rain), and the remaining season is summer.
They go naked, or wear skins only, and carry clubs. They deprive
themselves of the prepuce,[758] but some are circumcised like Egyptians.
The Ethiopian Megabari have their clubs armed with iron knobs. They use
spears and shields which are covered with raw hides. The other
Ethiopians use bows and lances. Some of the Troglodytæ, when they bury
their dead, bind the body from the neck to the legs with twigs of the
buckthorn. They then immediately throw stones over the body, at the same
time laughing and rejoicing, until they have covered the face. They then
place over it a ram’s horn, and go away.
They travel by night; the male cattle have bells fastened to them, in
order to drive away wild beasts with the sound. They use torches also
and arrows in repelling them. They watch during the night, on account of
their flocks, and sing some peculiar song around their fires.
18. Having given this account of the Troglodytæ and of the neighbouring
Ethiopians, Artemidorus returns to the Arabians. Beginning from
Poseidium, he first describes those who border upon the Arabian Gulf,
and are opposite to the Troglodytæ. He says that Poseidium is situated
within the bay of [Heroopolis],[759] and that contiguous to
Poseidium[760] is a grove of palm trees,[761] well supplied with water,
which is [CAS. 776] highly valued, because all the district around is
burnt up and is without water or shade. But there the fertility of the
palm is prodigious. A man and a woman are appointed by hereditary right
to the guardianship of the grove. They wear skins, and live on dates.
They sleep in huts built on trees, the place being infested with
multitudes of wild beasts.
Next is the island of Phocæ (Seals),[762] which has its name from those
animals, which abound there. Near it is a promontory,[763] which extends
towards Petra, of the Arabians called Nabatæi, and to the country of
Palestine, to this [island] the Minæi,[764] Gerrhæi, and all the
neighbouring nations repair with loads of aromatics.
Next is another tract of sea-coast, formerly called the coast of the
Maranitæ,[765] some of whom were husbandmen, others Scenitæ; but at
present it is occupied by Garindæi, who destroyed the former possessors
by treachery. They attacked those who were assembled to celebrate some
quinquennial festival, and put them to death; they then attacked and
exterminated the rest of the tribe.[766]
Next is the Ælanitic[767] Gulf and Nabatæa, a country well peopled, and
abounding in cattle. The islands which lie near, and opposite, are
inhabited by people who formerly lived without molesting others, but
latterly carried on a piratical warfare in rafts[768] against vessels on
their way from Egypt. But they suffered reprisals, when an armament was
sent out against them, which devastated their country.
Next is a plain, well wooded and well supplied with water; it abounds
with cattle of all kinds, and, among other animals, mules, wild camels,
harts, and hinds; lions also, leopards, and wolves are frequently to be
found. In front lies an island called Dia. Then follows a bay of about
500 stadia in extent, closed in by mountains, the entrance into which is
of difficult access. About it live people who are hunters of wild
animals.
Next are three desert islands, abounding with olive trees, not like
those in our own country, but an indigenous kind, which we call Ethiopic
olives, the tears (or gum) of which have a medicinal virtue.
Then follows a stony beach, which is succeeded by a rugged coast,[769]
not easily navigated by vessels, extending about 1000 stadia. It has few
harbours and anchorages, for a rugged and lofty mountain stretches
parallel to it; then the parts at its base, extending into the sea, form
rocks under water, which, during the blowing of the Etesian winds and
the storms of that period, present dangers, when no assistance can be
afforded to vessels.
Next is a bay in which are some scattered islands,[770] and continuous
with the bay, are three very lofty mounds[771] of black sand. After
these is Charmothas[772] a harbour, about 100 stadia in circumference,
with a narrow entrance very dangerous for all kinds of vessels. A river
empties itself into it. In the middle is a well-wooded island, adapted
for cultivation.
Then follows a rugged coast, and after that are some bays and a country
belonging to Nomades, who live by their camels. They fight from their
backs; they travel upon them, and subsist on their milk and flesh. A
river flows [CAS. 777] through their country, which brings down
gold-dust, but they are ignorant how to make any use of it. They are
called Debæ;[773] some of them are Nomades, others husbandmen.
I do not mention the greater part[774] of the names of these nations, on
account of the obscurity of the people, and because the pronunciation of
them is strange[775] [and uncouth].
Near these people is a nation more civilized, who inhabit a district
with a more temperate climate; for it is well watered, and has frequent
showers.[776] Fossil gold is found there, not in the form of dust, but
in lumps, which do not require much purification. The least pieces are
of the size of a nut, the middle size of a medlar, the largest of a
walnut. These are pierced and arranged alternately with transparent
stones strung on threads and formed into collars. They are worn round
the neck and wrists. They sell the gold to their neighbours at a cheap
rate, exchanging it for three times the quantity of brass, and double
the quantity of iron,[777] through ignorance of the mode of working the
gold, and the scarcity of the commodities received in exchange, which
are more necessary for the purposes of life.
19. The country of the Sabæi,[778] a very populous nation, is
contiguous, and is the most fertile of all, producing myrrh,
frankincense, and cinnamon. On the coast is found balsamum and another
kind of herb of a very fragrant smell, but which is soon dissipated.
There are also sweet-smelling palms and the calamus. There are snakes
also of a dark red colour, a span in length, which spring up as high as
a man’s waist, and whose bite is incurable.
On account of the abundance which the soil produces, the people are lazy
and indolent in their mode of life. The lower class of people live on
roots, and sleep on the trees.
The people who live near each other receive, in continued succession,
the loads [of perfumes] and deliver them to others, who convey them as
far as Syria and Mesopotamia. When the carriers become drowsy by the
odour of the aromatics, the drowsiness is removed by the fumes of
asphaltus and of goat’s beard.
Mariaba,[779] the capital of the Sabæans, is situated upon a mountain,
well wooded. A king resides there, who determines absolutely all
disputes and other matters; but he is forbidden to leave his palace, or
if he does so, the rabble immediately assail him with stones, according
to the direction of an oracle. He himself, and those about his person,
pass their lives in effeminate voluptuousness.
The people cultivate the ground, or follow the trade of dealing in
aromatics, both the indigenous sort and those brought from Ethiopia; in
order to procure them, they sail through the straits in vessels covered
with skins. There is such an abundance of these aromatics, that
cinnamon, cassia, and other spices are used by them instead of sticks
and firewood.
In the country of the Sabæans is found the larimnum, a most fragrant
perfume.
By the trade [in these aromatics] both the Sabæans and the Gerrhæi have
become the richest of all the tribes, and possess a great quantity of
wrought articles in gold and silver, [CAS. 778] as couches, tripods,
basins, drinking-vessels, to which we must add the costly magnificence
of their houses; for the doors, walls, and roofs are variegated with
inlaid ivory, gold, silver, and precious stones.
This is the account of Artemidorus.[780] The rest of the description is
partly similar to that of Eratosthenes, and partly derived from other
historians.
20. Some of these say, that the sea is red from the colour arising from
reflection either from the sun, which is vertical, or from the
mountains, which are red by being scorched with intense heat; for the
colour, it is supposed, may be produced by both these causes. Ctesias of
Cnidus speaks of a spring which discharges into the sea a red and
ochrous water. Agatharchides, his fellow-citizen, relates, on the
authority of a person of the name of Boxus, of Persian descent, that
when a troop of horses was driven by a lioness in heat as far as the
sea, and had passed over to an island, a Persian of the name of Erythras
constructed a raft, and was the first person who crossed the sea to it;
perceiving the island to be well adapted for inhabitants, he drove the
herd back to Persia, and sent out colonists both to this and the other
islands and to the coast. He [thus] gave his own name to the sea. But
according to others, it was Erythras the son of Perseus who was the king
of this country.
According to some writers, from the straits in the Arabian Gulf to the
extremity of the cinnamon country is a distance of 5000 stadia,[781]
without distinguishing whether (the direction is) to the south or to the
east.
It is said also that the emerald and the beryl are found in the gold
mines. According to Poseidonius, an odoriferous salt is found in Arabia.
21. The Nabatæans and Sabæans, situated above Syria, are the first
people who occupy Arabia Felix. They were frequently in the habit of
overrunning this country before the Romans became masters of it, but at
present both they and the Syrians are subject to the Romans.
The capital of the Nabatæans is called Petra. It is situated on a spot
which is surrounded and fortified by a smooth and level rock (petra),
which externally is abrupt and precipitous, but within there are
abundant springs of water both for domestic purposes and for watering
gardens. Beyond the enclosure the country is for the most part a desert,
particularly towards Judæa. Through this is the shortest road to
Jericho, a journey of three or four days, and five days to the Phœnicon
(or palm plantation). It is always governed by a king of the royal race.
The king has a minister who is one of the Companions, and is called
Brother. It has excellent laws for the administration of public affairs.
Athenodorus, a philosopher, and my friend, who had been at Petra, used
to relate with surprise, that he found many Romans and also many other
strangers residing there. He observed the strangers frequently engaged
in litigation, both with one another and with the natives; but the
natives had never any dispute amongst themselves, and lived together in
perfect harmony.
22. The late expedition[782] of the Romans against the Arabians, under
the command of Ælius Gallus, has made us acquainted with many
peculiarities of the country. Augustus Cæsar despatched this general to
explore the nature of these [CAS. 779] places and their inhabitants, as
well as those of Ethiopia; for he observed that Troglodytica, which is
contiguous to Egypt, bordered upon Ethiopia; and that the Arabian Gulf
was extremely narrow, where it separates the Arabians from the
Troglodytæ. It was his intention either to conciliate or subdue the
Arabians. He was also influenced by the report, which had prevailed from
all time, that this people were very wealthy, and exchanged their
aromatics and precious stones for silver and gold, but never expended
with foreigners any part of what they received in exchange. He hoped to
acquire either opulent friends, or to overcome opulent enemies. He was
moreover encouraged to undertake this enterprise by the expectation of
assistance from the Nabatæans, who promised to co-operate with him in
everything.
23. Upon these inducements Gallus set out on the expedition. But he was
deceived by Syllæus, the [king’s] minister of the Nabatæans, who had
promised to be his guide on the march, and to assist him in the
execution of his design. Syllæus was however treacherous throughout; for
he neither guided them by a safe course by sea along the coast, nor by a
safe road for the army, as he promised, but exposed both the fleet and
the army to danger, by directing them where there was no road, or the
road was impracticable, where they were obliged to make long circuits,
or to pass through tracts of country destitute of everything; he led the
fleet along a rocky coast without harbours, or to places abounding with
rocks concealed under water, or with shallows. In places of this
description particularly, the flowing and ebbing of the tide did them
the most harm.
The first mistake consisted in building long vessels [of war] at a time
when there was no war, nor any likely to occur by sea. For the Arabians,
being mostly engaged in traffic and commerce, are not a very warlike
people even on land, much less so at sea. Gallus, notwithstanding, built
not less than eighty biremes and triremes and galleys (phaseli) at
Cleopatris,[783] near the old canal which leads from the Nile. When he
discovered his mistake, he constructed a hundred and thirty vessels of
burden, in which he embarked with about ten thousand infantry, collected
from Egypt, consisting of Romans and allies, among whom were five
hundred Jews and a thousand Nabatæans, under the command of Syllæus.
After enduring great hardships and distress, he arrived on the fifteenth
day at Leuce-Come, a large mart in the territory of the Nabatæans, with
the loss of many of his vessels, some with all their crews, in
consequence of the difficulty of the navigation, but by no opposition
from an enemy. These misfortunes were occasioned by the perfidy of
Syllæus, who insisted that there was no road for an army by land to
Leuce-Come, to which and from which place the camel-traders travel with
ease and in safety from Petra, and back to Petra, with so large a body
of men and camels as to differ in no respect from an army.
24. Another cause of the failure of the expedition was the fact of king
Obodas not paying much attention to public affairs, and especially to
those relative to war (as is the custom with all Arabian kings), but
placed everything in the power of Syllæus the minister. His whole
conduct in command of the army was perfidious, and his object was, as I
suppose, to examine as a spy the state of the country, and to destroy,
in concert with the Romans, certain cities and tribes: and when the
Romans should be consumed by famine, fatigue, and disease, and by all
the evils which he had treacherously contrived, to declare himself
master of the whole country.
Gallus however arrived at Leuce-Come, with the army labouring under
stomacacce and scelotyrbe, diseases of the country, the former affecting
the mouth, the other the legs, with a kind of paralysis, caused by the
water and the plants [which the soldiers had used in their food]. He was
therefore compelled to pass the summer and the winter there, for the
recovery of the sick.
Merchandise is conveyed from Leuce-Come to Petra, thence to Rhinocolura
in Phœnicia, near Egypt, and thence to other nations. But at present the
greater part is transported by the Nile to Alexandreia. It is brought
down from Arabia and India to Myus Hormus, it is then conveyed on camels
to Coptus[784] of the Thebaïs, situated on a canal of the Nile, and to
Alexandreia. Gallus, setting out again from Leuce-Come on his return
with his army, and through the treachery of his guide, traversed such
tracts of country, that the army was obliged to carry water with them
upon camels. After a [CAS. 781] march of many days, therefore, he came
to the territory of Aretas, who was related to Obodas. Aretas received
him in a friendly manner, and offered presents. But by the treachery of
Syllæus, Gallus was conducted by a difficult road through the country;
for he occupied thirty days in passing through it. It afforded barley, a
few palm trees, and butter instead of oil.
The next country to which he came belonged to Nomades, and was in great
part a complete desert. It was called Ararene. The king of the country
was Sabos. Gallus spent fifty days in passing through this territory,
for want of roads, and came to a city of the Negrani, and to a fertile
country peacefully disposed. The king had fled, and the city was taken
at the first onset. After a march of six days from thence, he came to
the river. Here the barbarians attacked the Romans, and lost about ten
thousand men; the Romans lost only two men. For the barbarians were
entirely inexperienced in war, and used their weapons unskilfully, which
were bows, spears, swords, and slings; but the greater part of them
wielded a double-edged axe. Immediately afterwards he took the city
called Asca, which had been abandoned by the king. He thence came to a
city Athrula, and took it without resistance; having placed a garrison
there, and collected provisions for the march, consisting of corn and
dates, he proceeded to a city Marsiaba, belonging to the nation of the
Rhammanitæ, who were subjects of Ilasarus. He assaulted and besieged it
for six days, but raised the siege in consequence of a scarcity of
water. He was two days’ march from the aromatic region, as he was
informed by his prisoners. He occupied in his marches a period of six
months, in consequence of the treachery of his guides. This he
discovered when he was returning; and although he was late in
discovering the design against him, he had time to take another road
back; for he arrived in nine days at Negrana, where the battle was
fought, and thence in eleven days he came to the “Seven Wells,” as the
place is called from the fact of their existing there. Thence he marched
through a desert country, and came to Chaalla a village, and then to
another called Malothas, situated on a river. His road then lay through
a desert country, which had only a few watering-places, as far as
Egra[785] a village. It belongs to the territory of Obodas, and is
situated upon the sea. He accomplished on his return the whole distance
in sixty days, in which, on his first journey, he had consumed six
months. From Negra he conducted his army in eleven days to Myus Hormus;
thence across the country to Coptus, and arrived at Alexandreia with so
much of his army could be saved. The remainder he lost, not by the
enemy, but by disease, fatigue, famine, and marches through bad roads;
for seven men only perished in battle. For these reasons this expedition
contributed little in extending our knowledge of the country. It was
however of some small service.
Syllæus, the author of these disasters, was punished for his treachery
at Rome. He affected friendship, but he was convicted of other offences,
besides perfidy in this instance, and was beheaded.
25. The aromatic country, as I have before said,[786] is divided into
four parts. Of aromatics, the frankincense and myrrh are said to be the
produce of trees, but cassia the growth of bushes; yet some writers say,
that the greater part (of the cassia) is brought from India, and that
the best frankincense is that from Persia.
According to another partition of the country, the whole of Arabia Felix
is divided into five kingdoms (or portions), one of which comprises the
fighting men, who fight for all the rest; another contains the
husbandmen, by whom the rest are supplied with food; another includes
those who work at mechanical trades. One division comprises the myrrh
region; another the frankincense region, although the same tracts
produce cassia, cinnamon, and nard. Trades are not changed from one
family to another, but each workman continues to exercise that of his
father.
The greater part of their wine is made from the palm.
A man’s brothers are held in more respect than his children. The
descendants of the royal family succeed as kings, and are invested with
other governments, according to primogeniture. Property is common among
all the relations. The eldest is the chief. There is one wife among them
all. He who enters [CAS. 783] the house before any of the rest, has
intercourse with her, having placed his staff at the door; for it is a
necessary custom, which every one is compelled to observe, to carry a
staff. The woman however passes the night with the eldest. Hence the
male children are all brothers. They have sexual intercourse also with
their mothers. Adultery is punished with death, but an adulterer must
belong to another family.
A daughter of one of the kings was of extraordinary beauty, and had
fifteen brothers, who were all in love with her, and were her unceasing
and successive visitors; she, being at last weary of their importunity,
is said to have employed the following device. She procured staves to be
made similar to those of her brothers; when one left the house, she
placed before the door a staff similar to the first, and a little time
afterwards another, and so on in succession, but making her calculation
so that the person who intended to visit her might not have one similar
to that at her door. On an occasion when the brothers were all of them
together at the market-place, one left it, and came to the door of the
house; seeing the staff there, and conjecturing some one to be in her
apartment, and having left all the other brothers at the market-place,
he suspected the person to be an adulterer; running therefore in haste
to his father, he brought him with him to the house, but it was proved
that he had falsely accused his sister.
26. The Nabatæans are prudent, and fond of accumulating property. The
community fine a person who has diminished his substance, and confer
honours on him who has increased it. They have few slaves, and are
served for the most part by their relations, or by one another, or each
person is his own servant; and this custom extends even to their kings.
They eat their meals in companies consisting of thirteen persons. Each
party is attended by two musicians. But the king gives many
entertainments in great buildings. No one drinks more than eleven
[appointed] cupfuls, from separate cups, each of gold.
The king courts popular favour so much, that he is not only his own
servant, but sometimes he himself ministers to others. He frequently
renders an account [of his administration] before the people, and
sometimes an inquiry is made into his mode of life.
The houses are sumptuous, and of stone. The cities are without walls, on
account of the peace [which prevails among them]. A great part of the
country is fertile, and produces everything except oil of olives;
[instead of it], the oil of sesamum is used. The sheep have white
fleeces, their oxen are large; but the country produces no horses.[787]
Camels are the substitute for horses, and perform the [same kind of]
labour. They wear no tunics, but have a girdle about the loins, and walk
abroad in sandals.[788] The dress of the kings is the same, but the
colour is purple.
Some merchandise is altogether imported into the country, others are not
altogether imports, especially as some articles are native products, as
gold and silver, and many of the aromatics; but brass and iron, purple
garments, styrax, saffron, and costus (or white cinnamon), pieces of
sculpture, paintings, statues, are not to be procured in the country.
They look upon the bodies of the dead as no better than dung, according
to the words of Heracleitus, “dead bodies more fit to be cast out than
dung;” wherefore they bury even their kings beside dung-heaps. They
worship the sun, and construct the altar on the top of a house, pouring
out libations and burning frankincense upon it every day.
27. When the poet says,
“I went to the country of the Ethiopians, Sidonians, and Erembi,”[789]
it is doubtful, what people he means by Sidonians, whether those who
lived near the Persian Gulf, a colony from which nation are the
Sidonians in our quarter (in the same manner as historians relate, that
some Tyrian islanders are found there, and Aradii, from whom the Aradii
in our country derive their origin), or whether the poet means actually
the Sidonians themselves.
But there is more doubt about the Erembi, whether we are to suppose that
he means the Troglodytæ, according to the opinion of those who, by a
forced etymology, derive the word Erembi from ἔραν ἐμβαίνειν, that is,
“entering into the earth,” or whether he means the Arabians. Zeno the
philosopher of our sect alters the reading in this manner,
“And Sidoni, and Arabes;”
[CAS. 784] but Poseidonius alters it with a small variation,
“And Sidonii, and Arambi,”
as if the poet gave the name Arambi to the present Arabians, from their
being so called by others in his time. He says also, that the situation
of these three nations close to one another indicates a descent from
some common stock, and that on this account they are called by names
having a resemblance to one another, as Armenii, Aramæi, Arambi. For as
we may suppose one nation to have been divided into three (according to
the differences of latitude [in which they lived], which successively
became more marked [in proceeding from one to the other]), so in like
manner we may suppose that several names were adopted in place of one.
The proposed change of reading to Eremni is not probable, for that name
is more applicable to the Ethiopians. The poet mentions also the Arimi,
whom Poseidonius says are meant here, and not a place in Syria or
Cilicia, or any other country, but Syria itself. For the Aramæi lived
there. Perhaps these are the people whom the Greeks called Arimæi or
Arimi. But the alterations of names, especially of barbarous nations,
are frequent, Thus Darius was called Darieces; Parysatis, Pharziris;
Athara, Atargata, whom Ctesias again calls Derceto.[790]
Alexander might be adduced to bear witness to the wealth of the
Arabians, for he intended, it is said, after his return from India, to
make Arabia the seat of empire. All his enterprises terminated with his
death, which happened suddenly; but certainly one of his projects was to
try whether the Arabians would receive him voluntarily, or resist him by
force of arms; for having found that they did not send ambassadors to
him, either before or after his expedition to India, he was beginning to
make preparations for war, as we have said in a former part of this
work.
BOOK XVII.
SUMMARY.
The Seventeenth Book contains the whole of Egypt and Africa.
CHAPTER I.
When we were describing Arabia, we included in the description the gulfs
which compress and make it a peninsula, namely the Gulfs of Arabia and
of Persis. We described at the same time some parts of Egypt, and those
of Ethiopia, inhabited by the Troglodytæ, and by the people situated
next to them, extending to the confines of the Cinnamon country.[791]
We are now to describe the remaining parts contiguous to these nations,
and situated about the Nile. We shall then give an account of Africa,
which remains to complete this treatise on Geography.
And here we must previously adduce the opinions of Eratosthenes.
2. He says, that the Nile is distant from the Arabian Gulf towards the
west 1000 stadia, and that it resembles (in its course) the letter N
reversed. For after flowing, he says, about 2700 stadia from Meroë
towards the north, it turns again to the south, and to the winter
sunset, continuing its course for about 3700 stadia, when it is almost
in the latitude of the places about Meroë. Then entering far into
Africa, and having made another bend, it flows towards the north, a
distance of 5300 stadia, to the great cataract;[792] and inclining a
little to the east, traverses a distance of 1200 stadia to the smaller
cataract at Syene,[793] and 5300 stadia more to the sea.[794]
[CAS. 786] Two rivers empty themselves into it, which issue out of
some lakes towards the east, and encircle Meroë, a considerable
island.[795] One of these rivers is called Astaboras,[796] flowing along
the eastern side of the island. The other is the Astapus, or, as some
call it, Astasobas. But the Astapus[797] is said to be another river,
which issues out of some lakes on the south, and that this river forms
nearly the body of the (stream of the) Nile which flows in a straight
line, and that it is filled by the summer rains; that above the
confluence of the Astaboras and the Nile, at the distance of 700 stadia,
is Meroë, a city having the same name as the island; and that there is
another island above Meroë, occupied by the fugitive Egyptians, who
revolted in the time of Psammitichus,[798] and are called Sembritæ, or
foreigners. Their sovereign is a queen, but they obey the king of Meroë.
The lower parts of the country on each side Meroë, along the Nile
towards the Red Sea, are occupied by Megabari and Blemmyes, who are
subject to the Ethiopians, and border upon the Egyptians; about the sea
are Troglodytæ. The Troglodytæ, in the latitude of Meroë, are distant
ten or twelve days’ journey from the Nile. On the left of the course of
the Nile live Nubæ in Libya, a populous nation. They begin [CAS. 787]
from Meroë, and extend as far as the bends (of the river). They are not
subject to the Ethiopians, but live independently, being distributed
into several sovereignties.
The extent of Egypt along the sea, from the Pelusiac to the Canobic
mouth, is 1300 stadia.
Such is the account of Eratosthenes.
3. We must, however, enter into a further detail of particulars. And
first, we must speak of the parts about Egypt, proceeding from those
that are better known to those which follow next in order.
The Nile produces some common effects in this and the contiguous tract
of country, namely, that of the Ethiopians above it, in watering them at
the time of its rise, and leaving those parts only habitable which have
been covered by the inundation; it intersects the higher lands, and all
the tract elevated above its current on both sides, which however are
uninhabited and a desert, from an absolute want of water. But the Nile
does not traverse the whole of Ethiopia, nor alone, nor in a straight
line, nor a country which is well inhabited. But Egypt it traverses both
alone and entirely, and in a straight line, from the lesser cataract
above Syene and Elephantina, (which are the boundaries of Egypt and
Ethiopia,) to the mouths by which it discharges itself into the sea. The
Ethiopians at present lead for the most part a wandering life, and are
destitute of the means of subsistence, on account of the barrenness of
the soil, the disadvantages of climate, and their great distance from
us.
Now the contrary is the case with the Egyptians in all these respects.
For they have lived from the first under a regular form of government,
they were a people of civilized manners, and were settled in a
well-known country; their institutions have been recorded and mentioned
in terms of praise, for they seemed to have availed themselves of the
fertility of their country in the best possible manner by the partition
of it (and by the classification of persons) which they adopted, and by
their general care.
When they had appointed a king, they divided the people into three
classes, into soldiers, husbandmen, and priests. The latter had the care
of everything relating to sacred things (of the gods), the others of
what related to man; some had the management of warlike affairs, others
attended to the concerns of peace, the cultivation of the ground, and
the practice of the arts, from which the king derived his revenue.
The priests devoted themselves to the study of philosophy and astronomy,
and were companions of the kings.
The country was at first divided into nomes.[799] The Thebaïs contained
ten, the Delta ten, and the intermediate tract sixteen. But according to
some writers, all the nomes together amounted to the number of chambers
in the Labyrinth. Now these were less than thirty [six]. The nomes were
again divided into other sections. The greater number of the nomes were
distributed into toparchies, and these again into other sections; the
smallest portions were the arouræ.
An exact and minute division of the country was required by the frequent
confusion of boundaries occasioned at the time of the rise of the Nile,
which takes away, adds, and alters the various shapes of the bounds, and
obliterates other marks by which the property of one person is
distinguished [CAS. 787] from that of another. It was consequently
necessary to measure the land repeatedly. Hence it is said geometry
originated here, as the art of keeping accounts and arithmetic
originated with the Phœnicians, in consequence of their commerce.[800]
As the whole population of the country, so the separate population in
each nome, was divided into three classes; the territory also was
divided into three equal portions.
The attention and care bestowed upon the Nile is so great to cause
industry to triumph over nature. The ground by nature, and still more by
being supplied with water, produces a great abundance of fruits. By
nature also a greater rise of the river irrigates a larger tract of
land; but industry has completely succeeded in rectifying the deficiency
of nature, so that in seasons when the rise of the river has been less
than usual, as large a portion of the country is irrigated by means of
canals and embankments, as in seasons when the rise of the river has
been greater.
Before the times of Petronius there was the greatest plenty, and the
rise of the river was the greatest when it rose to the height of
fourteen cubits; but when it rose to eight only, a famine ensued. During
the government of Petronius, however, when the Nile rose twelve cubits
only, there was a most abundant crop; and once when it mounted to eight
only, no famine followed. Such then is the nature of this provision for
the physical state of the country. We shall now proceed to the next
particulars.
4. The Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia, flows in a
straight line towards the north, to the tract called the Delta, then
“cloven at the head,” (according to the expression of Plato,) makes this
point the vertex, as it were, of a triangle, the sides of which are
formed by the streams, which separate on each side, and extend to the
sea, one on the right hand to Pelusium, the other on the left to Canobus
and the neighbouring Heracleium, as it is called; the base is the coast
lying between Pelusium and the Heracleium.
An island was therefore formed by the sea and by both streams of the
river, which is called Delta from the resemblance of its shape to the
letter (Δ) of that name. The spot at the vertex of the triangle has the
same appellation, because it is the beginning of the above-mentioned
triangular figure. The village, also, situated upon it is called Delta.
These then are two mouths of the Nile, one of which is called the
Pelusiac, the other the Canobic and Heracleiotic mouth. Between these
are five other outlets, some of which are considerable, but the greater
part are of inferior importance. For many others branch off from the
principal streams, and are distributed over the whole of the island of
the Delta, and form many streams and islands; so that the whole Delta is
accessible to boats, one canal succeeding another, and navigated with so
much ease, that some persons make use of rafts[801] floated on earthen
pots, to transport them from place to place.
The whole island is about 3000 stadia in circumference, and is called,
as also the lower country, with the land on the opposite sides of the
streams, the Delta.
But at the time of the rising of the Nile, the whole country is covered,
and resembles a sea, except the inhabited spots, which are situated upon
natural hills or mounds; and considerable cities and villages appear
like islands in the distant prospect.
The water, after having continued on the ground more than forty days in
summer, then subsides by degrees, in the same manner as it rose. In
sixty days the plain is entirely exposed to view, and dries up. The
sooner the land is dry, so much the sooner the ploughing and sowing are
accomplished, and it dries earlier in those parts where the heat is
greater.
The country above the Delta is irrigated in the same manner, except that
the river flows in a straight line to the distance of about 4000 stadia
in one channel, unless where some island intervenes, the most
considerable of which comprises the Heracleiotic Nome; or, where it is
diverted by a canal into a large lake, or a tract of country which it is
capable of irrigating, as the lake Mœris and the Arsinoïte Nome, or
where the canals discharge themselves into the Mareotis.
[CAS. 789] In short, Egypt, from the mountains of Ethiopia to the vertex
of the Delta, is merely a river tract on each side of the Nile, and
rarely if anywhere comprehends in one continued line a habitable
territory of 300 stadia in breadth. It resembles, except the frequent
diversions of its course, a bandage rolled out.[802]
The mountains on each side (of the Nile), which descend from the parts
about Syene to the Egyptian Sea,[803] give this shape to the river tract
of which I am speaking, and to the country. For in proportion as these
mountains extend along that tract, or recede from each other, in the
same degree is the river contracted or expanded, and they impart to the
habitable country its variety of shape. But the country beyond the
mountains is in a great measure uninhabited.
5. The ancients understood more by conjecture than otherwise, but
persons in later times learnt by experience as eye-witnesses, that the
Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which fall in great abundance in
Upper Ethiopia, particularly in the most distant mountains. On the rains
ceasing, the fulness of the river gradually subsides. This was
particularly observed by those who navigated the Arabian Gulf on their
way to the Cinnamon country, and by those who were sent out to hunt
elephants, or for such other purposes as induced the Ptolemies, kings of
Egypt, to despatch persons in that direction. These sovereigns had
directed their attention to objects of this kind, particularly Ptolemy
surnamed Philadelphus, who was a lover of science, and on account of
bodily infirmities always in search of some new diversion and amusement.
But the ancient kings paid little attention to such inquiries, although
both they and the priests, with whom they passed the greater part of
their lives, professed to be devoted to the study of philosophy. Their
ignorance therefore is more surprising, both on this account and because
Sesostris had traversed the whole of Ethiopia as far as the Cinnamon
country, of which expedition monuments exist even to the present day,
such as pillars and inscriptions. Cambyses also, when he was in
possession of Egypt, had advanced with the Egyptians as far even as
Meroë; and it is said that he gave this name both to the island and to
the city, because his sister, or according to some writers his wife,
Meroë died there. For this reason therefore he conferred the appellation
on the island, and in honour of a woman. It is surprising how, with such
opportunities of obtaining information, the history of these rains
should not have been clearly known to persons living in those times,
especially as the priests registered with the greatest diligence in the
sacred books all extraordinary facts, and preserved records of
everything which seemed to contribute to an increase of knowledge. And,
if this had been the case, would it be necessary to inquire what is even
still a question, what can possibly be the reason why rain falls in
summer, and not in winter, in the most southerly parts of the country,
but not in the Thebaïs, nor in the country about Syene? nor should we
have to examine whether the rise of the water of the Nile is occasioned
by rains, nor require such evidence for these facts as Poseidonius
adduces. For he says, that Callisthenes asserts that the cause of the
rise of the river is the rain of summer. This he borrows from Aristotle,
who borrowed it from Thrasyalces the Thasian (one of the ancient writers
on physics), Thrasyalces from some other person, and he from Homer, who
calls the Nile “heaven-descended:”
“back to Egypt’s heaven-descended stream.”[804]
But I quit this subject, since it has been discussed by many writers,
among whom it will be sufficient to specify two, who have (each)
composed in our times a treatise on the Nile, Eudorus and Aristo the
Peripatetic philosopher. [They differ little from each other] except in
the order and disposition of the works, for the phraseology and
execution is the same in both writers. (I can speak with some confidence
in this matter), for when at a loss (for manuscripts) for the purpose of
comparison and copy, I collated both authors.[805] But which of them
surreptitiously substituted the other’s account as his own, we may
[CAS. 790] go to the temple of Ammon to be informed. Eudorus accused
Aristo, but the style is more like that of Aristo.
The ancients gave the name of Egypt to that country only which was
inhabited and watered by the Nile, and the extent they assigned to it
was from the neighbourhood of Syene to the sea. But later writers, to
the present time, have included on the eastern side almost all the tract
between the Arabian Gulf and the Nile (the Æthiopians however do not
make much use of the Red Sea); on the western side, the tract extending
to the Auases and the parts of the sea-coast from the Canobic mouth of
the Nile to Catabathmus, and the kingdom of Cyrenæa. For the kings who
succeeded the race of the Ptolemies had acquired so much power, that
they became masters of Cyrenæa, and even joined Cyprus to Egypt. The
Romans, who succeeded to their dominions, separated Egypt, and confined
it within the old limits.
The Egyptians give the name of Auases (Oases) to certain inhabited
tracts, which are surrounded by extensive deserts, and appear like
islands in the sea. They are frequently met with in Libya, and there are
three contiguous to Egypt, and dependent upon it.
This is the account which we have to give of Egypt in general and
summarily. I shall now describe the separate parts of the country and
their advantages.
6. As Alexandreia and its neighbourhood occupy the greatest and
principal portion of the description, I shall begin with it.
In sailing towards the west, the sea-coast from Pelusium to the Canobic
mouth of the Nile is about 1300 stadia in extent, and constitutes, as we
have said, the base of the Delta. Thence to the island Pharos are 150
stadia more.
Pharos is a small oblong island, and lies quite close to the continent,
forming towards it a harbour with a double entrance. For the coast
abounds with bays, and has two promontories projecting into the sea. The
island is situated between these, and shuts in the bay, lying lengthways
in front of it.
Of the extremities of the Pharos, the eastern is nearest to the
continent and to the promontory in that direction, called Lochias, which
is the cause of the entrance to the port being narrow. Besides the
narrowness of the passage, there are rocks, some under water, others
rising above it, which at all times increase the violence of the waves
rolling in upon them from the open sea. This extremity itself of the
island is a rock, washed by the sea on all sides, with a tower upon it
of the same name as the island, admirably constructed of white marble,
with several stories. Sostratus of Cnidus, a friend of the kings,
erected it for the safety of mariners, as the inscription imports.[806]
For as the coast on each side is low and without harbours, with reefs
and shallows, an elevated and conspicuous mark was required to enable
navigators coming in from the open sea to direct their course exactly to
the entrance of the harbour.
The western mouth does not afford an easy entrance, but it does not
require the same degree of caution as the other. It forms also another
port, which has the name of Eunostus, or Happy Return: it lies in front
of the artificial and close harbour. That which has its entrance at the
above-mentioned tower of Pharos is the great harbour. These (two) lie
contiguous in the recess called Heptastadium, and are separated from it
by a mound. This mound forms a bridge from the continent to the island,
and extends along its western side, leaving two passages only through it
to the harbour of Eunostus, which are bridged over. But this work served
not only as a bridge, but as an aqueduct also, when the island was
inhabited. Divus Cæsar devastated the island, in his war against the
people of Alexandreia, when they espoused the party of the kings. A few
sailors live near the tower.
The great harbour, in addition to its being well enclosed by the mound
and by nature, is of sufficient depth near the shore to allow the
largest vessel to anchor near the stairs. It is also divided into
several ports.
The former kings of Egypt, satisfied with what they possessed, and not
desirous of foreign commerce, entertained a dislike to all mariners,
especially the Greeks (who, on account of the poverty of their own
country, ravaged and coveted the property of other nations), and
stationed a guard here, who had orders to keep off all persons who
approached. To the guard was assigned as a place of residence the spot
called Rhacotis, which is now a part of the city of Alexandreia,
situated above the arsenal. At that time, however, it was a village. The
country about the village was given up to herdsmen, [CAS. 792] who were
also able (from their numbers) to prevent strangers from entering the
country.
When Alexander arrived, and perceived the advantages of the situation,
he determined to build the city on the (natural) harbour. The prosperity
of the place, which ensued, was intimated, it is said, by a presage
which occurred while the plan of the city was tracing. The architects
were engaged in marking out the line of the wall with chalk, and had
consumed it all, when the king arrived; upon which the dispensers of
flour supplied the workmen with a part of the flour, which was provided
for their own use; and this substance was used in tracing the greater
part of the divisions of the streets. This, they said, was a good omen
for the city.
7. The advantages of the city are of various kinds. The site is washed
by two seas; on the north, by what is called the Egyptian Sea, and on
the south, by the sea of the lake Mareia, which is also called Mareotis.
This lake is filled by many canals from the Nile, both by those above
and those at the sides, through which a greater quantity of merchandise
is imported than by those communicating with the sea. Hence the harbour
on the lake is richer than the maritime harbour. The exports by sea from
Alexandreia exceed the imports. This any person may ascertain, either at
Alexandreia or Dicæarchia, by watching the arrival and departure of the
merchant vessels, and observing how much heavier or lighter their
cargoes are when they depart or when they return.
In addition to the wealth derived from merchandise landed at the
harbours on each side, on the sea and on the lake, its fine air is
worthy of remark: this results from the city being on two sides
surrounded by water, and from the favourable effects of the rise of the
Nile. For other cities, situated near lakes, have, during the heats of
summer, a heavy and suffocating atmosphere, and lakes at their margins
become swampy by the evaporation occasioned by the sun’s heat. When a
large quantity of moisture is exhaled from swamps, a noxious vapour
rises, and is the cause of pestilential disorders. But at Alexandreia,
at the beginning of summer, the Nile, being full, fills the lake also,
and leaves no marshy matter which is likely to occasion malignant
exhalations. At the same period, the Etesian winds blow from the north,
over a large expanse of sea, and the Alexandrines in consequence pass
their summer very pleasantly.
8. The shape of the site of the city is that of a chlamys or military
cloak. The sides, which determine the length, are surrounded by water,
and are about thirty stadia in extent; but the isthmuses, which
determine the breadth of the sides, are each of seven or eight stadia,
bounded on one side by the sea, and on the other by the lake. The whole
city is intersected by roads for the passage of horsemen and chariots.
Two of these are very broad, exceeding a plethrum in breadth, and cut
one another at right angles. It contains also very beautiful public
grounds and royal palaces, which occupy a fourth or even a third part of
its whole extent. For as each of the kings was desirous of adding some
embellishment to the places dedicated to the public use, so, besides the
buildings already existing, each of them erected a building at his own
expense; hence the expression of the poet may be here applied,
“one after the other springs.”[807]
All the buildings are connected with one another and with the harbour,
and those also which are beyond it.
The Museum is a part of the palaces. It has a public walk and a place
furnished with seats, and a large hall, in which the men of learning,
who belong to the Museum, take their common meal. This community
possesses also property in common; and a priest, formerly appointed by
the kings, but at present by Cæsar, presides over the Museum.
A part belonging to the palaces consists of that called Sema, an
enclosure, which contained the tombs of the kings and that of Alexander
(the Great). For Ptolemy the son of Lagus took away the body of
Alexander from Perdiccas, as he was conveying it down from Babylon; for
Perdiccas had turned out of his road towards Egypt, incited by ambition
and a desire of making himself master of the country. When Ptolemy had
attacked [and made him prisoner], he intended to [spare his life and]
confine him in a desert island, but he met with a miserable end at the
hand of his own soldiers, who rushed upon and despatched him by
transfixing him with the long Macedonian spears. The kings who were with
him, Aridæus, and the children of Alexander, and Roxana his wife,
departed to Macedonia. Ptolemy carried away the body [CAS. 794] of
Alexander, and deposited it at Alexandreia in the place where it now
lies; not indeed in the same coffin, for the present one is of hyalus
(alabaster?) whereas Ptolemy had deposited it in one of gold: it was
plundered by Ptolemy surnamed Cocce’s son and Pareisactus, who came from
Syria and was quickly deposed, so that his plunder was of no service to
him.
9. In the great harbour at the entrance, on the right hand, are the
island and the Pharos tower; on the left are the reef of rocks and the
promontory Lochias, with a palace upon it: at the entrance, on the left
hand, are the inner palaces, which are continuous with those on the
Lochias, and contain numerous painted apartments and groves. Below lies
the artificial and close harbour, appropriated to the use of the kings;
and Antirrhodus a small island, facing the artificial harbour, with a
palace on it, and a small port. It was called Antirrhodus, a rival as it
were of Rhodes.
Above this is the theatre, then the Poseidium, a kind of elbow
projecting from the Emporium, as it is called, with a temple of Neptune
upon it. To this Antony added a mound, projecting still further into the
middle of the harbour, and built at the extremity a royal mansion, which
he called Timonium. This was his last act, when, deserted by his
partisans, he retired to Alexandreia after his defeat at Actium, and
intended, being forsaken by so many friends, to lead the [solitary] life
of Timon for the rest of his days.
Next are the Cæsarium, the Emporium, and the Apostaseis, or magazines:
these are followed by docks, extending to the Heptastadium. This is the
description of the great harbour.
10. Next after the Heptastadium is the harbour of Eunostus, and above
this the artificial harbour, called Cibotus (or the Ark), which also has
docks. At the bottom of this harbour is a navigable canal, extending to
the lake Mareotis. Beyond the canal there still remains a small part of
the city. Then follows the suburb Necropolis, in which are numerous
gardens, burial-places, and buildings for carrying on the process of
embalming the dead.
On this side the canal is the Sarapium and other ancient sacred places,
which are now abandoned on account of the erection of the temples at
Nicopolis; for [there are situated] an amphitheatre and a stadium, and
there are celebrated quinquennial games; but the ancient and customs
are neglected.
In short, the city of Alexandreia abounds with public and sacred
buildings. The most beautiful of the former is the Gymnasium, with
porticos exceeding a stadium in extent. In the middle of it are the
court of justice and groves. Here also is a Paneium, an artificial mound
of the shape of a fircone, resembling a pile of rock, to the top of
which there is an ascent by a spiral path. From the summit may be seen
the whole city lying all around and beneath it.
The wide street extends in length along the Gymnasium from the
Necropolis to the Canobic gate. Next is the Hippodromos (or
race-course), as it is called, and other buildings[808] near it, and
reaching to the Canobic canal. After passing through the Hippodromos is
the Nicopolis, which contains buildings fronting the sea not less
numerous than a city. It is 30 stadia distant from Alexandreia. Augustus
Cæsar distinguished this place, because it was here that he defeated
Antony and his party of adherents. He took the city at the first onset,
and compelled Antony to put himself to death, but Cleopatra to surrender
herself alive. A short time afterwards, however, she also put an end to
her life secretly, in prison, by the bite of an asp, or (for there are
two accounts) by the application of a poisonous ointment. Thus the
empire of the Lagidæ, which had subsisted many years, was dissolved.
11. Alexander was succeeded by Ptolemy the son of Lagus, the son of
Lagus by Philadelphus, Philadelphus by Euergetes; next succeeded
Philopator the lover[809] of Agathocleia, then Epiphanes, afterwards
Philometor, the son (thus far) always succeeding the father. But
Philometor was succeeded by his brother, the second Euergetes, who was
also called Physcon. He was succeeded by Ptolemy surnamed Lathurus,
Lathurus by Auletes of our time, who was the father of Cleopatra. All
these kings, after the third Ptolemy, were corrupted by luxury and
effeminacy, and the affairs of government were very badly administered
by them; but worst of all by the fourth, the seventh, and the last
(Ptolemy), Auletes (or the Piper), [CAS. 796] who, besides other deeds
of shamelessness, acted the piper; indeed he gloried so much in the
practice, that he scrupled not to appoint trials of skill in his palace;
on which occasions he presented himself as a competitor with other
rivals. He was deposed by the Alexandrines; and of his three daughters,
one, the eldest, who was legitimate, they proclaimed queen; but his two
sons, who were infants, were absolutely excluded from the succession.
As a husband for the daughter established on the throne, the
Alexandrines invited one Cybiosactes from Syria, who pretended to be
descended from the Syrian kings. The queen after a few days, unable to
endure his coarseness and vulgarity, rid herself of him by causing him
to be strangled. She afterwards married Archelaus, who also pretended to
be the son of Mithridates Eupator, but he was really the son of that
Archelaus[810] who carried on war against Sylla, and was afterwards
honourably treated by the Romans. He was grandfather of the last king of
Cappadocia in our time, and priest of Comana in Pontus.[811] He was then
(at the time we are speaking of) the guest of Gabinius, and intended to
accompany him in an expedition against the Parthians,[812] but unknown
to Gabinius, he was conducted away by some (friends) to the queen, and
declared king.
At this time Pompey the Great entertained Auletes as his guest on his
arrival at Rome, and recommended him to the senate, negotiated his
return, and contrived the execution of most of the deputies, in number a
hundred, who had undertaken to appear against him: at their head was
Dion the academic philosopher.
Ptolemy (Auletes) on being restored by Gabinius, put to death both
Archelaus and his daughter;[813] but not long after[814] he was
reinstated in his kingdom, he died a natural death, leaving two sons and
two daughters, the eldest of whom was Cleopatra.
The Alexandrines declared as sovereigns the eldest son and Cleopatra.
But the adherents of the son excited a sedition, and banished
Cleopatra, who retired with her sister into Syria.[815]
It was about this time that Pompey the Great, in his flight from
Palæpharsalus,[816] came to Pelusium and Mount Casium. He was
treacherously slain by the king’s party. When Cæsar arrived, he put the
young prince to death, and sending for Cleopatra from her place of
exile, appointed her queen of Egypt, declaring also her surviving
brother, who was very young, and herself joint sovereigns.
After the death of Cæsar and the battle at Pharsalia, Antony passed over
into Asia; he raised Cleopatra to the highest dignity, made her his
wife, and had children by her. He was present with her at the battle of
Actium, and accompanied her in her flight. Augustus Cæsar pursued them,
put an end to their power, and rescued Egypt from misgovernment and
revelry.
12. At present Egypt is a (Roman) province, pays considerable tribute,
and is well governed by prudent persons, who are sent there in
succession. The governor thus sent out has the rank of king. Subordinate
to him is the administrator of justice, who is the supreme judge in many
causes. There is another officer, who is called Idiologus, whose
business it is to inquire into property for which there is no claimant,
and which of right falls to Cæsar. These are accompanied by Cæsar’s
freedmen and stewards, who are intrusted with affairs of more or less
importance.
Three legions are stationed in Egypt, one in the city, the rest in the
country. Besides these there are also nine Roman cohorts, three
quartered in the city, three on the borders of Ethiopia in Syene, as a
guard to that tract, and three in other parts of the country. There are
also three bodies of cavalry distributed in convenient posts.
Of the native magistrates in the cities, the first is the expounder of
the law, who is dressed in scarlet; he receives the customary honours of
the country, and has the care of providing what is necessary for the
city. The second is the writer of records, the third is the chief judge.
The fourth is the commander of the night guard. These magistrates
existed in the time of the kings, but in consequence of the bad
administration of affairs by the latter, the prosperity of the city was
ruined by [CAS. 797] licentiousness. Polybius expresses his indignation
at the state of things when he was there: he describes the inhabitants
of the city to be composed of three classes; the (first) Egyptians and
natives, acute but indifferent citizens, and meddling with civil
affairs. The second, the mercenaries, a numerous and undisciplined body;
for it was an ancient custom to maintain foreign soldiers, who, from the
worthlessness of their sovereigns, knew better how to govern than to
obey. The third were the Alexandrines, who, for the same reason, were
not orderly citizens;[817] but still they were better than the
mercenaries, for although they were a mixed race, yet being of Greek
origin, they retained the customs common to the Greeks. But this class
was extinct nearly about the time of Euergetes Physcon, in whose reign
Polybius came to Alexandreia. For Physcon, being distressed by factions,
frequently exposed the multitude to the attacks of the soldiery, and
thus destroyed them. By such a state of things in the city the words of
the poet (says Polybius) were verified:
“The way to Egypt is long and vexatious.”[818]
13. Such then, if not worse, was the condition of the city under the
last kings. The Romans, as far as they were able, corrected, as I have
said, many abuses, and established an orderly government, by appointing
vice-governors, nomarchs, and ethnarchs, whose business it was to
superintend affairs of minor importance.
The greatest advantage which the city possesses arises from its being
the only place in all Egypt well situated by nature for communication
with the sea by its excellent harbour, and with the land by the river,
by means of which everything is easily transported and collected
together into this city, which is the greatest mart in the habitable
world.
These may be said to be the superior excellencies of the city. Cicero,
in one of his orations,[819] in speaking of the revenues of Egypt,
states that an annual tribute of 12,500 talents was paid to (Ptolemy)
Auletes, the father of Cleopatra. If then a king, who administered his
government in the worst possible manner, and with the greatest
negligence, obtained so large a revenue, what must we suppose it to be
at present, when affairs are administered with great care, and when the
commerce with India and with Troglodytica has been so greatly increased?
For formerly not even twenty vessels ventured to navigate the Arabian
Gulf, or advance to the smallest distance beyond the straits at its
mouth; but now large fleets are despatched as far as India and the
extremities of Ethiopia, from which places the most valuable freights
are brought to Egypt, and are thence exported to other parts, so that a
double amount of custom is collected, arising from imports on the one
hand, and from exports on the other. The most expensive description of
goods is charged with the heaviest impost; for in fact Alexandreia has a
monopoly of trade, and is almost the only receptacle for this kind of
merchandise and place of supply for foreigners. The natural convenience
of the situation is still more apparent to persons travelling through
the country, and particularly along the coast which commences at the
Catabathmus; for to this place Egypt extends.
Next to it is Cyrenæa, and the neighbouring barbarians, the Marmaridæ.
14. From the Catabathmus[820] to Parætonium is a run of 900 stadia for a
vessel in a direct course. There is a city and a large harbour of about
40 stadia in extent, by some called the city Parætonium,[821] by others,
Ammonia. Between these is the village of the Egyptians, and the
promontory Ænesisphyra, and the Tyndareian rocks, four small islands,
with a harbour; then Drepanum a promontory, and Ænesippeia an island
with a harbour, and Apis a village, from which to Parætonium are 100
stadia; [from thence] to the temple of Ammon is a journey of five days.
From Parætonium to Alexandreia are about 1300 stadia. Between these are,
first, a promontory of white earth, called Leuce-Acte, then Phœnicus a
harbour, and Pnigeus a village; after these the island Sidonia
(Pedonia?) with a harbour; then a little further off from the sea,
Antiphræ. The whole of this country produces no wine of a good quality,
and the earthen jars contain more sea-water than wine, which is called
Libyan;[822] this and beer are the [CAS. 799] principal beverage of the
common people of Alexandria. Antiphræ in particular was a subject of
ridicule (on account of its bad wine).
Next is the harbour Derrhis,[823] which has its name from an adjacent
black rock, resembling δέῤῥις, a hide. The neighbouring place is called
Zephyrium. Then follows another harbour, Leucaspis (the white shield),
and many others; then the Cynossema (or dog’s monument); then
Taposeiris, not that situated upon the sea; here is held a great public
festival. There is another Taposeiris,[824] situated at a considerable
distance beyond the city (Alexandreia). Near this, and close to the sea,
is a rocky spot, which is the resort of great numbers of people at all
seasons of the year, for the purpose of feasting and amusement. Next is
Plinthine,[825] and the village of Nicium, and Cherronesus a fortress,
distant from Alexandreia and the Necropolis about 70 stadia.
The lake Mareia, which extends as far as this place, is more than 150
stadia in breadth, and in length less than 300 stadia. It contains eight
islands. The whole country about it is well inhabited. Good wine also is
produced here, and in such quantity that the Mareotic wine is racked in
order that it may be kept to be old.[826]
15. The byblus[827] and the Egyptian bean grow in the marshes and lakes;
from the latter the ciborium is made.[828] The stalks of the bean are
nearly of equal height, and grow to the length of ten feet. The byblus
is a bare stem, with a tuft on the top. But the bean puts out leaves and
flowers in many parts, and bears a fruit similar to our bean, differing
only in size and taste. The bean-grounds present an agreeable sight, and
afford amusement to those who are disposed to recreate themselves with
convivial feasts. These entertainments take place in boats with cabins;
they enter the thickest part of the plantation, where they are
overshadowed with the leaves, which are very large, and serve for
drinking-cups and dishes, having a hollow which fits them for the
purpose. They are found in great abundance in the shops in Alexandreia,
where they are used as vessels. One of the sources of land revenue is
the sale of these leaves. Such then is the nature of this bean.
The byblus does not grow here in great abundance, for it is not
cultivated. But it abounds in the lower parts of the Delta. There is one
sort inferior to the other.[829] The best is the hieratica. Some persons
intending to augment the revenue, employed in this case a method which
the Jews practised with the palm, especially the caryotic, and with the
balsamum.[830] In many places it is not allowed to be cultivated, and
the price is enhanced by its rarity: the revenue is indeed thus
increased, but the general consumption [of the article] is injured.
16. On passing through the Canobic gate of the city, on the right hand
is the canal leading to Canobus, close to the lake. They sail by this
canal to Schedia, to the great river, and to Canobus, but the first
place at which they arrive is Eleusis. This is a settlement near
Alexandreia and Nicopolis, and situated on the Canobic canal. It has
houses of entertainment which command beautiful views, and hither [CAS.
800] resort men and women who are inclined to indulge in noisy revelry,
a prelude to Canobic life, and the dissolute manners of the people of
Canobus.
At a little distance from Eleusis, on the right hand, is the canal
leading towards Schedia. Schedia is distant four schœni from
Alexandreia. It is a suburb of the city, and has a station for the
vessels with cabins, which convey the governors when they visit the
upper parts of the country. Here is collected the duty on merchandise,
as it is transported up or down the river. For this purpose a bridge of
boats is laid across the river, and from this kind of bridge the place
has the name of Schedia.
Next after the canal leading to Schedia, the navigation thence to
Canobus is parallel to the sea-coast, extending from Pharos to the
Canobic mouth. For between the sea and the canal, is a narrow band of
ground, on which is situated the smaller Taposeiris, which lies next
after Nicopolis, and Zephyrium a promontory, on which is a small temple
dedicated to Venus Arsinoë.
Anciently, it is said, a city called Thonis stood there, which bears the
name of the king, who entertained as his guests Menelaus and Helen. The
poet thus speaks of the drugs which were given to Helen,
“the potent drugs, which Polydamna, the wife of Thon, gave
to Helen.”
17. Canobus is a city, distant by land from Alexandreia 120 stadia. It
has its name from Canobus, the pilot of Menelaus, who died there. It
contains the temple of Sarapis, held in great veneration, and celebrated
for the cure of diseases; persons even of the highest rank confide in
them, and sleep there themselves on their own account, or others for
them. Some persons record the cures, and others the veracity of the
oracles which are delivered there. But remarkable above everything else
is the multitude of persons who resort to the public festivals, and come
from Alexandreia by the canal. For day and night there are crowds of men
and women in boats, singing and dancing, without restraint, and with the
utmost licentiousness. Others, at Canobus itself, keep hostelries
situated on the banks of the canal, which are well adapted for such kind
of diversion and revelry.
18. Next to Canobus is Heracleium, in which is a temple of Hercules;
then follows the Canobic mouth,[832] and the commencement of the Delta.
On the right of the Canobic canal is the Menelaïte Nome, so called from
the brother of the first Ptolemy, but certainly not from the hero
(Menelaus), as some writers assert, among whom is Artemidorus.
Next to the Canobic mouth is the Bolbitine, then the Sebennytic, and the
Phatnitic, which is the third in magnitude compared with the first two,
which form the boundaries of the Delta. For it branches off into the
interior, not far from the vertex of the Delta. The Mendesian is very
near the Phatnitic mouth; next is the Tanitic, and lastly the Pelusiac
mouth. There are others, which are of little consequence, between these,
since they are as it were false mouths.
The mouths have entrances which are not capable of admitting large
vessels, but lighters only, on account of the shallows and marshes. The
Canobic mart is principally used as a mart for merchandise, the harbours
at Alexandreia being closed, as I have said before.
After the Bolbitine mouth there runs out to a great distance a low and
sandy promontory. It is called Agnu-ceras (or Willow Point). Then
follows the watch-tower of Perseus,[833] and the fortress of the
Milesians. For in the time of Psammitichus, and when Cyaxares was king
of the Medes, some Milesians with 30 vessels steered into the Bolbitine
mouth, disembarked there, and built the above-mentioned fortress. Some
time afterwards they sailed up to the Saïtic Nome, and having conquered
Inarus in an engagement at sea, founded the city Naucratis, not far
above Schedia.
Next after the fortress of the Milesians, in proceeding towards the
Sebennytic mouth, are lakes, one of which is called Butice, from the
city Butus; then the city Sebennytice and Sais, the capital of the lower
country; here Minerva is worshipped. In the temple there of this
goddess, is the tomb of Psammitichus. Near Butus is Hermopolis, situated
in an island, and at Butus is an oracle of Latona.
[CAS. 802] 19. In the interior above the Sebennytic and Phatnitic mouths
is Xoïs, both an island and a city in the Sebennytic Nome. There are
also Hermopolis, Lycopolis, and Mendes, where Pan[834] is worshipped,
and of animals a goat. Here, according to Pindar, goats have intercourse
with women.
Near Mendes are Diospolis, and the lakes about it, and Leontopolis; then
further on, the city Busiris,[835] in the Busirite Nome, and Cynospolis.
Eratosthenes says, “That to repel strangers is a practice common to all
barbarians, but that this charge against the Egyptians is derived from
fabulous stories related of (one) Busiris and his people in the Busirite
Nome, as some persons in later times were disposed to charge the
inhabitants of this place with inhospitality, although in truth there
was neither king nor tyrant of the name of Busiris: that besides there
was a common saying,
‘The way to Egypt is long and vexatious,’[836]
which originated in the want of harbours, and in the state of the
harbour at Pharos, which was not of free access, but watched and guarded
by herdsmen, who were robbers, and attacked those who attempted to sail
into it. The Carthaginians drown [he says] any strangers who sail past,
on their voyage to Sardinia or to the Pillars. Hence much of what is
related of the parts towards the west is discredited. The Persians also
were treacherous guides, and conducted the ambassadors along circuitous
and difficult ways.”
20. Contiguous to the Busirite Nome are the Athribite Nome and the city
Athribis; next the Prosopite Nome, in which latter is Aphroditopolis
(the city of Venus). Above the Mendesian and the Tanitic mouths are a
large lake, and the Mendesian and Leontopolite Nomes, and a city of
Aphrodite (or Venus) and the Pharbetite Nome. Then follows the Tanitic,
which some call the Saïtic mouth, and the Tanite Nome,[837] and in it
Tanis a large city.
21. Between the Tanitic and the Pelusiac mouths are lakes and large and
continuous marshes, among which are numerous villages. Pelusium itself
has many marshes lying around it, which some call Barathra (or water
holes), and swamps. It is situated at a distance of more than 20 stadia
from the sea. The circumference of the wall is 20 stadia. It has its
name from the mud (πηλοῦ) of the swamps.[838] On this quarter Egypt is
difficult of access, i. e. from the eastern side towards Phœnicia and
Judæa, and on the side of Arabia Nabatæa, which is contiguous; through
which countries the road to Egypt lies.
The country between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf is Arabia, and at its
extremity is situated Pelusium. But the whole is desert, and not
passable by an army. The isthmus between Pelusium and the recess of the
Arabian Gulf near Heroopolis is 1000 stadia; but, according to
Poseidonius, less than 1500 stadia in extent. Besides its being sandy
and without water, it abounds with reptiles, which burrow in the sand.
22. In sailing up the river from Schedia to Memphis,[839] on the right
hand, are a great many villages extending as far as the lake Mareia,
among which is that called the village of Chabrias. Upon the river is
Hermopolis, then Gynæcopolis, and the Gynæcopolite Nome; next Momemphis
and the Momemphite Nome. Between these places are many canals, which
empty themselves into the lake Mareotis. The Momemphitæ worship Venus,
and a sacred cow is kept there, as Apis is maintained at Memphis, and
Mneyis[840] at Heliopolis. [CAS. 803] These animals are regarded as
gods, but there are other places, and these are numerous, both in the
Delta and beyond it, in which a bull or a cow is maintained, which are
not regarded as gods, but only as sacred.
23. Above Momemphis are two nitre mines, which furnish nitre in large
quantities, and the Nitriote Nome. Here Sarapis is worshipped, and they
are the only people in Egypt who sacrifice a sheep. In this nome and
near this place is a city called Menelaus. On the left hand in the
Delta, upon the river, is Naucratis. At the distance of two schœni from
the river is Saïs,[841] and a little above it the asylum of Osiris, in
which it is said Osiris is buried. This, however, is questioned by many
persons, and particularly by the inhabitants of Philæ, which is situated
above Syene and Elephantina. These people tell this tale, that Isis
placed coffins of Osiris in various places, but that one only contained
the body of Osiris, so that no one knew which of them it was; and that
she did this with the intention of concealing it from Typhon,[842] who
might come and cast the body out of its place of deposit.
24. This is the description of the country from Alexandreia to the
vertex of the Delta.
Artemidorus says, that the navigation up the river is 28 schœni, which
amount to 840 stadia, reckoning the schœnus at 30 stadia. When we
ourselves sailed up the river, schœni of different measures were used at
different places in giving the distances, so that sometimes the received
schœnus was a measure of 40 stadia and even more. That the measure of
the schœnus was unsettled among the Egyptians, Artemidorus himself shows
in a subsequent place. In reckoning the distance from Memphis to
Thebaïs, he says that each schœnus consists of 120 stadia, and from the
Thebaïs to Syene of 60 stadia. In sailing up from Pelusium to the same
vertex of the Delta, is a distance, he says, of 25 schœni, or 750
stadia, and he employs the same measure.
On setting out from Pelusium, the first canal met with is that which
fills the lakes, “near the marshes,” as they are called. There are two
of these lakes, situated upon the left hand of the great stream above
Pelusium in Arabia. He mentions other lakes also, and canals in the same
parts beyond the Delta.
The Sethroïte Nome extends along one of the two lakes. He reckons this
as one of the ten nomes in the Delta. There are two other canals, which
discharge themselves into the same lakes.
25. There is another canal also, which empties itself into the Red Sea,
or Arabian Gulf, near the city Arsinoë, which some call Cleopatris.[843]
It flows through the Bitter Lakes, as [CAS. 804] they are called, which
were bitter formerly, but when the above-mentioned canal was cut, the
bitter quality was altered by their junction with the river, and at
present they contain excellent fish, and abound with aquatic birds.
The canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan times, but
according to other writers, by the son of[844] Psammitichus, who only
began the work, and afterwards died; lastly, Darius the First succeeded
to the completion of the undertaking, but he desisted from continuing
the work, when it was nearly finished, influenced by an erroneous
opinion that the level of the Red Sea was higher than Egypt, and that if
the whole of the intervening isthmus were cut through, the country would
be overflowed by the sea. The Ptolemaïc kings however did cut through
it, and placed locks upon the canal,[845] so that they sailed, when they
pleased, without obstruction into the outer sea, and back again [into
the canal].
We have spoken of the surfaces of bodies of water in the first part of
this work.[846]
26. Near Arsinoë are situated in the recess of the Arabian Gulf towards
Egypt, Heroopolis and Cleopatris; harbours, suburbs, many canals, and
lakes are also near. There also is the Phagroriopolite Nome, and the
city Phagroriopolis. The canal, which empties itself into the Red Sea,
begins at the village Phaccusa, to which the village of Philon is
contiguous. The canal is 100 cubits broad, and its depth sufficient to
float a vessel of large burden. These places are near the apex of the
Delta.
27. There also are the city Bubastus[847] and the Bubastite Nome, and
above it the Heliopolite Nome. There too is Heliopolis, situated upon a
large mound. It contains a temple of the sun, and the ox Mneyis, which
is kept in a sanctuary, and is regarded by the inhabitants as a god, as
Apis is regarded by the people of Memphis. In front of the mound are
lakes, into which the neighbouring canal discharges itself. At present
the city is entirely deserted. It has an ancient temple constructed
after the Egyptian manner, bearing many proofs of the madness and
sacrilegious acts of Cambyses, who did very great injury to the temples,
partly by fire, partly by violence, mutilating [in some] cases, and
applying fire [in others]. In this manner he injured the obelisks, two
of which, that were not entirely spoilt, were transported to Rome.[848]
There are others both here and at Thebes, the present Diospolis, some of
which are standing, much corroded by fire, and others lying on the
ground.
28. The plan of the temples is as follows.
At the entrance into the temenus is a paved floor, in breadth about a
plethrum, or even less; its length is three or four times as great, and
in some instances even more. This part is called Dromos, and is
mentioned by Callimachus,
“this is the Dromos, sacred to Anubis.”
Throughout the whole length on each side are placed stone sphinxes, at
the distance of 20 cubits or a little more from each other, so that
there is one row of sphinxes on the right hand, and another on the left.
Next after the sphinxes is a large propylon, then on proceeding further,
another propylon, and then another. Neither the number of the propyla
nor of the sphinxes is determined by any rule. They are different in
different temples, as well as the length and breadth of the Dromi.
[CAS. 805] Next to the propyla is the naos, which has a large and
considerable pronaos; the sanctuary in proportion; there is no statue,
at least not in human shape, but a representation of some of the brute
animals. On each side of the pronaos project what are called the wings.
These are two walls of equal height with the naos. At first the distance
between them is a little more than the breadth of the foundation of the
naos.[849] As you proceed onwards, the [base] lines incline towards one
another till they approach within 50 or 60 cubits. These walls have
large sculptured figures, very much like the Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) and
very ancient works among the Greeks.
There is also a building with a great number of pillars, as at Memphis,
in the barbaric style; for, except the magnitude and number and rows of
pillars, there is nothing pleasing nor easily described,[850] but rather
a display of labour wasted.
29. At Heliopolis we saw large buildings in which the priests lived. For
it is said that anciently this was the principal residence of the
priests, who studied philosophy and astronomy. But there are no longer
either such a body of persons or such pursuits. No one was pointed out
to us on the spot, as presiding over these studies, but only persons who
performed sacred rites, and who explained to strangers [the
peculiarities of] the temples.
A person of the name of Chæremon accompanied the governor, Ælius Gallus,
in his journey from Alexandreia into Egypt, and pretended to some
knowledge of this kind, but he was generally ridiculed for his boasting
and ignorance. The houses of the priests, and the residences of Plato
and of Eudoxus, were shown to us. Eudoxus came here with Plato, and,
according to some writers, lived thirteen years in the society of the
priests. For the latter were distinguished for their knowledge of the
heavenly bodies, but were mysterious and uncommunicative, yet after a
time were prevailed upon by courtesy to acquaint them with some of the
principles of their science, but the barbarians concealed the greater
part of them. They had, however, communicated the knowledge of the
additional portions of the day and night, in the space of 365 days,
necessary to complete the annual period; and, at that time, the length
of the year was unknown to the Greeks, as were many other things, until
later astronomers received them from the persons who translated the
records of the priests into the Greek language, and even now derive
knowledge from their writings and from those of the Chaldeans.[851]
30. After Heliopolis is the “Nile above the Delta.” The country on the
right hand, as you go up the Nile, is called Libya, as well as that near
Alexandreia and the lake Mareotis; the country on the left hand is
called Arabia. The territory belonging to Heliopolis is in Arabia, but
the city Cercesura is in Libya, and situated opposite to the observatory
of Eudoxus. For there is shown an observing station in front of
Heliopolis, as there is in front of Cnidus, where Eudoxus marked certain
motions of the heavenly bodies. This is the Letopolite Nome.
In sailing up the river we meet with Babylon, a strong fortress, built
by some Babylonians who had taken refuge there, and had obtained
permission from the kings to establish a settlement in that place. At
present it is an encampment for one of the three legions which garrison
Egypt. There is a mountainous ridge, which extends from the encampment
as far as the Nile. At this ridge are wheels and screws, by which water
is raised from the river, and one hundred and fifty prisoners are [thus]
employed.
The pyramids on the other side [of the river] at Memphis may be clearly
discerned from this place, for they are not far off.
31. Memphis itself also, the residence of the kings of Egypt, is near,
being only three schœni distant from the Delta. It contains temples,
among which is that of Apis, who is the same as Osiris. Here the ox Apis
is kept in a sort of sanctuary, and is held, as I have said, to be a
god. The forehead and some other small parts of its body are white; the
other parts are black. By these marks the fitness of the successor
[CAS. 807] is always determined, when the animal to which they pay these
honours dies. In front of the sanctuary is a court, in which there is
another sanctuary for the dam of Apis. Into this court the Apis is let
loose at times, particularly for the purpose of exhibiting him to
strangers. He is seen through a door in the sanctuary, and he is
permitted to be seen also out of it. After he has frisked about a little
in the court, he is taken back to his own stall.
The temple of Apis is near the Hephæsteium (or temple of Vulcan); the
Hephæsteium[852] itself is very sumptuously constructed, both as regards
the size of the naos and in other respects. In front of the Dromos is a
colossal figure consisting of a single stone. It is usual to celebrate
bull-fights in this Dromos; the bulls are bred expressly for this
purpose, like horses. They are let loose, and fight with one another,
the conqueror receiving a prize.
At Memphis also there is a temple of Venus, who is accounted a Grecian
deity. But some say that it is a temple dedicated to Selene, or the
moon.[853]
32. There is also a temple of Sarapis, situated in a very sandy spot,
where the sand is accumulated in masses by the wind. Some of the
sphinxes which we saw were buried in this sand up to the head, and one
half only of others was visible. Hence we may conceive the danger,
should any one, in his way to the temple, be surprised by a [sand]
storm.
The city is large and populous; it ranks next to Alexandreia, and, like
that place, is inhabited by mixed races of people. There are lakes in
front of the city and of the palaces, which at present are in ruins and
deserted. They are situated upon an eminence, and extend as far as the
lower part of the city.
Close to this place are a grove and a lake.
33. At the distance of 40 stadia from Memphis is a brow of a hill, on
which are many pyramids, the tombs of the kings.[854] Three of them are
considerable. Two of these are reckoned among the seven wonders [of the
world]. They are a stadium in height, and of a quadrangular shape. Their
height somewhat exceeds the length of each of the sides.[855] One
pyramid is a little larger than the other. At a moderate height in one
of the sides[856] is a stone, which may be taken out; when that is
removed, there is an oblique passage [leading] to the tomb. They are
near each other, and upon the same level. Farther on, at a greater
height of the mountain, is the third pyramid, which is much less than
the two others, but constructed at much greater expense; for from the
foundation [CAS. 808] nearly as far as the middle, it is built of black
stone. Mortars are made of this stone, which is brought from a great
distance; for it comes from the mountains of Ethiopia, and being hard
and difficult to be worked, the labour is attended with great expense.
It is said to be the tomb of a courtesan, built by her lovers, and whose
name, according to Sappho the poetess, was Doriche. She was the mistress
of her brother Charaxus, who traded to the port of Naucratis with wine
of Lesbos. Others call her Rhodopis.[857]
A story is told of her, that, when she was bathing, an eagle snatched
one of her sandals from the hands of her female attendant and carried it
to Memphis; the eagle soaring over the head of the king, who was
administering justice at the time, let the sandal fall into his lap. The
king, struck with the shape of the sandal, and the singularity of the
accident, [CAS. 808] sent over the country to discover the woman to
whom it belonged. She was found in the city of Naucratis, and brought to
the king, who made her his wife. At her death she was honoured with the
above-mentioned tomb.
34. One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids must not be
omitted. Heaps of stones from the quarries lie in front of the pyramids.
Among these are found pieces which in shape and size resemble
lentils.[858] Some contain substances like grains half peeled. These, it
is said, are the remnants of the workmen’s food converted into stone;
which is not probable.[859] For at home in our country (Amasia), there
is a long hill in a plain, which abounds with pebbles of a porus
stone,[860] resembling lentils. The pebbles of the sea-shore and of
rivers suggest somewhat of the same difficulty [respecting their
origin]; some explanation may indeed be found in the motion [to which
these are subject] in flowing waters, but the investigation of the above
fact presents more difficulty. I have said elsewhere,[861] that in sight
of the pyramids, on the other side in Arabia, and near the stone
quarries from which they are built, is a very rocky mountain, called the
Trojan mountain; beneath it there are caves, and near the caves and the
river a village called Troy, an ancient settlement of the captive
Trojans who had accompanied Menelaus and settled there.[862]
35. Next to Memphis is the city Acanthus, situated also in Libya, and
the temple of Osiris, and the grove of the Thebaïc acantha, from which
gum is procured. Next is the Aphroditopolite Nome, and the city in
Arabia of the same name, where is kept a white cow, considered sacred.
Then follows the Heracleote Nome, in a large island, near which is the
canal on the right hand, which leads into Libya, in the direction of the
Arsinoïte Nome; so that the canal has two entrances, a part of the
island on one side being interposed between them.[863] This nome is the
most considerable of all in appearance, natural properties, and
embellishment. It is the only nome planted with large, full-grown olive
trees, which bear fine fruit. If the produce were carefully collected,
good oil might be obtained; but this care is neglected, and although a
large quantity of oil is obtained, yet it has a disagreeable smell. (The
rest of Egypt is without the olive tree, except the gardens near
Alexandreia, which are planted with olive trees, but do not furnish any
oil.) It produces wine in abundance, corn, pulse, and a great variety of
other grains. It has also the remarkable lake Mœris, which in extent is
a sea, and the colour of its waters resembles that of the sea. Its
borders also are like the sea-shore, so that we may make the same
suppositions respecting these as about the country near Ammon. For they
are not very far distant from one another and from Parætonium; and we
may conjecture from a multitude of proofs, that as the temple of Ammon
was once situated upon the sea, so this tract of country also bordered
on the sea at some former period. But Lower Egypt and the country as far
as the Lake Sirbonis were sea, and confluent perhaps [CAS. 809] with
the Red Sea at Heroopolis, and the Ælanitic recess of the gulf.
36. We have treated these subjects at length in the First Book of the
Geography. At present we shall make a few remarks on the operations of
nature and of Providence conjointly.—On the operations of nature, that
all things converge to a point, namely, the centre of the whole, and
assume a spherical shape around it. The earth is the densest body, and
nearer the centre than all others: the less dense and next to it is
water; but both land and water are spheres, the first solid, the second
hollow, containing the earth within it.—On the operations of Providence,
that it has exercised a will, is disposed to variety, and is the
artificer of innumerable works. In the first rank, as greatly surpassing
all the rest, is the generation of animals, of which the most excellent
are gods and men, for whose sake the rest were formed. To the gods
Providence assigned heaven; and the earth to men, the extreme parts of
the world; for the extreme parts of the sphere are the centre and the
circumference. But since water encompasses the earth, and man is not an
aquatic, but a land-animal, living in the air, and requiring much light,
Providence formed many eminences and cavities in the earth, so that
these cavities should receive the whole or a great part of the water
which covers the land beneath it; and that the eminences should rise and
conceal the water beneath them, except so much as was necessary for the
use of the human race, the animals and plants about it.
But as all things are in constant motion, and undergo great changes,
(for it is not possible that things of such a nature, so numerous and
vast, could be otherwise regulated in the world,) we must not suppose
the earth or the water always to continue in this state, so as to retain
perpetually the same bulk, without increase or diminution, or that each
preserves the same fixed place, particularly as the reciprocal change of
one into the other is most consonant to nature from their proximity; but
that much of the land is changed into water, and a great portion of
water becomes land, just as we observe great differences in the earth
itself. For one kind of earth crumbles easily, another is solid and
rocky, and contains iron; and so of others. There is also a variety in
the quality of water; for some waters are saline, others sweet and
potable, others medicinal, and either salutary or noxious, others cold
or hot. Is it therefore surprising that some parts of the earth which
are now inhabited should formerly have been occupied by sea, and that
what are now seas should formerly have been inhabited land? so also
fountains once existing have failed, and others have burst forth; and
similarly in the case of rivers and lakes: again, mountains and plains
have been converted reciprocally one into the other. On this subject I
have spoken before at length,[864] and now let this be said:
37. The lake Mœris, by its magnitude and depth, is able to sustain the
super-abundance of water which flows into it at the time of the rise of
the river, without overflowing the inhabited and cultivated parts of the
country. On the decrease of the water of the river, it distributes the
excess by the same canal at each of the mouths; and both the lake and
the canal preserve a remainder, which is used for irrigation. These are
the natural and independent properties of the lake, but in addition, on
both mouths of the canal are placed locks, by which the engineers store
up and distribute the water which enters or issues from the canal.
We have here also the Labyrinth, a work equal to the Pyramids, and
adjoining to it the tomb of the king who constructed the Labyrinth.[865]
After proceeding beyond the first entrance of the canal about 30 or 40
stadia, there is a table-shaped plain, with a village and a large palace
composed of as many palaces as there were formerly nomes. There are an
equal number of aulæ, surrounded by pillars, and contiguous to one
another, all in one line and forming one building, like a long wall
having the aulæ in front of it. The entrances into the aulæ are opposite
to the wall. In front of the entrances there are long and numerous
covered ways, with winding passages communicating with each other, so
that no stranger could find his way into the aulæ or out of them without
a guide. The (most) surprising circumstance is that the roofs of these
dwellings consist of a single stone each, and that the covered ways
through their whole range were roofed in the same manner with single
slabs of stone of extraordinary size, without the intermixture of timber
or of any other material. On ascending the roof,—which is not of great
height, for it [CAS. 811] consists only of a single story,—there may be
seen a stone-field, thus composed of stones. Descending again and
looking[866] into the aulæ, these may be seen in a line supported by
twenty-seven pillars, each consisting of a single stone. The walls also
are constructed of stones not inferior in size to these.
At the end of this building, which occupies more than a stadium, is the
tomb, which is a quadrangular pyramid, each side of which is about four
plethra in length, and of equal height. The name of the person buried
there is Imandes.[867] They built, it is said, this number of aulæ,
because it was the custom for all the nomes to assemble there together
according to their rank, with their own priests and priestesses, for the
purpose of performing sacrifices and making offerings to the gods, and
of administering justice in matters of great importance. Each of the
nomes was conducted to the aula appointed for it.
38. Sailing along to the distance of 100 stadia, we come to the city
Arsinoë, formerly called Crocodilopolis; for the inhabitants of this
nome worship the crocodile. The animal is accounted sacred, and kept
apart by himself in a lake; it is tame, and gentle to the priests, and
is called Suchus. It is fed with bread, flesh, and wine, which strangers
who come to see it always present. Our host, a distinguished person, who
was our guide in examining what was curious, accompanied us to the lake,
and brought from the supper table a small cake, dressed meat, and a
small vessel containing a mixture of honey and milk. We found the animal
lying on the edge of the lake. The priests went up to it; some of them
opened its mouth, another put the cake into it, then the meat, and
afterwards poured down the honey and milk. The animal then leaped into
the lake, and crossed to the other side. When another stranger arrived
with his offering, the priests took it, and running round the lake,
caught the crocodile, and gave him what was brought, in the same manner
as before.
39. Next after the Arsinoïte and Heracleotic Nomes, is the city of
Hercules, in which the ichneumon is worshipped, in opposition to the
Arsinoïtes, who worship crocodiles; hence the canal and the lake Mœris
is full of these animals; for they venerate them, and are careful to do
them no harm: but the Heracleotæ worship the ichneumon, which is most
destructive both to crocodiles and asps. The ichneumons destroy not only
the eggs of the latter, but the animals themselves. The ichneumons are
protected by a covering of mud, in which they roll, and then dry
themselves in the sun. They then seize the asps by the head or tail, and
dragging them into the river, so kill them.
They lie in wait for the crocodiles, when the latter are basking in the
sun with their mouths open; they then drop into their jaws, and eating
through their intestines and belly, issue out of the dead body.
40. Next follows the Cynopolite Nome and Cynopolis, where they worship
the dog Anubis, and pay certain honours to dogs; a subsistence is there
provided for them, as sacred animals.
On the other side of the river is the city Oxyrynchus,[868] and a nome
of the same name. They worship the oxyrynchus, and have a temple
dedicated to this animal; but all the other Egyptians worship the
oxyrynchus.[869] For all the Egyptians worship in common certain
animals; three among the land animals, the ox, the dog, and the cat; two
among the winged tribe, the hawk and the ibis; and two of the aquatic
animals, the fish lepidotus and the oxyrynchus. There are also other
animals which each people, independently of others, worship; as the
Saïtæ and Thebaïtæ, a sheep; the Latopolitæ, the latus, a fish
inhabiting the Nile; the people of Lycopolis, a wolf; those of
Hermopolis,[870] the cynocephalus; those of Babylon,[871] near Memphis,
a cephus, which has the countenance of a satyr, and in other respects is
between a dog and a bear; it is bred in Ethiopia. The inhabitants of
Thebes worship an eagle; the Leontopolitæ, a lion; the Mendesians, a
male and female goat; the Athribitæ, a shrew-mouse; different people
worshipping different animals. They do not, however, assign the same
reasons for this difference of worship.
[CAS. 813] 41. Then follows the Hermopolite Castle, a place where is
collected the toll on merchandise brought down from the Thebaïs. At this
place begins the reckoning by schœni of sixty stadia each, which is
continued to Syene and Elephantina. Next is the Thebaïc Keep, and a
canal leading to Tanis. Then follow Lycopolis, Aphroditopolis, and
Panopolis, an old settlement belonging to masons and weavers of linen.
42. Then follows Ptolemaïs,[872] the largest city in the Thebaïs, not
inferior to Memphis, with a form of government after the Grecian mode.
Above this city is Abydos, where is the palace of Memnon, constructed in
a singular manner, entirely of stone,[873] and after the plan of the
Labyrinth, which we have described, but not composed of many parts. It
has a fountain situated at a great depth. There is a descent to it
through an arched passage built with single stones, of remarkable size
and workmanship.
There is a canal which leads to this place from the great river. About
the canal is a grove of Egyptian acanthus, dedicated to Apollo. Abydos
seems once to have been a large city, second to Thebes. At present it is
a small town. But if, as they say, Memnon is called Ismandes by the
Egyptians, the Labyrinth might be a Memnonium, and the work of the same
person who constructed those at Abydos and at Thebes; for in those
places, it is said, are some Memnonia. In the latitude of Abydos is the
first Auasis (Oasis) of the three which are said to be in Africa. It is
distant from Abydos a journey of seven days through a desert. It is an
inhabited place, well supplied with good water and wine, and
sufficiently provided with other articles. The second is that near the
lake Mœris. The third is that at the oracle of Ammon: these are
considerable settlements.
43. Having before spoken at length of the temple of Ammon, we wish to
add this only, that in ancient times divination in general and oracles
were held in greater esteem than at present. Now they are greatly
neglected; for the Romans are satisfied with the oracles of the Sibyl,
and with Tyrrhenian divination by the entrails of animals, the flight of
birds, and portentous appearances. Hence the oracle of Ammon, which was
formerly held in great esteem, is now nearly deserted. This appears
chiefly from the historians who have recorded the actions of Alexander,
adding, indeed, much that has the appearance of flattery, but yet
relating what is worthy of credit. Callisthenes, for instance, says that
Alexander was ambitious of the glory of visiting the oracle, because he
knew that Perseus and Hercules had before performed the journey thither.
He set out from Parætonium, although the south winds were blowing, and
succeeded in his undertaking by vigour and perseverance. When out of his
way on the road, he escaped being overwhelmed in a sand-storm by a fall
of rain, and by the guidance of two crows, which directed his course.
These things are stated by way of flattery, as also what follows: that
the priest permitted the king alone to pass into the temple in his usual
dress, whereas the others changed theirs; that all heard the oracles on
the outside of the temple, except Alexander, who was in the interior of
the building; that the answers were not given, as at Delphi and at
Branchidæ, in words, but chiefly by nods and signs, as in Homer;
“the son of Saturn nodded with his sable brows,”[874]
the prophet imitating Jupiter. This, however, the man told the king, in
express terms, that he was the son of Jupiter. Callisthenes adds, (after
the exaggerating style of tragedy,) that when Apollo had deserted the
oracle among the Branchidæ, on the temple being plundered by the
Branchidæ (who espoused the party of the Persians in the time of
Xerxes,) and the spring had failed, it then reappeared (on the arrival
of Alexander); that the ambassadors also of the Milesians carried back
to Memphis numerous answers of the oracle respecting the descent of
Alexander from Jupiter, and the future victory which he should obtain at
Arbela, the death of Darius, and the political changes at Lacedæmon. He
says also that the Erythræan Athenais, who resembled the ancient
Erythræan Sibyl, had declared the high descent of Alexander. Such are
the accounts of historians.
44. At Abydos Osiris is worshipped; but in the temple of Osiris no
singer, nor player on the pipe, nor on the cithara, is permitted to
perform at the commencement of the ceremonies celebrated in honour of
the god, as is usual in rites celebrated in honour of the other gods.
Next to Abydos is [CAS. 814] the lesser Diospolis,[875] then the city
Tentyra,[876] where the crocodile is held in peculiar abhorrence, and is
regarded as the most odious of all animals. For the other Egyptians,
although acquainted with its mischievous disposition, and hostility
towards the human race, yet worship it, and abstain from doing it harm.
But the people of Tentyra track and destroy it in every way. Some
however, as they say of the Psyllians of Cyrenæa, possess a certain
natural antipathy to snakes, and the people of Tentyra have the same
dislike to crocodiles, yet they suffer no injury from them, but dive and
cross the river when no other person ventures to do so. When crocodiles
were brought to Rome to be exhibited, they were attended by some of the
Tentyritæ. A reservoir was made for them with a sort of stage on one of
the sides, to form a basking-place for them on coming out of the water,
and these persons went into the water, drew them in a net to the place,
where they might sun themselves and be exhibited, and then dragged them
back again to the reservoir. The people of Tentyra worship Venus. At the
back of the fane of Venus is a temple of Isis; then follow what are
called the Typhoneia, and the canal leading to Coptos,[877] a city
common both to the Egyptians and Arabians.
45. Then follows the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea near
Berenice,[878] which has no harbour, but good landing-places, because
the isthmus is conveniently situated. Philadelphus is said to be the
first person that opened, by means of his army, this road, which had no
supply of water, and to have provided stations.[879] This he did because
the navigation of the Red Sea was difficult, particularly to those who
set out from the recess of the bay. Experience showed the great utility
of this plan, and at present all the Indian, Arabian, and such Ethiopian
merchandise as is imported by the Arabian Gulf is carried to Coptos,
which is the mart for such commodities. Not far from Berenice is Myos
Hormus,[880] a city with a naval station for vessels which navigate
this sea; at no great distance from Coptos is the city of Apollo, so
that two cities are the boundaries of the isthmus, one on each side. But
at present Coptos and Myos Hormus are in repute, and they are
frequented.
Formerly, the camel-merchants travelled in the night, directing their
course by observing the stars, and, like mariners, carried with them a
supply of water. But now watering-places are provided: water is also
obtained by digging to a great depth, and rain-water is found, although
rain rarely falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. It is a
journey of six or seven days.
On this isthmus are mines, in which the emeralds and other precious
stones are found by the Arabians, who dig deep subterraneous passages.
46. Next to the city of Apollo is Thebes, now called Diospolis,
“with her hundred gates, through each of which issue two
hundred men, with horses and chariots,”[881]
according to Homer, who mentions also its wealth;
“not all the wealth the palaces of Egyptian Thebes
contain.”[882]
Other writers use the same language, and consider Thebes as the
metropolis of Egypt. Vestiges of its magnitude still exist, which extend
80 stadia in length. There are a great number of temples, many of which
Cambyses mutilated. The spot is at present occupied by villages. One
part of it, in which is the city, lies in Arabia; another is in the
country on the other side of the river, where is the Memnonium. Here are
two colossal figures near one another, each consisting of a single
stone. One is entire; the upper parts of the other, from the chair, are
fallen down, the effect, it is said, of an earthquake. It is believed,
that once a day a noise as of a slight blow issues from the part of the
statue which remains [CAS. 816] in the seat and on its base. When I was
at those places with Ælius Gallus, and numerous friends and soldiers
about him, I heard a noise at the first hour (of the day), but whether
proceeding from the base or from the colossus, or produced on purpose by
some of those standing around the base, I cannot confidently assert. For
from the uncertainty of the cause, I am disposed to believe anything
rather than that stones disposed in that manner could send forth sound.
Above the Memnonium are tombs of kings in caves, and hewn out of the
stone, about forty in number; they are executed with singular skill, and
are worthy of notice. Among the tombs[883] are obelisks with
inscriptions, denoting the wealth of the kings of that time, and the
extent of their empire, as reaching to the Scythians, Bactrians,
Indians, and the present Ionia; the amount of tribute also, and the
number of soldiers, which composed an army of about a million of men.
The priests there are said to be, for the most part, astronomers and
philosophers. The former compute the days, not by the moon, but by the
sun, introducing into the twelve months of thirty days each five days
every year. But in order to complete the whole year, because there is
(annually) an excess of a part of a day, they form a period from out of
whole days and whole years, the supernumerary portions of which in that
period, when collected together, amount to a day.[884] They ascribe to
Mercury all knowledge of this kind. To Jupiter, whom they worship above
all other deities, a virgin of the greatest beauty and of the most
illustrious family (such persons the Greeks call pallades) is dedicated.
She prostitutes herself with whom she pleases, until the time occurs for
the natural purification of the body; she is afterwards married; but
before her marriage, and after the period of prostitution, they mourn
for her as for one dead.
47. Next after Thebes is the city Hermonthis, in which both Apollo and
Jupiter are worshipped. They also keep an ox there (for worship).
Next is the city of Crocodiles, the inhabitants of which worship this
animal; then Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus),[885] and next to it,
Latopolis, where Minerva is worshipped, and the (fish) Latus; next, the
city of Eileithyia, and a temple. In the country on the other side of
the river is Hieraconpolis (the city of hawks), where a hawk is
worshipped; then Apollonopolis, the inhabitants of which are at war with
crocodiles.
48. Syene is a city situated on the borders of Ethiopia and Egypt.
Elephantina is an island in the Nile, at the distance of half a stadium
in front of Syene; in this island is a city with a temple of Cnuphis,
and a nilometer like that at Memphis. The nilometer is a well upon the
banks of the Nile, constructed of close-fitting stones, on which are
marked the greatest, least, and mean risings of the Nile; for the water
in the well and in the river rises and subsides simultaneously. Upon the
wall of the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the
river, and other degrees of its rising. Those [CAS. 817] who examine
these marks communicate the result to the public for their information.
For it is known long before, by these marks, and by the time[886]
elapsed from the commencement, what the future rise of the river will
be, and notice is given of it. This information is of service to the
husbandmen with reference to the distribution of the water; for the
purpose also of attending to the embankments, canals, and other things
of this kind. It is of use also to the governors, who fix the revenue;
for the greater the rise of the river, the greater it is expected will
be the revenue.
At Syene there is a well which indicates the summer solstice, because
these places lie under the tropical circle,[887] [and occasions the
gnomons to cast no shadows at mid-day].[888] For on proceeding from the
places in our country, in Greece I mean, towards the south, the sun is
there first over our head, and occasions the gnomons to be without
shadows at noon. When the sun is vertical to us, it must necessarily
cast its rays down wells, however deep they may be, to the water. For we
ourselves stand in a perpendicular position, and wells are dug
perpendicular to the surface.
Here are stationed three Roman cohorts as a guard.
49. A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where the boatmen
exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors.
The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a ridge of
rock, the upper part [or commencement] of which is level, and thus
capable of receiving the river, but terminating in a precipice, where
the water dashes down. On each side towards the land there is a stream,
up which is the chief ascent for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this
stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat
to the precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt.
A little above the cataract is Philæ, a common settlement, like
Elephantina, of Ethiopians and Egyptians, and equal in size, containing
Egyptian temples, where a bird, which they call hierax, (the hawk,) is
worshipped; but it did not appear to me to resemble in the least the
hawks of our country nor of Egypt, for it was larger, and very different
in the marks of its plumage. They said that the bird was Ethiopian, and
is brought from Ethiopia when its predecessor dies, or before its death.
The one shown to us when we were there was sick and nearly dead.
50. We came from Syene to Philæ in a waggon, through a very flat
country, a distance of about 100 stadia.[889] Along the whole road on
each side we could see, in many places, very high rocks, round, very
smooth, and nearly spherical, of black hard stone, of which mortars are
made: each rested upon a greater stone, and upon this another: they were
like hermæa.[890] Sometimes these stones consisted of one mass. The
largest was not less than twelve feet in diameter, and all of them
exceeded this size by one half. We crossed over to the island in a
pacton, which is a small boat made of rods, [CAS. 818] whence it
resembles woven-work. Standing then in the water, (at the bottom of the
boat,) or sitting upon some little planks, we easily crossed over, with
some alarm indeed, but without good cause for it, as there is no danger
if the boat is not overloaded.
51. Throughout the whole of Egypt, the palm tree is of a bad species,
and produces no good edible fruit in the places about the Delta and
Alexandreia; yet the best kind is found in the Thebaïs. It is a subject
of surprise how countries in the same latitude as Judæa, and bordering
upon the Delta and Alexandreia, should be so different; for Judæa, in
addition to other kinds of date-palms, produces the caryotic, which is
not inferior to the Babylonian. There are, however, two kinds of dates
in the Thebaïs and in Judæa, the caryotic and another. The Thebaïc is
firmer, but the flavour is more agreeable. There is an island remarkable
for producing the best dates, and it also furnishes the largest revenue
to the governors. It was appropriated to the kings, and no private
person had any share in the produce; at present it belongs to the
governors.
52. Herodotus[891] and other writers trifle very much when they
introduce into their histories the marvellous, like (an interlude of)
music and song, or some melody; for example, in asserting that the
sources of the Nile are near the numerous islands, at Syene and
Elephantina, and that at this spot the river has an unfathomable depth.
In the Nile there are many islands scattered about, some of which are
entirely covered, others in part only, at the time of the rise of the
waters. The very elevated parts are irrigated by means of screw-pumps.
53. Egypt was from the first disposed to peace, from having resources
within itself, and because it was difficult of access to strangers. It
was also protected on the north by a harbourless coast and the Egyptian
Sea; on the east and west by the desert mountains of Libya and Arabia,
as I have said before.[892] The remaining parts towards the south are
occupied by Troglodytæ, Blemmyes, Nubæ, and Megabari, Ethiopians above
Syene. These are nomades, and not numerous nor warlike, but accounted so
by the ancients, because frequently, like robbers, they attacked
defenceless persons. Neither are the Ethiopians, who extend towards the
south and Meroë, numerous nor collected in a body; for they inhabit a
long, narrow, and winding tract of land on the river-side, such as we
have before described; nor are they well prepared either for war or the
pursuit of any other mode of life.
At present the whole country is in the same pacific state, a proof of
which is, that the upper country is sufficiently guarded by three
cohorts, and these not complete. Whenever the Ethiopians have ventured
to attack them, it has been at the risk of danger to their own country.
The rest of the forces in Egypt are neither very numerous, nor did the
Romans ever once employ them collected into one army. For neither are
the Egyptians themselves of a warlike disposition, nor the surrounding
nations, although their numbers are very large.
Cornelius Gallus, the first governor of the country appointed by
(Augustus) Cæsar, attacked the city Heroopolis, which had revolted,[893]
and took it with a small body of men. He suppressed also in a short time
an insurrection in the Thebaïs, which originated as to the payment of
tribute. At a later period Petronius resisted, with the soldiers about
his person, a mob of myriads of Alexandrines, who attacked him by
throwing stones. He killed some, and compelled the rest to desist.
We have before[894] related how Ælius Gallus, when he invaded Arabia
with a part of the army stationed in Egypt, exhibited a proof of the
unwarlike disposition of the people; and if Syllæus had not betrayed
him, he would have conquered the whole of Arabia Felix.
54. The Ethiopians, emboldened in consequence of a part of the forces in
Egypt being drawn off by Ælius Gallus, who was engaged in war with the
Arabs, invaded the Thebaïs, and attacked the garrison, consisting of
three cohorts, near Syene; surprised and took Syene, Elephantina, and
Philæ, by a sudden inroad; enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down the
statues of Cæsar. But Petronius, marching with less than 10,000 infantry
and 800 horse against an army of 30,000 men, first compelled them to
retreat to Pselchis, an Ethiopian city. He then sent deputies to demand
restitution of what they had taken, and the reasons which had induced
them to begin the [CAS. 820] war. On their alleging that they had been
ill treated by the nomarchs, he answered, that these were not the
sovereigns of the country, but Cæsar. When they desired three days for
consideration, and did nothing which they were bound to do, Petronius
attacked and compelled them to fight. They soon fled, being badly
commanded, and badly armed; for they carried large shields made of raw
hides, and hatchets for offensive weapons; some, however, had pikes, and
others swords. Part of the insurgents were driven into the city, others
fled into the uninhabited country; and such as ventured upon the passage
of the river escaped to a neighbouring island, where there were not many
crocodiles on account of the current. Among the fugitives, were the
generals of Candace, queen of the Ethiopians in our time, a masculine
woman, and who had lost an eye. Petronius, pursuing them in rafts and
ships, took them all and despatched them immediately to Alexandreia. He
then attacked Pselchis[895] and took it. If we add the number of those
who fell in battle to the number of prisoners, few only could have
escaped.
From Pselchis Petronius went to Premnis,[896] a strong city, travelling
over the hills of sand, beneath which the army of Cambyses was
overwhelmed by the setting in of a whirlwind. He took the fortress at
the first onset, and afterwards advanced to Napata.[897] This was the
royal seat of Candace; and her son was there, but she herself was in a
neighbouring stronghold. When she sent ambassadors to treat of peace,
and to offer the restitution of the prisoners brought from Syene, and
the statues, Petronius attacked and took Napata, from which her son had
fled, and then razed it. He made prisoners of the inhabitants, and
returned back again with the booty, as he judged any farther advance
into the country impracticable on account of the roads. He strengthened,
however, the fortifications of Premnis, and having placed a garrison
there, with two years’ provisions for four hundred men, returned to
Alexandreia. Some of the prisoners were publicly sold as booty, and a
thousand were sent to Cæsar, who had lately returned from the
Cantabrians,[898] others died of various diseases.
In the mean time Candace[899] attacked the garrison with an army of many
thousand men. Petronius came to its assistance, and entering the
fortress before the approach of the enemy, secured the place by many
expedients. The enemy sent ambassadors, but he ordered them to repair to
Cæsar: on their replying, that they did not know who Cæsar was, nor
where they were to find him, Petronius appointed persons to conduct them
to his presence. They arrived at Samos, where Cæsar was at that time,
and from whence he was on the point of proceeding into Syria, having
already despatched Tiberius into Armenia. The ambassadors obtained all
that they desired, and Cæsar even remitted the tribute which he had
imposed.
CHAPTER II.
1. In the preceding part[900] of this work we have spoken at length of
Ethiopia, so that its description may be said to be included in that of
Egypt.
In general, then, the extreme parts of the habitable world adjacent to
the intemperate region, which is not habitable by reason either of heat
or cold, must necessarily be defective and inferior, in respect to
physical advantages, to the temperate [CAS. 821] region. This is
evident from the mode of life of the inhabitants, and their want of what
is requisite for the use and subsistence of man. For the mode of life
[of the Ethiopians] is wretched; they are for the most part naked, and
wander from place to place with their flocks. Their flocks and herds are
small in size, whether sheep, goats, or oxen; the dogs also, though
fierce and quarrelsome, are small.[901] It was perhaps from the
diminutive size of these people, that the story of the Pygmies
originated, whom no person, worthy of credit has asserted that he
himself has seen.
2. They live on millet and barley, from which also a drink is prepared.
They have no oil, but use butter and fat instead.[902] There are no
fruits, except the produce of trees in the royal gardens. Some feed even
upon grass, the tender twigs of trees, the lotus, or the roots of reeds.
They live also upon the flesh and blood of animals, milk, and cheese.
They reverence their kings as gods, who are for the most part shut up in
their palaces.
Their largest royal seat is the city of Meroë, of the same name as the
island. The shape of the island is said to be that of a shield. Its size
is perhaps exaggerated. Its length is about 3000, and its breadth 1000
stadia. It is very mountainous, and contains great forests. The
inhabitants are nomades, who are partly hunters and partly husbandmen.
There are also mines of copper, iron, gold, and various kinds of
precious stones. It is surrounded on the side of Libya by great hills of
sand, and on that of Arabia by continuous precipices. In the higher
parts on the south, it is bounded by the confluent[903] streams of the
rivers Astaboras,[904] Astapus,[905] and Astasobas. On the north is the
continuous course of the Nile to Egypt, with its windings, of which we
have spoken before.
The houses in the cities are formed by interweaving split pieces of
palm wood or of bricks.[906] They have fossil salt, as in Arabia. Palm,
the persea[907] (peach), ebony, and carob trees are found in abundance.
They hunt elephants, lions, and panthers. There are also serpents, which
encounter elephants, and there are many other kinds of wild animals,
which take refuge, from the hotter and parched districts, in watery and
marshy districts.
3. Above Meroë is Psebo,[908] a large lake, containing a well-inhabited
island. As the Libyans occupy the western bank of the Nile, and the
Ethiopians the country on the other side of the river, they thus dispute
by turns the possession of the islands and the banks of the river, one
party repulsing the other, or yielding to the superiority of its
opponent.
The Ethiopians use bows of wood four cubits long, and hardened in the
fire. The women also are armed, most of whom wear in the upper lip a
copper ring. They wear sheep-skins, without wool; for the sheep have
hair like goats. Some go naked, or wear small skins or girdles of
well-woven hair round the loins.
They regard as God one being who is immortal, the cause of all things;
another who is mortal, a being without a name, whose nature is not
clearly understood.
In general they consider as gods benefactors and royal persons, some of
whom are their kings, the common saviours and guardians of all; others
are private persons, esteemed as gods by those who have individually
received benefits from them.
Of those who inhabit the torrid region, some are even supposed not to
acknowledge any god, and are said to abhor even the sun, and to apply
opprobrious names to him, when they behold him rising, because he
scorches and tortures them with his heat; these people take refuge in
the marshes.
The inhabitants of Meroë worship Hercules, Pan, and Isis, besides some
other barbaric deity.[909]
Some tribes throw the dead into the river; others keep them in the
house, enclosed in hyalus (oriental alabaster?). [CAS. 822] Some bury
them around the temples in coffins of baked clay. They swear an oath by
them, which is reverenced as more sacred than all others.
Kings are appointed from among persons distinguished for their personal
beauty, or by their breeding of cattle, or for their courage, or their
riches.
In Meroë the priests anciently held the highest rank, and sometimes sent
orders even to the king, by a messenger, to put an end to himself, when
they appointed another king in his place. At last one of their kings
abolished this custom, by going with an armed body to the temple where
the golden shrine is, and slaughtering all the priests.
The following custom exists among the Ethiopians. If a king is mutilated
in any part of the body, those who are most attached to his person, as
attendants, mutilate themselves in the same manner, and even die with
him. Hence the king is guarded with the utmost care. This will suffice
on the subject of Ethiopia.
4. To what has been said concerning Egypt, we must add these peculiar
products; for instance, the Egyptian bean, as it is called, from which
is obtained the ciborium,[910] and the papyrus, for it is found here and
in India only; the persea (peach) grows here only, and in Ethiopia; it
is a lofty tree, and its fruit is large and sweet; the sycamine, which
produces the fruit called the sycomorus, or fig-mulberry, for it
resembles a fig, but its flavour is not esteemed. The corsium also (the
root of the Egyptian lotus) grows there, a condiment like pepper, but a
little larger.
There are in the Nile fish in great quantity and of different kinds,
having a peculiar and indigenous character. The best known are the
oxyrynchus,[911] and the lepidotus,[912] the latus,[913] the
alabes,[914] the coracinus,[915] the chœrus, the phagrorius, called also
the phagrus. Besides these are the silurus, the citharus,[916] the
thrissa,[917] the cestreus,[918] the lychnus, the physa, the bous (or
ox), and large shell-fish which emit a sound like that of wailing.
The animals peculiar to the country are the ichneumon and the Egyptian
asp, having some properties which those in other places do not possess.
There are two kinds, one a span in length, whose bite is more suddenly
mortal than that of the other; the second is nearly an orguia[919] in
size, according to Nicander, the author of the Theriaca.
Among the birds, are the ibis and the Egyptian hawk, which, like the
cat, is more tame than those elsewhere. The nycticorax is here peculiar
in its character; for with us it is as large as an eagle, and its cry is
harsh; but in Egypt it is the size of a jay, and has a different note.
The tamest animal, however, is the ibis; it resembles a stork in shape
and size. There are two kinds, which differ in colour; one is like a
stork, the other is entirely black. Every street in Alexandreia is full
of them. In some respects they are useful; in others troublesome. They
are useful, because they pick up all sorts of small animals and the
offal thrown out of the butchers’ and cooks’ shops. They are
troublesome, because they devour everything, are dirty, and with
difficulty prevented from polluting in every way what is clean and what
is not given to them.
5. Herodotus[920] truly relates of the Egyptians, that it is a practice
peculiar to them to knead clay with their hands, and the dough for
making bread with their feet. Caces is a peculiar kind of bread which
restrains fluxes. Kiki (the castor-oil bean) is a kind of fruit sowed in
furrows. An oil is expressed from it which is used for lamps almost
generally throughout the country, but for anointing the body only by the
poorer sort of people and labourers, both men and women.
The coccina are Egyptian textures made of some plant,[921] woven like
those made of rushes, or the palm-tree.
[CAS. 824] Barley beer is a preparation peculiar to the Egyptians. It
is common among many tribes, but the mode of preparing it differs in
each.
This, however, of all their usages is most to be admired, that they
bring up all children that are born. They circumcise the males, and spay
the females, as is the custom also among the Jews, who are of Egyptian
origin, as I said when I was treating of them.[922]
According to Aristobulus, no fishes ascend the Nile from the sea, except
the cestreus, the thrissa, and dolphins, on account of the crocodiles;
the dolphin, because it can get the better of the crocodile; the
cestreus, because it is accompanied by the chœri along the bank, in
consequence of some physical affinity subsisting between them. The
crocodiles abstain from doing any hurt to the chœri, because they are of
a round shape, and have spines on their heads, which are dangerous to
them. The cestreus runs up the river in spring, when in spawn; and
descends a little before the setting of the pleiad, in great numbers,
when about to cast it, at which time they are taken in shoals, by
falling into inclosures (made for catching them). Such also, we may
conjecture, is the reason why the thrissa is found there.
So much then on the subject of Egypt.
CHAPTER III.
1. We shall next describe Africa, which is the remaining portion of the
whole description of the earth.
We have before said much respecting it; but at present I shall further
describe what suits my purpose, and add what has not been previously
mentioned.[923]
The writers who have divided the habitable world according to
continents, divide it unequally. But a threefold division denotes a
division into three equal parts. Africa, however, wants so much of being
a third part of the habitable world, that, even if it were united to
Europe, it would not be equal to Asia; perhaps it is even less than
Europe; in resources it is very much inferior, for a great part of the
inland and maritime country is desert. It is spotted over with small
habitable parts, which are scattered about, and mostly belonging to
nomade tribes. Besides the desert state of the country, its being a
nursery of wild beasts is a hindrance to settlement in parts which could
be inhabited. It comprises also a large part of the torrid zone.
All the sea-coast in our quarter, situated between the Nile and the
Pillars, particularly that which belonged to the Carthaginians, is
fertile and inhabited. And even in this tract, some spots destitute of
water intervene, as those about the Syrtes, the Marmaridæ, and the
Catabathmus.
The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we imagine
its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base is the coast
opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the Nile to Mauretania and the
Pillars; at right angles to this is a side formed by the Nile to
Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypothenuse of the
right angle is the whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and
Mauretania.
As the part situated at the vertex of the above-mentioned figure, and
lying almost entirely under the torrid zone, is inaccessible, we speak
of it from conjecture, and therefore cannot say what is the greatest
breadth of the country. In a former[924] part of this work we have said,
that the distance proceeding from Alexandreia southwards to Meroë, the
royal seat of the Ethiopians, is about 10,000 stadia; thence in a
straight line to the borders of the torrid zone and the habitable
country, 3000 stadia. The sum, therefore, may be assumed as the greatest
breadth of Africa, which is 13,000 or 14,000 stadia: its length may be a
little less than double this sum. So much then on the subject of Africa
in general. I am now to describe its several parts, beginning from the
most celebrated on the west.
[CAS. 825] 2. Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by
the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing African
nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side of the strait, at
the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On
proceeding beyond the strait at the Pillars, with Africa on the left
hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the
barbarians Dyris. Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the
foot of the mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the
Coteis.[925] Near it is a small town, a little above the sea, which the
barbarians call Trinx; Artemidorus, Lynx; and Eratosthenes, Lixus.[926]
It lies on the side of the strait opposite to Gadeira,[927] from which
it is separated by a passage of 800 stadia, the width of the strait at
the Pillars between both places. To the south, near Lixus and the
Coteis, is a bay called Emporicus,[928] having upon it Phœnician
mercantile settlements. The whole coast continuous with this bay abounds
with them. Subtracting these bays, and the projections of land in the
triangular figure which I have described, the continent may rather be
considered as increasing in magnitude in the direction of south and
east. The mountain which extends through the middle of Mauretania, from
the Coteis to the Syrtes, is itself inhabited, as well as others running
parallel to it, first by the Maurusii, but deep in the interior of the
country by the largest of the African tribes, called Gætuli.
3. Historians, beginning with the voyage of Ophelas (Apellas?),[929]
have invented a great number of fables respecting the sea-coast of
Africa beyond the Pillars. We have mentioned them before, and mention
them now, requesting our readers to pardon the introduction of
marvellous stories, whenever we may be compelled to relate anything of
the kind, being unwilling to pass them over entirely in silence, and so
in a manner to mutilate our account of the country.
It is said, that the Sinus Emporicus (or merchants’ bay) has a cave
which admits the sea at high tide to the distance even of seven stadia,
and in front of this bay a low and level tract with an altar of Hercules
upon it, which, they say, is not covered by the tide. This I, of course,
consider to be one of the fictitious stories. Like this is the tale,
that on other bays in the succeeding coast there were ancient
settlements of Tyrians, now abandoned, which consisted of not less than
three hundred cities, and were destroyed by the Pharusii[930] and the
Nigritæ. These people, they say, are distant thirty days’ journey from
Lynx.
4. Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country,
except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by
rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees of vast size, and the soil
produces everything. It is this country which furnishes the Romans with
tables, formed of one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most
beautifully variegated. The rivers are said to contain crocodiles and
other kinds of animals similar to those in the Nile. Some suppose that
even the sources of the Nile are near the extremities of Mauretania. In
a certain river leeches are bred seven cubits in length, with gills,
pierced through with holes, through which they respire. This country is
also said to [CAS. 826] produce a vine, the girth of which two men can
scarcely compass, and bearing bunches of grapes of about a cubit in
size. All plants and pot-herbs are tall, as the arum and
dracontium;[931] the stalks of the staphylinus,[932] the
hippomarathum,[933] and the scolymus[934] are twelve cubits in height,
and four palms in thickness. The country is the fruitful nurse of large
serpents, elephants, antelopes, buffaloes, and similar animals; of lions
also, and panthers. It produces weasels (jerboas?) equal in size and
similar to cats, except that their noses are more prominent; and
multitudes of apes, of which Poseidonius relates, that when he was
sailing from Gades to Italy, and approached the coast of Africa, he saw
a forest low upon the sea-shore full of these animals, some on the
trees, others on the ground, and some giving suck to their young. He was
amused also with seeing some with large dugs, some bald, others with
ruptures, and exhibiting to view various effects of disease.
5. Above Mauretania, on the exterior sea (the Atlantic), is the country
of the western Ethiopians, as they are called, which, for the most part,
is badly inhabited. Iphicrates[935] says, that camel-leopards are bred
here, and elephants, and the animals called rhizeis,[936] which in shape
are like bulls, but in manner of living, in size, and strength in
fighting, resemble elephants. He speaks also of large serpents, and says
that even grass grows upon their backs; that lions attack the young of
the elephants, and that when they have wounded them, they fly on the
approach of the dams; that the latter, when they see their young
besmeared with blood, kill them; and that the lions return to the dead
bodies, and devour them; that Bogus king of the Mauretanians, during his
expedition against the western Ethiopians, sent, as a present to his
wife, canes similar to the Indian canes, each joint of which contained
eight chœnices,[937] and asparagus of similar magnitude.
6. On sailing into the interior sea, from Lynx, there are Zelis[938] a
city and Tingis,[939] then the monuments of the Seven Brothers,[940] and
the mountain lying below, of the name of Abyle,[941] abounding with
wild animals and trees of a great size. They say, that the length of the
strait at the pillars is 120 stadia, and the least breadth at
Elephas[942] 60 stadia. On sailing further along the coast, we find
cities and many rivers, as far as the river Molochath,[943] which is the
boundary between the territories of the Mauretanians and of the
Masæsyli. Near the river is a large promontory, and Metagonium,[944] a
place without water and barren. The mountain extends along the coast,
from the Coteis nearly to this place. Its length from the Coteis to the
borders of the Masæsylii[945] is 5000 stadia. Metagonium is nearly
opposite to New Carthage.[946] Timosthenes is mistaken in saying that it
is opposite to Massalia.[947] The passage across from New Carthage to
Metagonium is 3000 stadia, but the voyage along the coast to Massalia is
above 6000 stadia.
7. Although the Mauretanians inhabit a country, the greatest part of
which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this
time to live like nomades. They bestow care to improve their looks by
plaiting their hair, trimming their beards, by wearing golden ornaments,
cleaning their teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see
them [CAS. 828] touch one another as they walk, lest they should
disturb the arrangement of their hair.
They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and ride on
the bare back of the horse, with bridles made of rushes. They have also
swords. The foot-soldiers present against the enemy, as shields, the
skins of elephants. They wear the skins of lions, panthers, and bears,
and sleep in them. These tribes, and the Masæsylii next to them, and for
the most part the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and
resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which are
small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a switch. They
have collars[948] made of cotton or of hair, from which hangs a
leading-rein. Some follow, like dogs, without being led.
They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with broad heads.
Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their cloak is a skin, as I
have said before, which serves also as a breastplate.
The Pharusii and Nigretes, who live above these people, near the western
Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots
also, armed with scythes. The Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with
the Mauretanians in passing through the desert country, as they carry
skins filled with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses.
Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta,[949] passing through places
abounding with marshes and lakes. Some of them are said to live like the
Troglodytæ, in caves dug in the ground. It is said that rain falls there
frequently in summer, but that during the winter drought prevails. Some
of the barbarians in that quarter wear the skins of serpents and fishes,
and use them as coverings for their beds. Some say that the
Mauretanians[950] are Indians, who accompanied Hercules hither. A little
before my time, the kings Bogus and Bocchus, allies of the Romans,
possessed this country; after their death, Juba succeeded to the
kingdom, having received it from Augustus Cæsar, in addition to his
paternal dominions. He was the son of Juba who fought, in conjunction
with Scipio, against divus Cæsar. Juba died[951] lately, and was
succeeded by his son Ptolemy, whose mother was the daughter of Antony
and Cleopatra.
8. Artemidorus censures Eratosthenes for saying that there is a city
called Lixus, and not Lynx, near the extremities of Mauretania; that
there are a very great number of Phœnician cities destroyed,[952] of
which no traces are to be seen; and that among the western Ethiopians,
in the evenings and the mornings, the air is misty and dense;—for how
could this take place where there is drought and excessive heat? But he
himself relates of these same parts what is much more liable to
objection. For he speaks of some tribes of Lotophagi, who had left their
own country, and might have occupied the tract destitute of water; whose
food might be a lotus, a sort of herb, or root, which would supply the
want of drink; that these people extend as far as the places above
Cyrene, and that they live there on milk and flesh, although they are
situated in the same latitude.
Gabinius, the Roman historian, indulges in relating marvellous stories
of Mauretania. He speaks of a sepulchre of Antæus at Lynx, and a
skeleton of sixty feet in length, which Sertorius exposed, and
afterwards covered it with earth.[953] His stories also about elephants
are fabulous. He says, that other animals avoid fire, but that elephants
resist and fight against it, because it destroys the forests; that they
engage with men in battle, and send out scouts before them; that when
they perceive their enemies fly, they take to flight themselves; and
that when they are wounded, they hold out as suppliants branches of a
tree, or a plant, or throw up dust.
9. Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masæsylii, beginning from
the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called
Tretum,[954] the boundary of the country of [CAS. 829] the Masæsyli and
of the Masylies. From Metagonium to Tretum are 6000 stadia; according to
others, the distance is less.
Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is
very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the most renowned. The
city of Siga,[955] the royal seat of Syphax, is at the distance of 1000
stadia from the above-mentioned boundaries. It is now razed. After
Syphax, the country was in the possession of Masanasses, then of
Micipsa, next of his successors, and in our time of Juba, the father of
the Juba who died lately. Zama,[956] which was Juba’s palace, was
destroyed by the Romans. At the distance of 600 stadia from Siga is
Theon-limen (port of the gods);[957] next are some other obscure places.
Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and desert tracts
scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by
Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But the parts near the sea are fertile
plains, in which are numerous cities, rivers, and lakes.
10. Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly, that Africa is
traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he speaks of the same
rivers, namely those between Lynx and Carthage, which Artemidorus
describes as numerous and large. This may be asserted with more truth of
the interior of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it,
namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same is said of
Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought,
pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes are filled with mud only, and
locusts appear in clouds.
Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist, because
the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that the western
parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his course. Now, drought
and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the
presence or absence of the sun’s rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of
the effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by the
latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to the residence
of men, differ in different places, according to the position of each
inhabited spot and the change of horizon; so that it cannot be asserted
generally of places indefinite in number, that those lying to the east
are moist, and those to the west dry: but as applied to the whole earth
and such extremes of it as India and Spain, his expressions (east and
west) may be just; yet what truth or probability is there in his
(attempted) explanation (of the causes of drought and moisture)? for in
the continuous and unceasing circuit of the sun, what turn can there be
in his course? The rapidity too of his passage through every part is
equal. Besides, it is contrary to evidence to say, that the extreme
parts of Spain or Mauretania towards the west are drier than all other
places, when at the same time they are situated in a temperate climate
and have water in great abundance. But if we are to understand the
turning of the sun in this way, that there at the extremities of the
habitable world he is above the earth, how does that tend to produce
drought? for there, and in other places situated in the same latitude,
he leaves them for an equal portion of the night and returns again and
warms the earth.
11. Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring of asphaltus;
scorpions of enormous size,[958] both with and without wings, are said
to be found there, as well as tarantulas, remarkable for their size and
numbers. Lizards also are mentioned of two cubits in length. At the base
of the mountains precious stones are said to be found, as those called
the Lychnitis (the ruby) and the Carchedonius (the carbuncle?). In the
plains are found great quantities of oyster and mussel shells, similar
to those mentioned in our description of Ammon. There is also a tree
called melilotus, from which a wine is made. Some obtain two crops from
the ground and have two harvests, one in the spring, the other in the
summer. The straw is five cubits in height, and of the thickness of the
little finger; the produce is 250-fold. They do not sow in the spring,
but bush-harrow the ground with bundles of the paliurus, and find the
seed-grain sufficient which falls from [CAS. 831] the sheaves during
harvest to produce the summer crop. In consequence of the number of
reptiles, they work with coverings on the legs; other parts of the body
also are protected by skins.
12. On this coast was a city called Iol,[959] which Juba, the father of
Ptolemy, rebuilt and changed its name to Cæsarea. It has a harbour and a
small island in front of it. Between Cæsarea and Tretum[960] is a large
harbour called Salda,[961] which now forms the boundary between the
territories subject to Juba and the Romans; for the country has been
subject to many changes, having had numerous occupants; and the Romans,
at various times, have treated some among them as friends, others as
enemies, conceding or taking away territories without observing any
established rule.
The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater revenue and was
more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and of the Masylies was more
flourishing and better furnished with buildings, although it suffered
first in the Carthaginian wars, and subsequently during the war with
Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),[962] and
put him to death as a friend of the Romans, and thus involved the whole
country in war. Other wars succeeded one another, of which the last was
that between divus Cæsar and Scipio, in which Juba lost his life. The
death of the leaders was accompanied by the destruction of the cities
Tisiæus,[963] Vaga,[964] Thala,[965] Capsa[966] (the treasure-hold of
Jugurtha), Zama,[967] and Zincha. To these must be added those cities in
the neighbourhood of which divus Cæsar obtained victories over Scipio,
namely, first at Ruspinum,[968] then at Uzita, then at Thapsus and the
neighbouring lake, and at many others. Near are the free cities Zella
and Acholla.[969] Cæsar also captured at the first onset the island
Cercinna,[970] and Thena, a small city on the sea-coast. Some of these
cities utterly disappeared, and others were abandoned, being partly
destroyed. Phara was burnt by the cavalry of Scipio.
13. After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies, and that of the
Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the interior is Cirta, the royal
residence of Masanasses and his successors. It is a very strong place
and well provided with everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa,
who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such
importance, that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice
as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities Hippo,[971]
one of which is situated near Ityca, the other further off near Tretum,
both royal residences. Ityca is next to Carthage in extent and
importance. On the destruction of Carthage it became a metropolis to the
Romans, and the head quarters of their operations in Africa. It is
situated in the very bay itself of Carthage, on one of the promontories
which form it, of which the one near Ityca is called Apollonium, the
other Hermæa. Both cities are in sight of each other. Near Ityca flows
the river Bagradas.[972] From Tretum to Carthage are 2,500 stadia, but
authors are not agreed upon this distance, nor on the distance (of
Carthage) from the Syrtes.
14. Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a circuit of 360
stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in length are upon the neck
of the peninsula, and reach from sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept
their elephants, it being a wide open place. In the middle of the city
was the acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height
with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of Esculapius,
which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas burnt herself to death
there, on the capture of the city. Below the Acropolis were the harbours
and the Cothon, a circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating
with the sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were
situated sheds for vessels.
[CAS. 832] 15. Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her people
from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in Spain and beyond the
Pillars proved so successful to the Phœnicians, that even to the present
day they occupy the best parts on the continent of Europe and the
neighbouring islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa,
with the exception of such parts as could only be held by nomade tribes.
From the power they acquired they raised a city to rival Rome, and waged
three great wars against her. Their power became most conspicuous in the
last war, in which they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their
city was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war, they
possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of Carthage amounted
to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender,
they delivered up 200,000 complete suits of armour and 3000[973] engines
for throwing projectiles, apparently with the intention of abandoning
all hostilities; but having resolved to recommence the war, they at once
began to manufacture arms, and daily deposited in store 140 finished
shields, 300 swords, 500 lances, and 1000 projectiles for the engines,
for the use of which the women-servants contributed their hair. In
addition to this, although at this moment they were in possession of
only twelve ships, according to the terms of the treaty concluded in the
second war, and had already taken refuge in a body at the Byrsa, yet in
two months they equipped 120 decked vessels; and, as the mouth of the
Cothon was closed against them, cut another outlet (to the sea) through
which the fleet suddenly made its appearance. For wood had been
collected for a long time, and a multitude of workmen were constantly
employed, who were maintained at the public expense.
Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to the ground.
The Romans made a province of that part of the country which had been
subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the rest Masanasses and his
descendants, beginning with Micipsa. For the Romans paid particular
attention to Masanasses on account of his great abilities and friendship
for them. For he it was who formed the nomades to civil life, and
directed their attention to husbandry. Instead of robbers he taught them
to be soldiers. A peculiarity existed among these people; they inhabited
a country favoured in everything except that it abounded with wild
beasts; these they neglected to destroy, and so to cultivate the soil in
security; but turning their arms against each other, abandoned the
country to the beasts of prey. Hence their life was that of wanderers
and of continual change, quite as much as that of those who are
compelled to it by want and barrenness of soil or severity of climate.
An appropriate name was therefore given to the Masæsylii, for they were
called Nomades.[974] Such persons must necessarily be sparing livers,
eaters of roots more than of flesh, and supported by milk and cheese.
Carthage remained a desolate place for a long time, for nearly the same
period, indeed, as Corinth, until it was restored about the same time
(as the latter city) by divus Cæsar, who sent thither such Romans to
colonize it as elected to go there, and also some soldiers. At present
it is the most populous city in Africa.
16. About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island Corsura.[975]
On the other side of the strait opposite to these places is Sicily and
Lilybæum,[976] at the distance of (about) 1500 stadia; for this is said
to be the distance from Lilybæum to Carthage. Not far from Corsura and
Sicily are other islands, among which is Ægimurus.[977] From Carthage
there is a passage of 60 stadia to the nearest opposite coast, from
whence there is an ascent of 120 stadia to Nepheris, a fortified city
built upon a rock. On the same gulf as Carthage, is situated a city
Tunis; hot springs and stone quarries are also found there; then the
rugged promontory Hermæa,[978] [CAS. 834] on which is a city of the
same name; then Neapolis; then Cape Taphitis,[979] on which is a hillock
named Aspis, from its resemblance (to a shield), at which place
Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, collected inhabitants when he made his
expedition against Carthage. These cities were destroyed by the Romans,
together with Carthage. At the distance of 400 stadia from Taphitis is
an island Cossuros, with a city of the same name, lying opposite to the
river Selinus in Sicily. Its circuit is 150 stadia, and its distance
from Sicily about 600 stadia. Melite,[980] an island, is 500 stadia
distant from Cossuros. Then follows the city Adrumes,[981] with a naval
arsenal; then the Taracheiæ, numerous small islands; then the city
Thapsus,[982] and near it Lopadussa,[983] an island situated far from
the coast; then the promontory of Ammon Balithon, near which is a
look-out for[984] the approach of thunny; then the city Thena, lying at
the entrance of the Little Syrtis.[985] There are many small cities in
the intervening parts, which are not worthy of notice. At the entrance
of the Syrtis, a long island stretches parallel to the coast, called
Cercinna; it is of considerable size, with a city of the same name;
there is also another smaller island Cercinnitis.