BOOK XV.

SUMMARY.

The Fifteenth Book contains India and Persia.

CHAPTER I.

1. The parts of Asia which remain to be described are those without the

Taurus, except Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Lycia; extending from India to

the Nile, and situated between the Taurus and the exterior Southern

Sea.[302]

Next to Asia is Africa, which I shall describe hereafter. At present I

shall begin from India, the first and the largest country situated

towards the east.

2. The reader must receive the account of this country with indulgence,

for it lies at a very great distance, and few persons of our nation have

seen it; those also who have visited it have seen only some portions of

it; the greater part of what they relate is from report, and even what

they saw, they became acquainted with during their passage through the

country with an army, and in great haste. For this reason they do not

agree in their accounts of the same things, although they write about

them as if they had examined them with the greatest care and attention.

Some of these writers were fellow-soldiers and fellow-travellers, as

those who belonged to the army which, under the command of Alexander,

conquered Asia; yet they frequently contradict each other. If, then,

they differ so much respecting things which they had seen, what must we

think of what they relate from report?

3. Nor do the writers who, many ages since Alexander’s time, have given

an account of these countries, nor even those who at present make

voyages thither, afford any precise information.

Apollodorus, for instance, author of the Parthian History, when he

mentions the Greeks who occasioned the revolt of Bactriana from the

Syrian kings, who were the successors of [CAS. 686] Seleucus Nicator,

says, that when they became powerful they invaded India. He adds no

discoveries to what was previously known, and even asserts, in

contradiction to others, that the Bactrians had subjected to their

dominion a larger portion of India than the Macedonians; for Eucratidas

(one of these kings) had a thousand cities subject to his authority. But

other writers affirm that the Macedonians conquered nine nations

situated between the Hydaspes[303] and the Hypanis,[304] and obtained

possession of five hundred cities, not one of which was less than Cos

Meropis,[305] and that Alexander, after having conquered all this

country, delivered it up to Porus.

4. Very few of the merchants who now sail from Egypt by the Nile and the

Arabian Gulf to India have proceeded as far as the Ganges; and, being

ignorant persons, were not qualified to give an account of places they

have visited. From one place in India, and from one king, namely,

Pandion, or, according to others,[306] Porus, presents and embassies

were sent to Augustus Cæsar. With the ambassadors came the Indian

Gymno-Sophist, who committed himself to the flames at Athens,[307] like

Calanus, who exhibited the same spectacle in the presence of Alexander.

5. If, then, we set aside these stories, and direct our attention to

accounts of the country prior to the expedition of Alexander, we shall

find them still more obscure. It is probable that Alexander, elated by

his extraordinary good fortune, believed these accounts.

According to Nearchus, Alexander was ambitious of conducting his army

through Gedrosia,[308] when he heard that Semiramis and Cyrus had

undertaken expeditions against India (through this country), although

both had abandoned the enterprise, the former escaping with twenty, and

Cyrus with seven men only. For he considered that it would be a glorious

achievement for him to lead a conquering army safe through the same

nations and countries where Semiramis and Cyrus had suffered such

disasters. Alexander, therefore, believed these stories.

6. But how can we place any just confidence in the accounts of India

derived from such expeditions as those of Cyrus and Semiramis?

Megasthenes concurs in this opinion; he advises persons not to credit

the ancient histories of India, for, except the expeditions of Hercules,

of Bacchus, and the later invasion of Alexander, no army was ever sent

out of their country by the Indians, nor did any foreign enemy ever

invade or conquer it. Sesostris the Egyptian (he says), and Tearco the

Ethiopian, advanced as far as Europe; and Nabocodrosor, who was more

celebrated among the Chaldæans than Hercules among the Greeks,

penetrated even as far as the Pillars,[309] which Tearco also reached;

Sesostris conducted an army from Iberia to Thrace and Pontus;

Idanthyrsus the Scythian overran Asia as far as Egypt; but not one of

these persons proceeded as far as India, and Semiramis died before her

intended enterprise was undertaken. The Persians had sent for the

Hydraces[310] from India, a body of mercenary troops; but they did not

lead an army into that country, and only approached it when Cyrus was

marching against the Massagetæ.

7. Megasthenes, and a few others, think the stories respecting Hercules

and Bacchus to be credible, but the majority of writers, among whom is

Eratosthenes, regard them as incredible and fabulous, like the Grecian

stories. Dionysus, in the Bacchæ of Euripides, makes this boasting

speech:

[CAS. 687] “But now from Lydia’s field, With gold abounding, from the

Phrygian realm And that of Persia scorch’d by torrid suns, Pressing

through Bactrian gates, the frozen land Of Media, and through Araby the

Blest, With Asia’s wide extended continent——”[311]

In Sophocles, also, a person is introduced speaking the praises of

Nysa,[312] as being a mountain sacred to Bacchus:

“whence I beheld the famed Nysa, the resort of the

Bacchanalian bands, which the horned Iacchus makes his most

pleasant and beloved retreat, where no bird’s clang is heard,”

and so on. [He is called also Merotraphes.][313]

Homer also mentions Lycurgus the Edonian in these words,

“who formerly pursued the nurses of the infuriate Bacchus

along the sacred mountain Nysa.”[314]

So much respecting Bacchus. But with regard to Hercules, some persons

say, that he penetrated to the opposite extremities on the west only,

while others maintain that he also advanced to those of the east.

8. From such stories as those related above, they gave the name of

Nysæans to some imaginary nation, and called their city Nysa, founded by

Bacchus; a mountain above the city they called Meron, alleging as a

reason for imposing these names that the ivy and vine grow there,

although the latter does not perfect its fruit; for the bunches of

grapes, in consequence of excessive rains, drop off before they arrive

at maturity.

They say, also, that the Sydracæ (Oxydracæ) are descendants of Bacchus,

because the vine grows in their country, and because their kings display

great pomp in setting out on their warlike expeditions, after the

Bacchic manner; whenever they appear in public, it is with beating of

drums, and are dressed in flowered robes, which is the common custom

among the other Indians.

When Alexander took, on the first assault, Aornos,[315] a fortress on a

rock, the foot of which is washed by the Indus near its source, his

flatterers exaggerated this act, and said that Hercules thrice assailed

this rock and was thrice repulsed.

They pretended that the Sibæ[316] were descended from the people who

accompanied Hercules in his expedition, and that they retained badges of

their descent; that they wore skins like Hercules, and carried clubs,

and branded with the mark of a club their oxen and mules. They confirm

this fable with stories about Caucasus[317] and Prometheus, for they

transferred hither from Pontus these tales, on the slight pretence that

they had seen a sacred cave among the Paropamisadæ.[318] This they

alleged was the prison of Prometheus, that Hercules came hither to

release Prometheus, and that this mountain was the Caucasus, to which

the Greeks represent Prometheus as having been bound.

9. That these are the inventions of the flatterers of Alexander is

evident, first, because the writers do not agree with one another, some

of whom speak of these things; others make no mention of them whatever.

For it is not probable, that actions so illustrious, and calculated to

foster pride and vanity, should be unknown, or if known, that they

should not be thought worthy of record, especially by writers of the

greatest credit.

Besides, the intervening people, through whose country the armies of

Bacchus and Hercules must have marched in their [CAS. 688] way to

India, do not exhibit any proofs of their passage through the country.

The kind of dress, too, of Hercules is much more recent than the

memorials of Troy, an invention of those who composed the Heracleia (or

exploits of Hercules,) whether it were Peisander or some one else who

composed it. But the ancient wooden statues do not represent Hercules in

that attire.

10. Under such circumstances, therefore, we must receive everything that

approaches nearest to probability. I have already discussed this subject

to the extent of my ability at the beginning of this work;[319] I shall

now assume those opinions as clearly proved, and shall add whatever may

seem to be required for the sake of perspicuity.

It appeared from the former discussion, that in the summary given by

Eratosthenes, in the third book of his Geography, is contained the most

credible account of the country considered as India at the time of its

invasion by Alexander.

At that period the Indus was the boundary of India and of Ariana,[320]

situated towards the west, and in the possession of the Persians, for

afterwards the Indians occupied a larger portion of Ariana, which they

had received from the Macedonians.

The account of Eratosthenes is as follows:—

11. The boundaries of India, on the north, from Ariana to the Eastern

Sea,[321] are the extremities of Taurus, to the several parts of which

the natives give, besides others, the names of Paropamisus, Emodus, and

Imaus,[322] but the Macedonians call them Caucasus; on the west, the

river Indus; the southern and eastern sides, which are much larger than

the others, project towards the Atlantic Sea, and the figure of the

country becomes rhomboïdal,[323] each of the greater sides exceeding

the opposite by 3000 stadia; and this is the extent of the extremity,

common to the eastern and southern coast, and which projects beyond the

rest of that coast equally on the east and south.

The western side, from the Caucasian mountains to the Southern Sea, is

estimated at 13,000 stadia, along the river Indus to its mouth;

wherefore the eastern side opposite, with the addition of the 3000

stadia of the promontory, will be 16,000 stadia in extent. This is both

the smallest and greatest breadth of India.[324] The length is reckoned

from west to east. The part of this extending (from the Indus) as far as

Palibothra[325] we may describe more confidently; for it has been

measured by Schœni,[326] and is a royal road of 10,000 stadia. The

extent of the parts beyond depends upon conjecture derived from the

ascent of vessels from the sea by the Ganges to Palibothra. This may be

estimated at 6000 stadia.

The whole, on the shortest computation, will amount to 16,000 stadia,

according to Eratosthenes, who says that he took it from the register of

the Stathmi (or the several stages from place to place),[327] which was

received as authentic, and Megasthenes agrees with him. But Patrocles

says, that the sum of the whole is less by 1000 stadia. If again we add

to this [CAS. 689] distance the extent of the extremity which advances

far towards the east, the greatest length of India will be 3000 stadia;

this length is reckoned from the mouths of the river Indus along the

coast, in a line with the mouths to the above-mentioned extremity and

its eastern limits. Here the people called Coniaci[328] live.

12. From what has been said, we may perceive how the opinions of the

other writers differ from one another. Ctesias says that India is not

less than the rest of Asia; Onesicritus regards it as the third part of

the habitable world; Nearchus says that it is a march of four months

through the plain only. The computations of Megasthenes and Deïmachus

are more moderate, for they estimate the distance from the Southern Sea

to Caucasus[329] at above 20,000 stadia. Deïmachus says that in some

places it exceeds 30,000 stadia.

We have replied to these writers in the early part of this work.[330] At

present it is sufficient to say that these opinions are in favour of the

writers who, in describing India, solicit indulgence if they do not

advance anything with confidence.

13. The whole of India is watered by rivers, some of which empty

themselves into the two largest, the Indus and the Ganges; others

discharge themselves into the sea by their own mouths. But all of them

have their sources in the Caucasus. At their commencement their course

is towards the south; some of them continue to flow in the same

direction, particularly those which unite with the Indus; others turn to

the east, as the Ganges. This, the largest of the Indian rivers,

descends from the mountainous country, and when it reaches the plains,

turns to the east, then flowing past Palibothra, a very large city,

proceeds onwards to the sea in that quarter, and discharges its waters

by a single mouth. The Indus falls into the Southern Sea, and empties

itself by two mouths, encompassing the country called Patalene, which

resembles the Delta of Egypt.

By the exhalation of vapours from such vast rivers, and by the Etesian

winds, India, as Eratosthenes affirms, is watered by summer rains, and

the plains are overflowed. During the rainy season flax,[331] millet,

sesamum, rice, and bosmorum[332] are sowed; and in the winter season,

wheat, barley, pulse, and other esculent fruits of the earth with which

we are not acquainted. Nearly the same animals are bred in India as in

Ethiopia and Egypt, and the rivers of India produce all the animals of

those countries, except the hippopotamus, although Onesicritus asserts

that even this animal is found in them.

The inhabitants of the south resemble the Ethiopians in colour, but

their countenances and hair are like those of other people. Their hair

does not curl, on account of the humidity of the atmosphere. The

inhabitants of the north resemble the Egyptians.

14. Taprobane[333] is said to be an island, lying out at sea, distant

from the most southerly parts of India, which are opposite the Coniaci,

seven days’[334] sail towards the south. Its length is about 8000 stadia

in the direction of Ethiopia.[335] It produces elephants.

This is the account of Eratosthenes. The accounts of other writers, in

addition to this, whenever they convey exact information, will

contribute to form the description[336] (of India).

15. Onesicritus, for example, says of Taprobane, that its magnitude is

5000 stadia, without distinction of length or breadth, and that it is

distant twenty days’ sail from the continent, but that it was a voyage

performed with difficulty and danger by vessels with sails ill

constructed, and built with prows at each end, but without holds and

keels;[337] that there are other islands between this and India, but

that Taprobane lies farthest to the south; that there are found in the

sea, about the island, animals of the cetaceous kind, in form like oxen,

horses, and other land-animals.

16. Nearchus, speaking of the accretion of earth formed [CAS. 691] by

the rivers, adduces these instances. The plains of Hermes, Caÿster,

Mæander, and Caïcus have these names, because they have been formed by

the soil which has been carried over the plains by the rivers; or rather

they were produced by the fine and soft soil brought down from the

mountains; whence the plains are, as it were, the offspring of the

rivers, and it is rightly said, that the plains belong to the rivers.

What is said by Herodotus[338] of the Nile, and of the land about it,

may be applied to this country, namely, that it is the gift of the Nile.

Hence Nearchus thinks that the Nile had properly the synonym of Egypt.

17. Aristobulus, however, says, that rain and snow fall only on the

mountains and the country immediately below them, and that the plains

experience neither one nor the other, but are overflowed only by the

rise of the waters of the rivers; that the mountains are covered with

snow in the winter; that the rains set in at the commencement of spring,

and continue to increase; that at the time of the blowing of the Etesian

winds they pour down impetuously, without intermission, night and day

till the rising of Arcturus,[339] and that the rivers, filled by the

melting of the snow and by the rains, irrigate the flat grounds.

These things, he says, were observed by himself and by others on their

journey into India from the Paropamisadæ. This was after the setting of

the Pleiades,[340] and during their stay in the mountainous country in

the territory of the Hypasii, and in that of Assacanus during the

winter. At the beginning of spring they descended into the plains to a

large city called Taxila,[341] thence they proceeded to the Hydaspes and

the country of Porus. During the winter they saw no rain, but only snow.

The first rain which fell was at Taxila. After their descent to the

Hydaspes and the conquest of Porus, their progress was eastwards to the

Hypanis, and thence again to the Hydaspes. At this time it rained

continually, and particularly during the blowing of the Etesian winds,

but at the rising of Arcturus the rains ceased. They remained at the

Hydaspes while the ships were constructing, and began their voyage not

many days before the setting of the Pleiades, and were occupied during

the whole autumn, winter, and the ensuing spring and summer, in sailing

down the river, and arrived at Patalene[342] about the rising of the

Dog-Star;[343] during the passage down the river, which lasted ten

months, they did not experience rain at any place, not even when the

Etesian winds were at their height, when the rivers were full and the

plains overflowed; the sea could not be navigated on account of the

blowing of contrary winds, but no land breezes succeeded.

18. Nearchus gives the same account, but does not agree with Aristobulus

respecting the rains in summer, but says that the plains are watered by

rain in the summer, and that they are without rain in winter. Both

writers, however, speak of the rise of the rivers. Nearchus says, that

the men encamped upon the Acesines[344] were obliged to change their

situation for another more elevated, and that this was at the time of

the rise of the river, and of the summer solstice.

Aristobulus gives even the measure of the height to which the river

rises, namely, forty cubits, of which twenty would fill the channel

beyond its previous depth up to the margin, and the other twenty are the

measure of the water when it overflows the plains.

They agree also in saying that the cities placed upon mounds become

islands, as in Egypt and Ethiopia, and that the inundation ceases after

the rising of Arcturus, when the waters recede. They add, that the

ground when half dried is sowed, after having been prepared by the

commonest labourer, yet the plant comes to perfection, and the produce

is good. The rice, according to Aristobulus, stands in water in an

enclosure. It is sowed in beds. The plant is four cubits in height, with

many ears, and yields a large produce. The harvest is about the time of

the setting of the Pleiades, and the grain is beaten out like barley. It

grows in Bactriana, Babylonia, Susis, and in the Lower Syria. Megillus

says that it is sowed before the rains, but does not require irrigation

or transplantation, being supplied with water from tanks.

The bosmorum, according to Onesicritus, is a kind of corn smaller than

wheat, and grows in places situated between [CAS. 692] rivers. After it

is threshed out, it is roasted; the threshers being previously bound by

an oath not to carry it away unroasted from the threshing floor; a

precaution to prevent the exportation of the seed.

19. Aristobulus, when comparing the circumstances in which this country

resembles, and those in which it differs from, Egypt and Ethiopia, and

observing that the swelling of the Nile is occasioned by rains in the

south, and of the Indian rivers by rains from the north, inquires why

the intermediate places have no rain; for it does not rain in the

Thebaïs as far as Syene, nor at the places near Meroë, nor in the parts

of India from Patalene to the Hydaspes. But the country situated above

these parts,[345] in which both rain and snow occur, is cultivated by

the husbandman in the same manner as the country without India; for the

rain and the snow supply the ground with moisture.

It is probable from what he relates that the country is subject to

shocks of earthquakes, that the ground is loose and hollow by excess of

moisture, and easily splits into fissures, whence even the course of

rivers is altered.

He says that when he was despatched upon some business into the country,

he saw a tract of land deserted, which contained more than a thousand

cities with their dependent villages; the Indus, having left its proper

channel, was diverted into another, on the left hand, much deeper, and

precipitated itself into it like a cataract, so that it no longer

watered the country by the (usual) inundation on the right hand, from

which it had receded, and this was elevated above the level, not only of

the new channel of the river, but above that of the (new) inundation.

20. The account of Onesicritus confirms the facts of the rising of the

rivers and of the absence of land breezes. He says that the sea-shore is

swampy, particularly near the mouths of rivers, on account of the mud,

tides, and the force of the winds blowing from the sea.

Megasthenes also indicates the fertility of India by the circumstance of

the soil producing fruits and grain twice a year. Eratosthenes relates

the same facts, for he speaks of a winter and a summer sowing, and of

the rain at the same seasons. For there is no year, according to him,

which is without rain at both those periods, whence ensues great

abundance, the ground never failing to bear crops.

An abundance of fruit is produced by trees; and the roots of plants,

particularly of large reeds, possess a sweetness, which they have by

nature and by coction; for the water, both from rains and rivers, is

warmed by the sun’s rays. The meaning of Eratosthenes seems to be this,

that what among other nations is called the ripening of fruits and

juices, is called among these _coction_, and which contributes as much

to produce an agreeable flavour as the coction by fire. To this is

attributed the flexibility of the branches of trees, from which wheels

of carriages are made, and to the same cause is imputed the growth upon

some trees of wool.[346] Nearchus says that their fine clothes were made

of this wool, and that the Macedonians used it for mattresses and the

stuffing of saddles. The Serica[347] also are of a similar kind, and are

made of dry byssus, which is obtained from some sort of bark of plants.

He says that reeds[348] yield honey, although there are no bees, and

that there is a tree from the fruit of which honey is procured, but that

the fruit eaten fresh causes intoxication.

21. India produces many singular trees. There is one whose branches

incline downwards, and whose leaves are not less in size than a shield.

Onesicritus, describing minutely the country of Musicanus, which he says

is the most southerly part[349] of India, relates, that there are some

large trees the branches of which extend to the length even of twelve

cubits. They then grow downwards, as though bent (by force), till they

touch the earth, where they penetrate and take root like layers. They

next shoot upwards and form a trunk. They again grow as we have

described, bending downwards, and implanting one layer after another,

and in the above order, so that one tree forms a long shady roof, like a

tent, supported by many pillars. In speaking of the size of the trees,

he says their trunks could scarcely be clasped by five men.[350]

Aristobulus also, where he mentions the Acesines, and its confluence

with the Hyarotis, speaks of trees with their boughs bent downwards and

of a size that fifty, but, according [CAS. 694] to Onesicritus, four

hundred horsemen might take shelter at mid-day beneath the shade of a

single tree.

Aristobulus mentions another tree, not large, bearing great pods, like

the bean, ten fingers in length, full of honey,[351] and says that those

who eat it do not easily escape with life. But the accounts of all these

writers about the size of the trees have been exceeded by those who

assert that there has been seen, beyond the Hyarotis,[352] a tree which

casts a shade at noon of five stadia.

Aristobulus says of the wool-bearing trees, that the flower pod contains

a kernel, which is taken out, and the remainder is combed like wool.

22. In the country of Musicanus there grows, he says, spontaneously

grain resembling wheat, and a vine that produces wine, whereas other

authors affirm that there is no wine in India. Hence, according to

Anacharsis, they had no pipes, nor any musical instruments, except

cymbals, drums, and crotala, which were used by jugglers.

Both Aristobulus and other writers relate that India produces many

medicinal plants and roots, both of a salutary and noxious quality, and

plants yielding a variety of colours. He adds, that, by a law, any

person discovering a deadly substance is punished with death unless he

also discover an antidote; in case he discovers an antidote, he is

rewarded by the king.

Southern India, like Arabia and Ethiopia, produces cinnamon, nard, and

other aromatics. It resembles these countries as regards the effect of

the sun’s rays, but it surpasses them in having a copious supply of

water, whence the atmosphere is humid, and on this account more

conducive to fertility and fecundity; and this applies to the earth and

to the water, hence those animals which inhabit both one and the other

are of a larger size than are found in other countries. The Nile

contributes to fecundity more than other rivers, and among other animals

of large bulk, produces the amphibious kind. The Egyptian women also

sometimes have four children at a birth, and Aristotle says that one

woman had seven children at one birth.[353] He calls the Nile most

fecundating and nutritive, on account of the moderate coction effected

by the sun’s rays, which leave behind the nutritious part of substances,

and evaporate that which is superfluous.

23. It is perhaps owing to this cause that the water of the Nile boils,

as he says, with one half of the heat which other water requires. In

proportion however, he says, as the water of the Nile traverses in a

straight line, a long and narrow tract of country, passing through a

variety of climates and of atmosphere, while the Indian rivers are

poured forth into wider and more extensive plains, their course being

delayed a long time in the same climate, in the same degree the waters

of India are more nutritious than those of the Nile; they produce larger

animals of the cetaceous kind, and in greater number (than the Nile),

and the water which descends from the clouds has already undergone the

process of coction.

24. This would not be admitted by the followers of Aristobulus, who say

that the plains are not watered by rain. Onesicritus, however, thinks

that rain-water is the cause of the peculiar properties of animals, and

alleges in proof, that the colour of foreign herds which drink of it is

changed to that of the native animals.

This is a just remark; but it is not proper to attribute to the power of

the water merely the cause of the black complexion and the woolly hair

of the Ethiopians, and yet he censures Theodectes, who refers these

peculiarities to the effects of the sun, in these words,

“Near these approaching with his radiant car,

The sun their skins with dusky tint doth dye,

And sooty hue; and with unvarying forms

Of fire, crisps their tufted hair.”

There may be reason in this, for he says that the sun does not approach

nearer to the Ethiopians than to other nations, but shines more

perpendicularly, and that on this account the heat is greater; indeed,

it cannot be correctly said that the sun approaches near to the

Ethiopians, for he is at an equal distance from all nations. Nor is the

heat the cause of the black complexion, particularly of children in the

womb, who are out of the reach of the sun. Their opinion is to be

preferred, who attribute these effects to the sun and to intense solar

heat, causing a great deficiency of moisture on the surface [CAS. 696]

of the skin. Hence we say it is that the Indians have not woolly hair,

nor is their colour so intensely[354] dark, because they live in a humid

atmosphere.

With respect to children in the womb, they resemble their parents (in

colour) according to a seminal disposition and constitution, on the same

principle that hereditary diseases, and other likenesses, are explained.

The equal distance of the sun from all nations (according to

Onesicritus) is an argument addressed to the senses, and not to reason.

But it is not an argument addressed to the senses generally, but in the

meaning that the earth bears the proportion of a point to the sun, for

we may understand such a meaning of an argument addressed to the senses,

by which we estimate heat to be more or less, as it is near or at a

distance, in which cases it is not the same; and in this meaning, not in

that of Onesicritus, the sun is said to be near the Ethiopians.

25. It is admitted by those who maintain the resemblance of India to

Egypt and Ethiopia, that the plains which are not overflowed do not

produce anything for want of water.

Nearchus says, that the old question respecting the rise of the Nile is

answered by the case of the Indian rivers, namely, that it is the effect

of summer rains; when Alexander saw crocodiles in the Hydaspes, and

Egyptian beans in the Acesines, he thought that he had discovered the

sources of the Nile, and was about to equip a fleet with the intention

of sailing by this river to Egypt; but he found out shortly afterwards

that his design could not be accomplished,

“for in midway were vast rivers, fearful waters, and first

the ocean,”[355]

into which all the Indian rivers discharge themselves; then Ariana, the

Persian and Arabian Gulfs, all Arabia and Troglodytica.

The above is what has been said on the subject of winds and rains, the

rising of rivers, and the inundation of plains.

26. We must describe these rivers in detail, with the particulars, which

are useful for the purposes of geography, and which have been handed

down to us by historians.

Besides this, rivers, being a kind of physical boundaries of the size

and figures of countries, are of the greatest use in every part of the

present work. But the Nile and the rivers in India have a superiority

above the rest, because the country could not be inhabited without them.

By means of the rivers it is open to navigation and capable of

cultivation, when otherwise it would not be accessible, nor could it be

occupied by inhabitants.

We shall speak of the rivers deserving notice, which flow into the

Indus, and of the countries which they traverse; with regard to the rest

we know some particulars, but are ignorant of more. Alexander, who

discovered the greatest portion of this country, first of all resolved

it to be more expedient to pursue and destroy those who had

treacherously killed Darius, and were meditating the revolt of

Bactriana. He approached India therefore through Ariana, which he left

on the right hand, and crossed the Paropamisus to the northern parts,

and to Bactriana.[356] Having conquered all the country subject to the

Persians, and many other places besides, he then entertained the desire

of possessing India, of which he had received many, although indistinct,

accounts.

He therefore returned, crossing over the same mountains by other and

shorter roads, having India on the left hand; he then immediately turned

towards it, and towards its western boundaries and the rivers Cophes and

Choaspes.[357] The latter river empties itself into the Cophes,[358]

near Plemyrium, after passing by another city Gorys, in its course

through Bandobene and Gandaritis.[359]

He was informed that the mountainous and northern parts were the most

habitable and fertile, but that the southern part was either without

water, or liable to be overflowed by rivers at one time, or entirely

burnt up at another, more fit to be the haunts of wild beasts than the

dwellings of men. He resolved therefore to get possession of that part

of India first which had been well spoken of, considering at the same

time that the rivers which it was necessary to pass, and which flowed

[CAS. 697] transversely through the country which he intended to

attack, would be crossed with more facility near their sources. He heard

also that many of the rivers united and formed one stream, and that this

more frequently occurred the farther they advanced into the country, so

that from want of boats it would be more difficult to traverse. Being

apprehensive of this obstruction, he crossed the Cophes, and conquered

the whole of the mountainous country situated towards the east.

27. Next to the Cophes was the Indus, then the Hydaspes, the Acesines,

the Hyarotis, and last, the Hypanis. He was prevented from proceeding

farther, partly from regard to some oracles, and partly compelled by his

army, which was exhausted by toil and fatigue, but whose principal

distress arose from their constant exposure to rain. Hence we became

acquainted with the eastern parts of India on this side the Hypanis, and

whatever parts besides which have been described by those who, after

Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Palibothra.

After the river Cophes, follows the Indus. The country lying between

these two rivers is occupied by Astaceni, Masiani, Nysæi, and

Hypasii.[360] Next is the territory of Assacanus, where is the city

Masoga (Massaga?), the royal residence of the country. Near the Indus is

another city, Peucolaïtis.[361] At this place a bridge which was

constructed afforded a passage for the army.

28. Between the Indus and the Hydaspes is Taxila, a large city, and

governed by good laws. The neighbouring country is crowded with

inhabitants and very fertile, and here unites with the plains. The

people and their king Taxiles received Alexander with kindness, and

obtained in return more presents than they had offered to Alexander; so

that the Macedonians became jealous, and observed, that it seemed as if

Alexander had found none on whom he could confer favours before he

passed the Indus. Some writers say that this country is larger than

Egypt.

Above this country among the mountains is the territory of

Abisarus,[362] who, as the ambassadors that came from him reported,

kept two serpents, one of 80, and the other, according to Onesicritus,

of 140 cubits in length. This writer may as well be called the master

fabulist as the master pilot of Alexander. For all those who accompanied

Alexander preferred the marvellous to the true, but this writer seems to

have surpassed all in his description of prodigies. Some things,

however, he relates which are probable and worthy of record, and will

not be passed over in silence even by one who does not believe their

correctness.

Other writers also mention the hunting of serpents in the Emodi

mountains,[363] and the keeping and feeding of them in caves.

29. Between the Hydaspes and Acesines is the country of Porus,[364] an

extensive and fertile district, containing nearly three hundred cities.

Here also is the forest in the neighbourhood of the Emodi mountains in

which Alexander cut down a large quantity of fir, pine, cedar, and a

variety of other trees fit for ship-building, and brought the timber

down the Hydaspes. With this he constructed a fleet on the Hydaspes,

near the cities, which he built on each side of the river where he had

crossed it and conquered Porus. One of these cities he called

Bucephalia,[365] from the horse Bucephalus, which was [CAS. 699] killed

in the battle with Porus. The name Bucephalus[366] was given to it from

the breadth of its forehead. He was an excellent war-horse, and

Alexander constantly rode him in battle.

The other city he called Nicæa from the victory, ΝΙΚΗ

(Nice), which he had obtained.

In the forest before mentioned it is said there is a vast number of

monkeys,[367] and as large as they are numerous. On one occasion the

Macedonians, seeing a body of them standing in array opposite to them,

on some bare eminences, (for this animal is not less intelligent than

the elephant,) and presenting the appearance of an army, prepared to

attack them as real enemies, but being informed by Taxiles, who was then

with the king, of the real fact, they desisted.

The chase of this animal is conducted in two different manners. It is an

imitative creature, and takes refuge up among the trees. The hunters,

when they perceive a monkey seated on a tree, place in sight a basin

containing water, with which they wash their own eyes; then, instead of

water, they put a basin of bird-lime, go away, and lie in wait at a

distance. The animal leaps down, and besmears itself with the bird-lime,

and when it winks, the eyelids are fastened together; the hunters then

come upon it, and take it.

The other method of capturing them is as follows: the hunters dress

themselves in bags like trowsers, and go away, leaving behind them

others which are downy, with the inside smeared over with bird-lime.

The monkeys put them on, and are easily taken.

30. Some writers place Cathaia[368] and the country of Sopeithes, one of

the nomarchs, in the tract between the rivers (Hydaspes and Acesines);

some, on the other side of the Acesines and of the Hyarotis, on the

confines of the territory of the other Porus, the nephew of Porus who

was taken prisoner by Alexander, and call the country subject to him

Grandaris.

A very singular usage is related of the high estimation in which the

inhabitants of Cathaia hold the quality of beauty, which they extend to

horses and dogs. According to Onesicritus, they elect the handsomest

person as king. The child (selected), two months after birth, undergoes

a public inspection, and is examined. They determine whether it has the

amount of beauty required by law, and whether it is worthy to be

permitted to live. The presiding magistrate then pronounces whether it

is to be allowed to live, or whether it is to be put to death.

They dye their heads with various and the most florid colours, for the

purpose of improving their appearance. This custom prevails elsewhere

among many of the Indians, who pay great attention to their hair and

dress; and the country produces colours of great beauty. In other

respects the people are frugal, but are fond of ornament.

A peculiar custom is related of the Cathæi. The bride and the husband

are respectively the choice of each other, and the wives burn themselves

with their deceased husbands. The reason assigned for this practice is,

that the women sometimes fell in love with young men, and deserted or

poisoned their husbands. This law was therefore established in order to

check the practice of administering poison; but neither the existence

nor the origin of the law are probable facts.

It is said, that in the territory of Sopeithes there is a mountain

composed of fossile salt, sufficient for the whole of India. Valuable

mines also both of gold and silver are situated, it is said, not far off

among other mountains, according to the testimony of Gorgus, the miner

(of Alexander). The Indians, unacquainted with mining and smelting, are

ignorant of their own wealth, and therefore traffic with greater

simplicity.

31. The dogs in the territory of Sopeithes are said to possess

remarkable courage: Alexander received from Sopeithes a present of one

hundred and fifty of them. To prove them, two were set at a lion; when

these were mastered, two others were set on; when the battle became

equal, Sopeithes ordered a man to seize one of the dogs by the leg, and

to drag him away; or to cut off his leg, if he still held on. Alexander

at first refused his consent to the dog’s leg being cut off, as he

wished to save the dog. But on Sopeithes saying, “I will give you four

in the place of it,” Alexander consented; and he saw the dog permit his

leg to be cut off by a slow incision, rather than loose his hold.

[CAS. 700] 32. The direction of the march, as far as the Hydaspes, was

for the most part towards the south. After that, to the Hypanis, it was

more towards the east. The whole of it, however, was much nearer to the

country lying at the foot of the mountains than to the plains. Alexander

therefore, when he returned from the Hypanis to the Hydaspes and the

station of his vessels, prepared his fleet, and set sail on the

Hydaspes.

All the rivers which have been mentioned (the last of which is the

Hypanis) unite in one, the Indus. It is said that there are altogether

fifteen[369] considerable rivers which flow into the Indus. After the

Indus has been filled by all these rivers, so as to be enlarged in some

places to the extent of a hundred stadia, according to writers who

exaggerate, or, according to a more moderate estimate, to fifty stadia

at the utmost, and at the least to seven, [and who speak of many nations

and cities about this river,][370] it discharges itself by two mouths

into the southern sea, and forms the island called Patalene.

Alexander’s intention was to relinquish the march towards the parts

situated to the east, first, because he was prevented from crossing the

Hypanis; next, because he learnt by experience the falsehood of the

reports previously received, to the effect that the plains were burnt up

with fire, and more fit for the haunts of wild beasts than for the

habitation of man. He therefore set out in this direction, relinquishing

the other track; so that these parts became better known than the other.

33. The territory lying between the Hypanis and the Hydaspes is said to

contain nine nations and five thousand cities, not less in size than Cos

Meropis;[371] but the number seems to be exaggerated. We have already

mentioned nearly all the nations deserving of notice, which inhabit the

country situated between the Indus and the Hydaspes.

Below, and next in order, are the people called Sibæ, whom we formerly

mentioned,[372] and the great nations, the Malli[373] and Sydracæ

(Oxydracæ). It was among the Malli that Alexander was in danger of

losing his life, from a wound he received at the capture of a small

city. The Sydracæ, we have said, are fabled to be allied to Bacchus.

Near Patalene is placed the country of Musicanus, that of Sabus,[374]

whose capital is Sindomana, that of Porticanus, and of other princes who

inhabited the country on the banks of the Indus. They were all conquered

by Alexander; last of all he made himself master of Patalene, which is

formed by the two branches of the Indus. Aristobulus says that these two

branches are distant 1000 stadia from each other. Nearchus adds 800

stadia more to this number. Onesicritus reckons each side of the

included island, which is of a triangular shape, at 2000 stadia; and the

breadth of the river, where it is separated into two mouths, at about

200 stadia.[375] He calls the island Delta, and says that it is as large

as the Delta of Egypt; but this is a mistake. For the Egyptian Delta is

said to have a base of 1300 stadia, and each of the sides to be less

than the base. In Patalene is Patala, a considerable city, from which

the island has its name.

34. Onesicritus says, that the greatest part of the coast in this

quarter abounds with swamps, particularly at the mouths of the river,

which is owing to the mud, the tides, and the want of land breezes; for

these parts are chiefly under the influence of winds blowing from the

sea.

He expatiates also in praise of the country of Musicanus, and relates of

the inhabitants what is common to other Indian tribes, that they are

long-lived, and that life is protracted even to the age of 130 years,

(the Seres,[376] however, are said by some [CAS. 701] writers to be

still longer lived,) that they are temperate in their habits and

healthy; although the country produces everything in abundance.

The following are their peculiarities: to have a kind of Lacedæmonian

common meal, where they eat in public. Their food consists of what is

taken in the chase. They make no use of gold nor silver, although they

have mines of these metals. Instead of slaves, they employed youths in

the flower of their age, as the Cretans employ the Aphamiotæ, and the

Lacedæmonians the Helots. They study no science with attention but that

of medicine; for they consider the excessive pursuit of some arts, as

that of war, and the like, to be committing evil. There is no process at

law but against murder and outrage, for it is not in a person’s own

power to escape either one or the other; but as contracts are in the

power of each individual, he must endure the wrong, if good faith is

violated by another; for a man should be cautious whom he trusts, and

not disturb the city with constant disputes in courts of justice.

Such are the accounts of the persons who accompanied Alexander in his

expedition.

35. A letter of Craterus to his mother Aristopatra is circulated, which

contains many other singular circumstances, and differs from every other

writer, particularly in saying that Alexander advanced as far as the

Ganges. Craterus says, that he himself saw the river, and the

whales[377] which it produces, and [his account] of its magnitude,

breadth, and depth, far exceeds, rather than approximates, probability.

For that the Ganges is the largest of known rivers in the three

continents, it is generally agreed; next to this is the Indus; and,

thirdly, the Danube; and, fourthly, the Nile. But different authors

differ in their account of it, some assigning 30, others 3 stadia, as

the least breadth. But Megasthenes says that its ordinary width is 100

stadia,[378] and its least depth twenty orguiæ.[379]

36. At the confluence of the Ganges and of another river (the

Erannoboas[380]) is situated (the city) Palibothra, in length 80, and in

breadth 15 stadia. It is in the shape of a parallelogram, surrounded by

a wooden wall pierced with openings through which arrows may be

discharged. In front is a ditch, which serves the purpose of defence and

of a sewer for the city. The people in whose country the city is

situated are the most distinguished of all the tribes, and are called

Prasii. The king, besides his family name, has the surname of

Palibothrus, as the king to whom Megasthenes was sent on an embassy had

the name of Sandrocottus.[381]

Such also is the custom among the Parthians; for all have the name

Arsacæ,[382] although each has his peculiar name of Orodes, Phraates, or

some other appellation.

37. All the country on the other side of the Hypanis is allowed to be

very fertile, but we have no accurate knowledge of it. Either through

ignorance or from its remote situation, everything relative to it is

exaggerated or partakes of the wonderful. As, for example, the stories

of myrmeces (or ants),[383] which dig up gold; of animals and men with

peculiar shapes, and possessing extraordinary faculties; of the

longevity of the Seres, whose lives exceed the age of two hundred years.

They speak also of an aristocratical form of government, consisting of

five hundred counsellors, each of whom furnishes the state with an

elephant.

According to Megasthenes, the largest tigers are found among the Prasii,

almost twice the size of lions, and of such strength that a tame one led

by four persons seized a mule by its hinder leg, overpowered it, and

dragged it to him. The monkeys are larger than the largest dogs; they

are of a white colour, except the face, which is black. The contrary is

observed in other places. Their tails are more than two cubits in

length. They are very tame, and not of a mischievous disposition. They

neither attack people, nor steal.

Stones are found there of the colour of frankincense, and sweeter than

figs or honey.

In some places there are serpents of two cubits in length, with

membraneous wings like bats. They fly at night, and let fall drops of

urine or sweat, which occasions the skin of persons [CAS. 703] who are

not on their guard to putrefy. There are also winged scorpions of great

size.

Ebony grows there. There are also dogs of great courage, which do not

loose their hold till water is poured into their nostrils: some of them

destroy their sight, and the eyes of others even fall out, by the

eagerness of their bite. Both a lion and a bull were held fast by one of

these dogs. The bull was caught by the muzzle, and died before the dog

could be loosened.

38. In the mountainous country is a river, the Silas, on the surface of

which nothing will float. Democritus, who had travelled over a large

part of Asia, disbelieves this, and Aristotle does not credit it,

although atmospheres exist so rare that no bird can sustain its flight

in them. Vapours also, which ascend (from some substances), attract and

absorb, as it were, whatever is flying over them; as amber attracts

straw, and the magnet iron, and perhaps there may be in water a similar

power.

As these matters belong to physics and to the question of floating

bodies, these must be referred to them. At present we must proceed to

what follows, and to the subjects more nearly relating to geography.

39. It is said that the Indians are divided into seven castes. The first

in rank, but the smallest in number, are the philosophers. Persons who

intend to offer sacrifice, or to perform any sacred rite, have the

services of these persons on their private account; but the kings employ

them in a public capacity at the time of the Great Assembly, as it is

called, where at the beginning of the new year all the philosophers

repair to the king at the gate, and anything useful which they have

committed to writing, or observed, tending to improve the productions of

the earth or animals, or of advantage to the government of the state, is

then publicly declared.

Whoever has been detected in giving false information thrice is enjoined

silence by law during the rest of his life; but he who has made correct

observations is exempted from all contributions and tribute.

40. The second caste is that of husbandmen, who constitute the majority

of natives, and are a most mild and gentle people, as they are exempted

from military service, and cultivate their land free from alarm; they

do not resort to cities, either to transact private business, or take

part in public tumults. It therefore frequently happens that at the same

time, and in the same part of the country, one body of men are in battle

array, and engaged in contests with the enemy, while others are

ploughing or digging in security, having these soldiers to protect them.

The whole of the territory belongs to the king. They cultivate it on the

terms of receiving as wages a fourth part of the produce.

41. The third caste consists of shepherds and hunters, who alone are

permitted to hunt, to breed cattle, to sell and to let out for hire

beasts of burden. In return for freeing the country from wild beasts and

birds, which infest sown fields, they receive an allowance of corn from

the king. They lead a wandering life, and dwell in tents. No private

person is allowed to keep a horse or an elephant. The possession of

either one or the other is a royal privilege, and persons are appointed

to take care of them.

42. The manner of hunting the elephant is as follows: Round a bare spot

a ditch is dug, of about four or five stadia in extent, and at the place

of entrance a very narrow bridge is constructed. Into the enclosure

three or four of the tamest female elephants are driven. The men

themselves lie in wait under cover of concealed huts. The wild elephants

do not approach the females by day, but at night they enter the

enclosure one by one; when they have passed the entrance, the men

secretly close it. They then introduce the strongest of the tame

combatants, the drivers of which engage with the wild animals, and also

wear them out by famine; when the latter are exhausted by fatigue, the

boldest of the drivers gets down unobserved, and creeps under the belly

of his own elephant. From this position he creeps beneath the belly of

the wild elephant, and ties his legs together; when this is done, a

signal is given to the tame elephants to beat those which are tied by

the legs, till they fall to the ground. After they have fallen down,

they fasten the wild and tame elephants together by the neck with thongs

of raw cow-hide, and, in order that they may not be able to shake off

those who are attempting to mount them, cuts are made round the neck,

and thongs of leather are put into these incisions, so that they submit

to their bonds through pain, and so remain quiet. Among the elephants

[CAS. 705] which are taken, those are rejected which are too old or too

young for service; the remainder are led away to the stables. They tie

their feet one to another, and their necks to a pillar firmly fastened

in the ground, and tame them by hunger. They recruit their strength

afterwards with green cane and grass. They then teach them to obey; some

by words; others they pacify by tunes, accompanied with the beating of a

drum. Few are difficult to be tamed; for they are naturally of a mild

and gentle disposition, so as to approximate to the character of a

rational animal. Some have taken up their drivers, who have fallen on

the ground lifeless, and carried them safe out of battle. Others have

fought, and protected their drivers, who have crept between their

fore-legs. If they have killed any of their feeders or masters in anger,

they feel their loss so much that they refuse their food through grief,

and sometimes die of hunger.

43. They copulate like horses, and produce young chiefly in the spring.

It is the season for the male, when he is in heat and is ferocious. At

this period he discharges some fatty matter through an opening in the

temples. It is the season also for the females, when this same passage

is open. Eighteen months is the longest, and sixteen the shortest period

that they go with young. The dam suckles her young six years. Many of

them live as long as men who attain to the greatest longevity, some even

to the protracted age of two hundred years.

They are subject to many diseases, which are difficult to be cured. A

remedy for diseases of the eye is to bathe them with cow’s milk. For

complaints in general, they drink dark wine. In cases of wounds, they

drink butter; for it draws out iron instruments. Their sores are

fomented with swine’s flesh.

Onesicritus says, that they live three hundred years, and rarely five

hundred; and that they go with young ten years. He and other writers

say, that they are larger and stronger than the African elephants. They

will pull down with their trunks battlements, and uproot trees, standing

erect upon their hind feet.

According to Nearchus, traps are laid in the hunting grounds, at certain

places where roads meet; the wild elephants are forced into the toils by

the tame elephants, which are stronger, and guided by a driver. They

become so tame and docile, that they learn even to throw a stone at a

mark, to use military weapons, and to be excellent swimmers. A chariot

drawn by elephants is esteemed a most important possession, and they are

driven without bridles.[384]

A woman is greatly honoured who receives from her lover a present of an

elephant, but this does not agree with what he said before, that a horse

and an elephant are the property of kings alone.

44. This writer says that he saw skins of the myrmeces (or ants), which

dig up gold, as large as the skins of leopards. Megasthenes, however,

speaking of the myrmeces, says, among the Derdæ a populous nation of the

Indians, living towards the east, and among the mountains, there was a

mountain plain of about 3000 stadia in circumference; that below this

plain were mines containing gold, which the myrmeces, in size not less

than foxes, dig up. They are excessively fleet, and subsist on what they

catch. In winter they dig holes, and pile up the earth in heaps, like

moles, at the mouths of the openings.

The gold-dust which they obtain requires little preparation by fire. The

neighbouring people go after it by stealth, with beasts of burden; for

if it is done openly, the myrmeces fight furiously, pursuing those that

run away, and if they seize them, kill them and the beasts. In order to

prevent discovery, they place in various parts pieces of the flesh of

wild beasts, and when the myrmeces are dispersed in various directions,

they take away the gold-dust, and, not being acquainted with the mode of

smelting it, dispose of it in its rude state at any price to merchants.

45. Having mentioned what Megasthenes and other writers relate of the

hunters and the beasts of prey, we must add the following particulars.

Nearchus is surprised at the multitude and the noxious nature of the

tribe of reptiles. They retreat from the plains to the settlements,

which are not covered with water at the period of inundations, and fill

the houses. For this reason the inhabitants raise their beds at some

height from the [CAS. 706] ground, and are sometimes compelled to

abandon their dwellings, when they are infested by great multitudes of

these animals; and, if a great proportion of these multitudes were not

destroyed by the waters, the country would be a desert. Both the

minuteness of some animals and the excessive magnitude of others are

causes of danger; the former, because it is difficult to guard against

their attacks; the latter, on account of their strength, for snakes are

to be seen of sixteen cubits in length. Charmers go about the country,

and are supposed to cure wounds made by serpents. This seems to comprise

nearly their whole art of medicine, for disease is not frequent among

them, which is owing to their frugal manner of life, and to the absence

of wine; whenever diseases do occur, they are treated by the Sophistæ

(or wise men).

Aristobulus says, that he saw no animals of these pretended magnitudes,

except a snake, which was nine cubits and a span in length. And I myself

saw one in Egypt, nearly of the same size, which was brought from India.

He says also, that he saw many serpents of a much inferior size, and

asps and large scorpions. None of these, however, are so noxious as the

slender small serpents, a span long, which are found concealed in tents,

in vessels, and in hedges. Persons wounded by them bleed from every

pore, suffering great pain, and die, unless they have immediate

assistance; but this assistance is easily obtained, by means of the

virtues of the Indian roots and drugs.

Few crocodiles, he says, are found in the Indus, and these are harmless,

but most of the other animals, except the hippopotamus, are the same as

those found in the Nile; but Onesicritus says that this animal also is

found there.

According to Aristobulus, none of the sea fish ascend the Nile from the

sea, except the shad,[385] the grey mullet,[386] and dolphin, on account

of the crocodiles; but great numbers ascend the Indus. Small

craw-fish[387] go up as far as the mountains,[388] and the larger as far

as the confluence of the Indus and the Acesines.

So much then on the subject of the wild animals of India. We shall

return to Megasthenes, and resume our account where we digressed.

46. After the hunters and the shepherds, follows the fourth caste, which

consists, he says, of those who work at trades, retail wares, and who

are employed in bodily labour. Some of these pay taxes, and perform

certain stated services. But the armour-makers and ship-builders receive

wages and provisions from the king, for whom only they work. The

general-in-chief furnishes the soldiers with arms, and the admiral lets

out ships for hire to those who undertake voyages and traffic as

merchants.

47. The fifth caste consists of fighting men, who pass the time not

employed in the field in idleness and drinking, and are maintained at

the charge of the king. They are ready whenever they are wanted to march

on an expedition, for they bring nothing of their own with them, except

their bodies.

48. The sixth caste is that of the Ephori, or inspectors. They are

intrusted with the superintendence of all that is going on, and it is

their duty to report privately to the king. The city inspectors employ

as their coadjutors the city courtesans; and the inspectors of the camp,

the women who follow it. The best and the most faithful persons are

appointed to the office of inspector.

49. The seventh caste consists of counsellors and assessors of the king.

To these persons belong the offices of state, tribunals of justice, and

the whole administration of affairs.

It is not permitted to contract marriage with a person of another caste,

nor to change from one profession or trade to another, nor for the same

person to undertake several, except he is of the caste of philosophers,

when permission is given, on account of his superior qualifications.

50. Of the magistrates, some have the charge of the market, others of

the city, others of the soldiery. Some have the care of the rivers,

measure the land, as in Egypt, and inspect the closed reservoirs, from

which water is distributed by canals, so that all may have an equal use

of it. These persons have charge also of the hunters, and have the power

of rewarding or punishing those who merit either. They collect the

taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land, as

wood-cutters, carpenters, workers in brass, and miners. They [CAS. 708]

superintend the public roads, and place a pillar at every ten stadia, to

indicate the by-ways and distances.

51. Those who have charge of the city are divided into six bodies of

five each. The first has the inspection of everything relating to the

mechanical arts; the second entertain strangers, assign lodgings,

observe their mode of life, by means of attendants whom they attach to

them, escort them out of the country on their departure; if they die,

take charge of their property, have the care of them when sick, and when

they die, bury them.

The third class consists of those who inquire at what time and in what

manner births and deaths take place, which is done with a view to tax

(on these occasions), and in order that the deaths and births of persons

both of good and bad character should not be concealed.

The fourth division consists of those who are occupied in sales and

exchanges; they have the charge of measures, and of the sale of the

products in season, by a signal. The same person is not allowed to

exchange various kinds of articles, except he pays a double tax.

The fifth division presides over works of artisans, and disposes of

articles by public notice. The new are sold apart from the old, and

there is a fine imposed for mixing them together. The sixth and last

comprises those who collect the tenth of the price of the articles sold.

Death is the punishment for committing a fraud with regard to the tax.

These are the peculiar duties performed by each class, but in their

collective capacity they have the charge both of their own peculiar

province and of civil affairs, the repairs of public works, prices[389]

of articles, of markets, harbours, and temples.

52. Next to the magistrates of the city is a third body of governors,

who have the care of military affairs. This class also consists of six

divisions, each composed of five persons. One division is associated

with the chief naval superintendent, another with the person who has the

charge of the bullock-teams, by which military engines are transported,

of provisions both for the men and beasts, and other requisites for the

army. They furnish attendants, who beat a drum, and carry gongs;[390]

and besides these, grooms, mechanists, and their assistants. They

despatch by the sound of the gong the foragers for grass, and insure

expedition and security by rewards and punishments. The third division

has the care of the infantry; the fourth, of the horses; the fifth, of

the chariots; the sixth, of the elephants. There are royal stables for

the horses and elephants. There is also a royal magazine of arms; for

the soldier returns his arms to the armoury, and the horse and elephant

to the stables. They use the elephants without bridles. The chariots are

drawn on the march by oxen. The horses are led by a halter, in order

that their legs may not be chafed and inflamed, nor their spirit damped,

by drawing chariots. Besides the charioteer, there are two persons who

fight by his side in the chariot. With the elephant are four persons,

the driver and three bowmen, who discharge arrows from his back.

53. All the Indians are frugal in their mode of life, and especially in

camp. They do not tolerate useless and undisciplined multitudes, and

consequently observe good order. Theft is very rare among them.

Megasthenes, who was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of

400,000 men, did not witness on any day thefts reported, which exceeded

the sum of two hundred drachmæ, and this among a people who have no

written laws, who are ignorant even of writing, and regulate everything

by memory. They are, however, happy on account of their simple manners

and frugal way of life. They never drink wine, but at sacrifices. Their

beverage is made from rice instead of barley, and their food consists

for the most part of rice pottage. The simplicity of their laws and

contracts appears from their not having many law-suits. They have no

suits respecting pledges and deposits, nor do they require witnesses or

seals, but make their deposits, and confide in one another. Their houses

and property are unguarded. These things denote temperance and sobriety;

others no one would approve, as their eating always alone, and their not

having all of them one common hour for their meals, but each taking it

as he likes. The contrary custom is more agreeable to the habits of

social and civil life.

54. As an exercise of the body they prefer friction in various ways, but

particularly by making use of smooth sticks of ebony, which they pass

over the surface of the body.

[CAS. 709] Their sepulchres are plain, and the tumuli of earth low.

In contrast to their parsimony in other things, they indulge in

ornament. They wear dresses worked with gold and precious stones, and

flowered (variegated) robes, and are attended by persons following them

with umbrellas; for as they highly esteem beauty, everything is attended

to, which can improve their looks.

They respect alike truth and virtue; therefore they do not assign any

privilege to the old, unless they possess superior wisdom.

They marry many wives, who are purchased from their parents, and give in

exchange for them a yoke of oxen. Some marry wives to possess obedient

attendants, others with a view to pleasure and numerous offspring, and

the wives prostitute themselves, unless chastity is enforced by

compulsion.

No one wears a garland when sacrificing, or burning incense, or pouring

out a libation. They do not stab, but strangle the victim, that nothing

mutilated, but that which is entire, may be offered to the Deity.

A person convicted of bearing false testimony suffers a mutilation of

his extremities. He who has maimed another not only undergoes in return

the loss of the same limb, but his hand also is cut off. If he has

caused a workman to lose his hand or his eye, he is put to death.

Megasthenes says, that none of the Indians employ slaves. But, according

to Onesicritus, this is peculiar to the people in the territory of

Musicanus. He speaks of this as an excellent rule, and mentions many

others to be found in that country, as the effects of a government by

good laws.

55. The care of the king’s person is committed to women, who are also

purchased of their parents. The body-guard, and the rest of the

military, are stationed without the gates. A woman, who puts to death a

king when drunk, is rewarded by becoming the wife of his successor. The

sons succeed the father. The king may not sleep during the day-time, and

at night he is obliged from time to time to change his bed, from dread

of treachery.

The king leaves his palace in time of war; he leaves it also when he

goes to sit in his court as a judge. He remains there all day thus

occupied, not suffering himself to be interrupted even though the time

arrives for attending to his person. This attention to his person

consists of friction with pieces of wood, and he continues to listen to

the cause, while the friction is performed by four attendants who

surround him.

Another occasion of leaving his palace is to offer sacrifice.

The third is a sort of Bacchanalian departure to the chace. Crowds of

women surround him, and on the outside (of these) are spear-men. The

road is set off with ropes; a man, or even a woman, who passes within

the ropes is put to death.

The king is preceded by drums and gongs. He hunts in the enclosures, and

discharges his arrows from a high seat. Near him stand two or three

armed women. When hunting in the open ground, he shoots his arrows from

an elephant; of the women some are in chariots, some on horses, and

others on elephants; they are provided with all kinds of weapons, as if

they were going on a military expedition.

56. These customs when compared with ours are very strange, but the

following are still more extraordinary. According to Megasthenes, the

nations who inhabit the Caucasus have commerce with women in public; and

eat the bodies of their relatives; the monkeys climb precipices, and

roll down large stones upon their pursuers; most of the animals which

are tame in our country are wild in theirs; the horses have a single

horn, with heads like those of deer; reeds which grow to the height of

thirty orguiæ,[391] others which grow on the ground, fifty orguiæ in

length, and in thickness some are three and others six cubits in

diameter.

57. He then deviates into fables, and says that there are men of five,

and even three spans in height, some of whom are without nostrils, with

only two breathing orifices above the mouth. Those of three spans in

height wage war with the cranes (described by Homer) and with the

partridges, which are as large as geese; these people collect and

destroy the eggs of the cranes which lay their eggs there; and nowhere

else are the eggs or the young cranes to be found; frequently a crane

escapes from this country with a brazen point of a weapon in its body,

wounded by these people.

Similar to this is the account of the Enotocoitæ,[392] of the wild men,

and of other monsters. The wild men could not be brought to

Sandrocottus, for they died by abstaining from [CAS. 711] food. Their

heels are in front, the instep and toes are turned backwards. Some have

been taken, which had no mouths, and were tame. They live near the

sources of the Ganges, and are supported by the smell of dressed meat

and the fragrance of fruits and flowers, having instead of mouths

orifices through which they breathe. They are distressed by

strong-smelling substances, and therefore their lives are sustained with

difficulty, particularly in a camp.

With respect to the other singular animals, the philosophers informed

him of a people called Ocypodæ, so swift of foot that they leave horses

behind them; of Enotocoitæ, or persons having ears hanging down to their

feet, so that they lie and sleep upon them, and so strong as to be able

to pluck up trees and to break the sinew string of a bow; of others

(Monommati) who have only one eye, and the ears of a dog, the eye placed

in the middle of the forehead, the hair standing erect, and the breasts

shaggy; of others (Amycteres) without nostrils, devouring everything,

eaters of raw meat, short-lived, and dying before they arrive at old

age; the upper part of their mouths projects far beyond the lower lip.

With respect to the Hyperboreans, who live to the age of a thousand

years, his description is the same as that of Simonides, Pindar, and

other mythological writers.

The story told by Timagenes of a shower of drops of brass, which were

raked together, is a fable. The account of Megasthenes is more probable,

namely, that the rivers bring down gold-dust, a part of which is paid as

a tax to the king; and this is the case in Iberia (of Armenia).

58. Speaking of the philosophers, he says, that those who inhabit the

mountains are worshippers of Bacchus, and show as a proof (of the god

having come among them) the wild vine, which grows in their country

only; the ivy, the laurel, the myrtle, the box-tree, and other

evergreens, none of which are found beyond the Euphrates, except a few

in parks, which are only preserved with great care. To wear robes and

turbans, to use perfumes, and to be dressed in dyed and flowered

garments, for their kings to be preceded when they leave their palaces,

and appear abroad, by gongs and drums, are Bacchanalian customs. But the

philosophers who live in the plains worship Hercules.

These are fabulous stories, contradicted by many writers, particularly

what is said of the vine and wine, for a great part of Armenia, the

whole of Mesopotamia and Media, as far as Persia and Carmania, is beyond

the Euphrates, the greater part of which countries is said to have

excellent vines, and to produce good wine.

59. Megasthenes divides the philosophers again into two kinds, the

Brachmanes[393] and the Garmanes.[394] The Brachmanes are held in

greater repute, for they agree more exactly in their opinions. Even from

the time of their conception in the womb they are under the care and

guardianship of learned men, who go to the mother, and seem to perform

some incantation for the happiness and welfare of the mother and the

unborn child, but in reality they suggest prudent advice, and the

mothers who listen to them most willingly are thought to be the most

fortunate in their offspring. After the birth of the children, there is

a succession of persons who have the care of them, and as they advance

in years, masters more able and accomplished succeed.

The philosophers live in a grove in front of the city within a

moderate-sized enclosure. Their diet is frugal, and they lie upon straw

pallets and on skins. They abstain from animal food, and from sexual

intercourse with women; their time is occupied in grave discourse, and

they communicate with those who are inclined to listen to them; but the

hearer is not permitted to speak or cough, or even to spit on the

ground; otherwise, he is expelled that very day from their society, on

the ground of having no control over himself. After living thirty-seven

years in this manner, each individual retires to his own possessions,

and lives with less restraint, wearing robes of fine linen, and rings of

gold, but without profuseness, upon the hands and in the ears. They eat

the flesh of animals, of those particularly which do not assist man in

his labour, and abstain from hot and seasoned food. They have as many

wives as they please with a view to numerous offspring, for from many

wives greater advantages are derived.

As they have no slaves, they require more the services, which are at

hand, of their children.

The Brachmanes do not communicate their philosophy to their wives, for

fear they should divulge to the profane, if [CAS. 712] they became

depraved, anything which ought to be concealed; or lest they should

abandon their husbands in case they became good (philosophers)

themselves. For no one who despises alike pleasure and pain, life and

death, is willing to be subject to the authority of another; and such is

the character of a virtuous man and a virtuous woman.

They discourse much on death, for it is their opinion that the present

life is the state of one conceived in the womb, and that death to

philosophers is birth to a real and a happy life. They therefore

discipline themselves much to prepare for death, and maintain that

nothing which happens to man is bad or good, for otherwise the same

things would not be the occasion of sorrow to some and of joy to others,

opinions being merely dreams, nor that the same persons could be

affected with sorrow and joy by the same things, on different occasions.

With regard to opinions on physical phenomena, they display, says

Megasthenes, great simplicity, their actions being better than their

reasoning, for their belief is chiefly founded on fables. On many

subjects their sentiments are the same as those of the Greeks. According

to the Brachmanes, the world was created, and is liable to corruption;

it is of a spheroïdal figure; the god who made and governs it pervades

the whole of it; the principles of all things are different, but the

principle of the world’s formation was water; in addition to the four

elements there is a fifth nature, of which the heavens and the stars are

composed; the earth is situated in the centre of the universe. Many

other peculiar things they say of the principle of generation and of the

soul. They invent fables also, after the manner of Plato, on the

immortality of the soul, and on the punishments in Hades, and other

things of this kind. This is the account which Megasthenes gives of the

Brachmanes.

60. Of the Garmanes, the most honourable, he says, are the Hylobii, who

live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and wild fruits: they are

clothed with garments made of the bark of trees,[395] and abstain from

commerce with women and from wine. The kings hold communication with

them by messengers, concerning the causes of things, and through them

worship and supplicate the Divinity.

Second in honour to the Hylobii, are the physicians, for they apply

philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They are of frugal habits,

but do not live in the fields, and subsist upon rice and meal, which

every one gives when asked, and receive them hospitably. They are able

to cause persons to have a numerous offspring, and to have either male

or female children, by means of charms. They cure diseases by diet,

rather than by medicinal remedies. Among the latter, the most in repute

are unguents and cataplasms. All others they suppose partake greatly of

a noxious nature.

Both this and the other class of persons practise fortitude, as well in

supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so that they will

continue a whole day in the same posture, without motion.

There are enchanters and diviners, versed in the rites and customs

relative to the dead, who go about villages and towns begging. There are

others who are more civilized and better informed than these, who

inculcate the vulgar opinions concerning Hades, which, according to

their ideas, tend to piety and sanctity. Women study philosophy with

some of them, but abstain from sexual intercourse.

61. Aristobulus says, that he saw at Taxila two sophists (wise men),

both Brachmanes, the elder had his head shaved, but the younger wore his

hair; both were attended by disciples. When not otherwise engaged, they

spent their time in the market-place. They are honoured as public

counsellors, and have the liberty of taking away, without payment,

whatever article they like which is exposed for sale; when any one

accosts them, he pours over them oil of jessamine, in such profusion

that it runs down from their eyes. Of honey and sesamum, which is

exposed for sale in large quantity, they take enough to make cakes, and

are fed without expense.

They came up to Alexander’s table and took their meal standing, and they

gave an example of their fortitude by retiring to a neighbouring spot,

where the elder, falling on the ground supine, endured the sun and the

rain, which had now set in, it being the commencement of spring. The

other stood on one leg, with a piece of wood three cubits in length

raised in both hands; when one leg was fatigued he changed the support

to the other, and thus continued the whole day. The younger appeared to

possess much more self-command; for, [CAS. 714] after following the

king a short distance, he soon returned to his home. The king sent after

him, but he bade the king to come to him, if he wanted anything of him.

The other accompanied the king to the last: during his stay he changed

his dress, and altered his mode of life, and when reproached for his

conduct, answered, that he had completed the forty years of discipline

which he had promised to observe: Alexander made presents to his

children.

62. Aristobulus relates also some strange and unusual customs of the

people of Taxila. Those, who through poverty are unable to marry their

daughters, expose them for sale in the market-place, in the flower of

their age, to the sound of shell trumpets and drums, with which the

war-note is given. A crowd is thus assembled. First her back, as far as

the shoulders, is uncovered, then the parts in front, for the

examination of any man who comes for this purpose. If she pleases him,

he marries her on such conditions as may be determined upon.

The dead are thrown out to be devoured by vultures. To have many wives

is a custom common to these and to other nations. He says, that he had

heard, from some persons, of wives burning themselves voluntarily with

their deceased husbands; and that those women who refused to submit to

this custom were disgraced. The same things have been told by other

writers.[396]

63. Onesicritus says, that he himself was sent to converse with these

wise men. For Alexander heard that they went about naked, practised

constancy and fortitude, and were held in the highest honour; that, when

invited, they did not go to other persons, but commanded others to come

to them, if they wished to participate in their exercises or their

conversation. Such being their character, Alexander did not consider it

to be consistent with propriety to go to them, nor to compel them to do

anything contrary to their inclination or against the custom of their

country; he therefore despatched Onesicritus to them.

Onesicritus found, at the distance of 20 stadia from the city, fifteen

men standing in different postures, sitting or lying down naked, who

continued in these positions until the evening, and then returned to the

city. The most difficult thing to endure was the heat of the sun, which

was so powerful, that no one else could endure without pain to walk on

the ground at mid-day with bare feet.

64. He conversed with Calanus, one of these sophists, who accompanied

the king to Persia, and died after the custom of his country, being

placed on a pile of [burning] wood. When Onesicritus came, he was lying

upon stones. Onesicritus approached, accosted him, and told him that he

had been sent by the king, who had heard the fame of his wisdom, and

that he was to give an account of his interview, if there were no

objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse. When Calanus saw his

mantle, head-covering, and shoes, he laughed, and said, “Formerly, there

was abundance everywhere of corn and barley, as there is now of dust;

fountains then flowed with water, milk, honey, wine, and oil, but

mankind by repletion and luxury became proud and insolent. Jupiter,

indignant at this state of things, destroyed all, and appointed for man

a life of toil. On the reäppearance of temperance and other virtues,

there was again an abundance of good things. But at present the

condition of mankind approaches satiety and insolence, and there is

danger lest the things which now exist should disappear.”

When he had finished, he proposed to Onesicritus, if he wished to hear

his discourse, to strip off his clothes, to lie down naked by him on the

same stones, and in that manner to listen to him; while he was

hesitating what to do, Mandanis,[397] who was the oldest and wisest of

the sophists, reproached Calanus for his insolence, although he censured

such insolence himself. Mandanis called Onesicritus to him, and said, I

commend the king, because, although he governs so large an empire, he is

yet desirous of acquiring wisdom, for he is the only philosopher in arms

that I ever saw; it would be of the greatest advantage, if those were

philosophers who have the power of persuading the willing and of

compelling the unwilling to learn temperance; but I am entitled to

indulgence, if, when conversing by means of three interpreters, who,

except the language, know no more than the vulgar, I am not [CAS. 716]

able to demonstrate the utility of philosophy. To attempt it is to

expect water to flow pure through mud.

65. “The tendency of his discourse,” he said, “was this, that the best

philosophy was that which liberated the mind from pleasure and grief;

that grief differed from labour, in that the former was inimical, the

latter friendly to men; for that men exercised their bodies with labour

in order to strengthen the mental powers, by which means they would be

able to put an end to dissensions, and give good counsel to all, to the

public and to individuals; that he certainly should at present advise

Taxiles to receive Alexander as a friend; for if he entertained a person

better than himself, he might be improved; but if a worse person, he

might dispose him to good.”

After this Mandanis inquired, whether such doctrines were taught among

the Greeks. Onesicritus answered, that Pythagoras taught a similar

doctrine, and enjoined his disciples to abstain from whatever has life;

that Socrates and Diogenes, whose discourses he had heard, held the same

opinions. Mandanis replied, “that in other respects he thought them

wise, but that in one thing they were mistaken, namely, in preferring

custom to nature, for otherwise they would not be ashamed of going

naked, like himself, and of subsisting on frugal fare; for the best

house was that which required least repairs.” He says also that they

employ themselves much on natural subjects, as prognostics, rain,

drought, and diseases. When they repair to the city, they disperse

themselves in the market-places; if they meet any one carrying figs or

bunches of grapes, they take what is offered gratuitously; if it is oil,

it is poured over them, and they are anointed with it. Every wealthy

house, even to the women’s apartment, is open to them; when they enter

it, they engage in conversation, and partake of the repast. Disease of

the body they regard as most disgraceful, and he who apprehends it,

after preparing a pyre, destroys himself by fire; he (previously)

anoints himself, and sitting down upon it orders it to be lighted,

remaining motionless while he is burning.

66. Nearchus gives the following account of the Sophists. The Brachmanes

engage in public affairs, and attend the kings as counsellors; the rest

are occupied in the study of nature. Calanus belonged to the latter

class. Women study philosophy with them, and all lead an austere life.

Of the customs of the other Indians, he says, that their laws, whether

relating to the community or to individuals, are not committed to

writing, and differ altogether from those of other people. For example,

it is the practice among some tribes, to propose virgins as prizes to

the conquerors in a trial of skill in boxing; wherefore they marry

without portions; among other tribes the ground is cultivated by

families and in common; when the produce is collected, each takes a load

sufficient for his subsistence during the year; the remainder is burnt,

in order to have a reason for renewing their labour, and not remaining

inactive. Their weapons consist of a bow and arrows, which are three

cubits in length, or a javelin, and a shield, and a sword three cubits

long. Instead of bridles, they use muzzles,[398] which differ little

from a halter, and the lips are perforated with spikes.

67. Nearchus, producing proofs of their skill in works of art, says,

that when they saw sponges in use among the Macedonians, they imitated

them by sewing hairs, thin threads, and strings in wool; after the wool

was felted, they drew out the hairs, threads, and strings, and dyed it

with colours. There quickly appeared also manufactures of brushes for

the body, and of vessels for oil (lecythi). They write, he says, letters

upon cloth, smoothed by being well beaten, although other authors affirm

that they have no knowledge of writing. They use brass, which is cast,

and not wrought; he does not give the reason of this, although he

mentions the strange effect, namely, if that vessels of this description

fall to the ground, they break like those made of clay.

This following custom also is mentioned in accounts of India, that,

instead of prostrating themselves before their kings, it is usual to

address them, and all persons in authority and high station, with a

prayer.

The country produces precious stones, as crystal, carbuncles of all

kinds, and pearls.

68. As an instance of the disagreement among historians, [CAS. 717] we

may adduce their (different) accounts of Calanus. They all agree that he

accompanied Alexander, and underwent a voluntary death by fire in his

presence, but they differ as to the manner and cause of his death. Some

give the following account. Calanus accompanied the king, as the

rehearser of his praises, beyond the boundaries of India, contrary to

the common Indian custom; for the philosophers attend upon their kings,

and act as instructors in the worship of the gods, in the same manner as

the Magi attend the Persian kings. When he fell sick at Pasargadæ, being

then attacked with disease for the first time in his life, he put

himself to death at the age of seventy-three years, regardless of the

entreaties of the king. A pyre was raised, and a golden couch placed

upon it. He laid down upon it, and covering himself up, was burnt to

death.

Others say, that a chamber was constructed of wood, which was filled

with the leaves of trees, and a pyre being raised upon the roof, he was

shut up in it, according to his directions, after the procession, with

which he had been accompanied, had arrived at the spot. He threw himself

upon the pyre, and was consumed like a log of wood, together with the

chamber.

Megasthenes says, that self-destruction is not a dogma of the

philosophers, and that those who commit this act are accounted

fool-hardy; that some, who are by nature harsh, inflict wounds upon

their bodies, or cast themselves down precipices; those who are

impatient of pain drown themselves; those who can endure pain strangle

themselves; and those of ardent tempers throw themselves into the fire.

Of this last description was Calanus, who had no control over himself,

and was a slave to the table of Alexander. Calanus is censured, while

Mandanis is applauded. When Alexander’s messengers invited the latter to

come to the son of Jove, promising a reward if he would comply, and

threatening punishment if he refused, he answered, “Alexander was not

the son of Jove, for he did not govern even the smallest portion of the

earth; nor did he himself desire a gift of one who[399] was satisfied

with nothing. Neither did he fear his threats, for as long as he lived

India would supply him with food enough; and when he died, he should be

delivered from the flesh wasted by old age, and be translated to a

better and purer state of existence.” Alexander commended and pardoned

him.

69. Historians also relate that the Indians worship Jupiter Ombrius (or,

the Rainy), the river Ganges, and the indigenous deities of the country;

that when the king washes his hair,[400] a great feast is celebrated,

and large presents are sent, each person displaying his wealth in

competition with his neighbour.

They say, that some of the gold-digging myrmeces (ants) have wings; and

that the rivers, like those of Iberia,[401] bring down gold-dust.

In processions at their festivals, many elephants are in the train,

adorned with gold and silver, numerous carriages drawn by four horses

and by several pairs of oxen; then follows a body of attendants in full

dress, (bearing) vessels of gold, large basins and goblets, an

orguia[402] in breadth, tables, chairs of state, drinking-cups, and

lavers of Indian copper, most of which were set with precious stones, as

emeralds, beryls, and Indian carbuncles; garments embroidered and

interwoven with gold; wild beasts, as buffaloes,[403] panthers, tame

lions, and a multitude of birds of variegated plumage and of fine song.

Cleitarchus speaks of four-wheeled carriages bearing trees with large

leaves, from which were suspended (in cages) different kinds of tame

birds, among which the orion[404] was said to possess the sweetest note,

but the catreus[405] was the most beautiful in appearance, and had the

most variegated plumage. In shape it approached nearest to the peacock,

but the rest of the description must be taken from Cleitarchus.

70. Opposed to the Brachmanes there are philosophers, called Pramnæ,

contentious people, and fond of argument. They ridicule the Brachmanes

as boasters and fools for occupying themselves with physiology and

astronomy. Some of the Pramnæ are called Pramnæ of the mountains, others

Gymnetæ, others again are called Townsmen and Countrymen. [CAS. 719]

The Pramnæ of the mountains wear deer-skins, and carry scrips filled

with roots and drugs; they profess to practise medicine by means of

incantations, charms, and amulets.

The Gymnetæ, as their name imports, are naked and live chiefly in the

open air, practising fortitude for the space of thirty-seven years; this

I have before mentioned; women live in their society, but without

cohabitation. The Gymnetæ are held in singular estimation.

71. The (Pramnæ) Townsmen are occupied in civil affairs, dwell in

cities, and wear fine linen, or (as Countrymen they live) in the fields,

clothed in the skins of fawns or antelopes. In short, the Indians wear

white garments, white linen and muslin, contrary to the accounts of

those who say that they wear garments of a bright colour; all of them

wear long hair and long beards, plait their hair, and bind it with a

fillet.

72. Artemidorus says that the Ganges descends from the Emoda mountains

and proceeds towards the south; when it arrives at the city Ganges,[406]

it turns to the east, and keeps this direction as far as

Palibothra,[407] and the mouth by which it discharges itself into the

sea. He calls one of the rivers which flow into it Œdanes,[408] which

breeds crocodiles and dolphins. Some other circumstances besides are

mentioned by him, but in so confused and negligent a manner that they

are not to be regarded. To these accounts may be added that of Nicolaus

Damascenus.

73. This writer states that at Antioch, near Daphne,[409] he met with

ambassadors from the Indians, who were sent to Augustus Cæsar. It

appeared from the letter that several persons were mentioned in it, but

three only survived, whom he says he saw. The rest had died chiefly in

consequence of the length of the journey. The letter was written in

Greek upon a skin; the import of it was, that Porus was the writer, that

although he was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he highly

esteemed the friendship of Cæsar; that he was willing to allow him a

passage through his country, in whatever part he pleased, and to assist

him in any undertaking that was just.

Eight naked servants, with girdles round their waists, and fragrant with

perfumes, presented the gifts which were brought. The presents were a

Hermes (i. e. a man) born without arms, whom I have seen, large snakes,

a serpent ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in

length, and a partridge (?) larger than a vulture. They were accompanied

by the person, it is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens. This is

the practice with persons in distress, who seek escape from existing

calamities, and with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the case

with this man. For as everything hitherto had succeeded with him, he

thought it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected calamity should

happen to him by continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked,

anointed, and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped upon the pyre.

On his tomb was this inscription,—ZARMANOCHEGAS,[410] AN INDIAN, A

NATIVE OF BARGOSA,[411] HAVING IMMORTALIZED HIMSELF ACCORDING TO THE

CUSTOM OF HIS COUNTRY, HERE LIES.

CHAPTER II.

ARIANA.

1. Next to India is Ariana, the first portion of the country subject to

the Persians, lying beyond[412] the Indus, and the first [CAS. 720] of

the higher satrapies without the Taurus.[413] On the north it is bounded

by the same mountains as India, on the south by the same sea, and by the

same river Indus, which separates it from India. It stretches thence

towards the west as far as the line drawn from the Caspian Gates[414] to

Carmania,[415] whence its figure is quadrilateral.

The southern side begins from the mouths of the Indus, and from

Patalene, and terminates at Carmania and the mouth of the Persian Gulf,

by a promontory projecting a considerable distance to the south. It then

makes a bend towards the gulf in the direction of Persia.

The Arbies, who have the same name as the river Arbis,[416] are the

first inhabitants we meet with in this country. They are separated by

the Arbis from the next tribe, the Oritæ, and according to Nearchus,

occupy a tract of sea-coast of about 1000 stadia in length; this country

also is a part of India. Next are the Oritæ, a people governed by their

own laws. The voyage along the coast belonging to this people extends

1800 stadia, that along the country of the Ichthyophagi, who follow

next, extends 7400 stadia; that along the country of the Carmani as far

as Persia, 3700 stadia. The whole number of stadia is 13,900.

2. The greater part of the country inhabited by the Ichthyophagi is on a

level with the sea. No trees, except palms and a kind of thorn, and the

tamarisk, grow there. There is also a scarcity of water, and of food

produced by cultivation. Both they and their cattle subsist upon fish,

and are supplied by rain water and wells. The flesh of the animals has

the smell of fish. Their dwellings are built with the bones of large

whales and shells, the ribs furnishing beams and supports, and the

jaw-bones, door-ways. The vertebral bones serve as mortars in which

fish, which have been previously dried in the sun, are pounded. Of this,

with the addition of flour, cakes are made; for they have grinding mills

(for corn), although they have no iron. This however is not so

surprising, because it is possible for them to import it from other

parts. But how do they hollow out the mills again, when worn away? with

the same stones, they say, with which their arrows and javelins, which

are hardened in the fire, are sharpened. Some fish are dressed in ovens,

but the greater part is eaten raw. The fish are taken in nets made of

the bark of the palm.

3. Above the Ichthyophagi is situated Gedrosia,[417] a country less

exposed to the heat of the sun than India, but more so than the rest of

Asia. As it is without fruits and water, except in summer, it is not

much better than the country of the Ichthyophagi. But it produces

aromatics, particularly nard and myrrh, in such quantity, that the army

of Alexander used them on the march for tent coverings and beds; they

thus breathed an air full of odours, and at the same time more

salubrious.

The summer was purposely chosen for leaving India, for at that season it

rains in Gedrosia, and the rivers and wells are filled, but in winter

they fail. The rain falls in the higher parts to the north, and near the

mountains: when the rivers swell, the plains near the sea are watered,

and the wells are also filled. Alexander sent persons before him into

the desert country to dig wells and to prepare stations for himself and

his fleet.

4. Having separated his forces into three divisions, he set out with one

division through Gedrosia, keeping at the utmost from the sea not more

than 500 stadia, in order to secure the coast for his fleet; but he

frequently approached the sea-side, although the beach was impracticable

and rugged. The second division he sent forward under the command of

Craterus through the interior, with a view of reducing Ariana, and of

proceeding to the same places to which he himself was directing his

march. (The third division), the fleet he intrusted to Nearchus and

Onesicritus, his master pilot, giving them orders to [CAS. 721] take up

convenient positions in following him, and to sail along the coast

parallel to his line of march.

5. Nearchus says, that while Alexander was on his march, he himself

commenced his voyage, in the autumn, about the achronical rising of the

Pleiades,[418] the wind not being before favourable. The Barbarians

however, taking courage at the departure of the king, became daring, and

attempted to throw off their subjection, attacked them, and endeavoured

to drive them out of the country. But Craterus set out from the

Hydaspes, and proceeded through the country of the Arachoti and of the

Drangæ into Carmania.

Alexander was greatly distressed throughout the whole march, as his road

lay through a barren country. The supplies of provisions which he

obtained came from a distance, and were scanty and unfrequent, so much

so that the army suffered greatly from hunger, the beasts of burden

dropped down, and the baggage was abandoned, both on the march and in

the camp. The army was saved by eating dates and the marrow of the

palm-tree.[419]

Alexander however (says Nearchus), although acquainted with the

hardships of the enterprise, was ambitious of conducting this large army

in safety, as a conqueror, through the same country where, according to

the prevailing report, Semiramis escaped by flight from India with about

twenty, and Cyrus with about seven men.

6. Besides the want of provisions, the scorching heat was distressing,

as also the deep and burning sand. In some places there were sand-hills,

so that in addition to the difficulty of lifting the legs, as out of a

pit, there were ascents and descents. It was necessary also, on account

of the watering places, to make long marches of two, four, and sometimes

even of six hundred stadia, for the most part during the night.

Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia from the

watering places, in order that the soldiers might not be induced by

thirst to drink to excess. For many of them plunged into the water in

their armour, and continued drinking until they were drowned; when

swollen after death they floated, and corrupted the shallow water of the

cisterns. Others, exhausted by thirst, lay exposed to the sun, in the

middle of the road. They then became tremulous, their hands and their

feet shook, and they died like persons seized with cold and shivering.

Some turned out of the road to indulge in sleep, overcome with

drowsiness and fatigue; some were left behind, and perished, being

ignorant of the road, destitute of everything, and overpowered by heat.

Others escaped after great sufferings. A torrent of water, which fell in

the night time, overwhelmed and destroyed many persons, and much

baggage; a great part even of the royal equipage was swept away.

The guides, through ignorance, deviated so far into the interior, that

the sea was no longer in sight. The king, perceiving the danger,

immediately set out in search of the coast; when he had discovered it,

and by sinking wells had found water fit for drinking, he sent for the

army: afterwards he continued his march for seven days near the shore,

with a good supply of water. He then again returned into the interior.

7. There was a plant resembling the laurel, which if eaten by the beasts

of burden caused them to die of epilepsy, accompanied with foaming at

the mouth. A thorn also, the fruit of which, like gourds, strewed the

ground, and was full of a juice; if drops of it fell into the eyes of

any kind of animal it became completely blind. Many persons were

suffocated by eating unripe dates. Danger also was to be apprehended

from serpents; for on the sand-hills there grew a plant, underneath

which they crept and hid themselves. The persons wounded by them died.

The Oritæ, it was said, smeared the points of their arrows, which were

of wood hardened in the fire, with deadly poisons. When Ptolemy was

wounded and in danger of his life, a person appeared in a dream to

Alexander, and showed him a root with leaves and branches, which he told

him to bruise and place upon the wound. Alexander awoke from his dream,

and remembering the vision, searched and found the root growing in

abundance, of which both he and others made use; [CAS. 723] when the

Barbarians perceived that the antidote for the poison was discovered,

they surrendered to the king. It is probable, however, that some one

acquainted with the plant informed the king of its virtues, and that the

fabulous part of the story was invented for the purpose of flattery.

Having arrived at the palace[420] of the Gedrosii on the sixtieth day

after leaving the Ori,[421] and allowed his army a short period of rest,

he set out for Carmania.

8. The position of the southern side of Ariana is thus situated, with

reference to the sea-coast, the country of the Gedrosii and the Oritæ

lying near and above it. A great part of Gedrosia extends into the

interior until it touches upon the Drangæ, Arachoti, and Paropamisadæ,

of whom Eratosthenes speaks in the following manner: we cannot give a

better description. “Ariana,” he says, “is bounded on the east by the

Indus, on the south by the Great Sea, on the north by the Paropamisus

and the succeeding chain of mountains as far as the Caspian Gates, on

the west by the same limits[422] by which the territory of the Parthians

is separated from Media, and Carmania from Parætacene and Persia.

The breadth of the country is the length of the Indus, reckoned from the

Paropamisus as far as the mouths of that river, and amounts to 12,000,

or according to others to 13,000, stadia. The length, beginning from the

Caspian Gates, as it is laid down in Asiatic Stathmi,[423] is estimated

in two different ways. From the Caspian Gates to Alexandreia among the

Arii[424] through Parthia is one and the same road. Then a road leads in

a straight line through Bactriana, and over the pass of the mountain to

Ortospana,[425] to the meeting of the three roads from Bactra, which is

among the Paropamisadæ. The other branch turns off a little from Aria

towards the south to Prophthasia in Drangiana; then the remainder leads

as far as the confines of India and of the Indus; so that the road

through the Drangæ and the Arachoti is longer, the whole amounting to

15,300 stadia. But if we deduct 1300 stadia, we shall have the remainder

as the length of the country in a straight line, namely, 14,000 stadia;

for the length of the coast is not much less, although some persons

increase this sum by adding to the 10,000 stadia Carmania, which is

reckoned at 6000 stadia. For they seem to reckon it either together with

the gulfs, or together with the Carmanian coast within the Persian Gulf.

The name also of Ariana is extended so as to include some part of

Persia, Media, and the north of Bactria and Sogdiana; for these nations

speak nearly the same language.[426]

9. The order in which these nations are disposed is as follows. Along

the Indus are the Paropamisadæ, above whom lies the mountain

Paropamisus; then towards the south are the Arachoti; then next to these

towards the south, the Gedroseni, together with other tribes who occupy

the sea-coast; the Indus runs parallel along the breadth of these

tracts. The Indians occupy [in part][427] some of the countries situated

along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander

deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his

own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a

marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.

The Arii are situated on the west, by the side of the Paropamisadæ and

the Drangæ[428] by the Arachoti and Gedrosii. The Arii are situated by

the side of the Drangæ both on the north and west, and nearly encompass

them. Bactriana adjoins Aria on the north, and the Paropamisadæ, through

whose territory Alexander passed when he crossed the Caucasus on his way

to Bactra. Towards the west, next to the Arii, are the Parthians, and

the parts about the Caspian Gates. Towards the south of Parthia is the

desert of Carmania; then follows the remainder of Carmania and Gedrosia.

10. We shall better understand the position of the places about the

above-mentioned mountainous tract, if we further examine the route which

Alexander took from the Parthian territory to Bactriana, when he was in

pursuit of Bessus. He came first to Ariana, next to the Drangæ, where he

put to death Philotas, the son of Parmenio, having detected his

traitorous intentions. He despatched persons to Ecbatana[429] also

[CAS. 725] to put the father to death as an accomplice in the

conspiracy. It is said that these persons performed in eleven days, upon

dromedaries, a journey of 30 or 40 days, and executed their business.

The Drangæ resemble the Persians in all other respects in their mode of

life, except that they have little wine. Tin is found in the

country.[430]

Alexander next went from the Drangæ to the Euergetæ,[431] (to whom Cyrus

gave this name,) and to the Arachoti; then through the territory of the

Paropamisadæ at the setting of the Pleiad.[432] It is a mountainous

country, and at that time was covered with snow, so that the march was

performed with difficulty. The numerous villages, however, on their

march, which were well provided with everything except oil, afforded

relief in their distress. On their left hand were the summits of the

mountains.

The southern parts of the Paropamisus belong to India and Ariana; the

northern parts towards the west belong to Bactriana [towards the east to

Sogdiana * *[433] Bactrian barbarians]. Having wintered there, with

India above to the right hand, and having founded a city, he crossed the

summits of the mountains into Bactriana. The road was bare of everything

except a few trees of the bushy terminthus;[434] the army was driven

from want of food to eat the flesh of the beasts of burthen, and that in

a raw state for want of firewood; but silphium grew in great abundance,

which promoted the digestion of this raw food. Fifteen days after

founding the city and leaving winter quarters, he came to Adrapsa[435]

(Darapsa?), a city of Bactriana.

11. Chaarene is situated somewhere about this part of the country

bordering upon India. This, of all the places subject to the Parthians,

lies nearest to India. It is distant 10,000 or 9000 stadia[436] from

Bactriana,[437] through the country of the Arachoti, and the

above-mentioned mountainous tract. Craterus traversed this country,

subjugating those who refused to submit, and hastened with the greatest

expedition to form a junction with the king. Nearly about the same time

both armies, consisting of infantry, entered Carmania together, and at a

short interval afterwards Nearchus sailed with his fleet into the

Persian Gulf, having undergone great danger and distress from wandering

in his course, and among other causes, from great whales.

12. It is probable that those who sailed in the expedition greatly

exaggerated many circumstances; yet their statements prove the

sufferings to which they were exposed, and that their apprehensions were

greater than the real danger. That which alarmed them the most was the

magnitude of the whales, which occasioned great commotion in the sea

from their numbers; their blowing was attended with so great a darkness,

that the sailors could not see where they stood. But when the pilots

informed the sailors, who were terrified at the sight and ignorant of

the cause, that they were animals which might easily be driven away by

the sound of a trumpet, and by loud noises, Nearchus impelled the

vessels with violence in the direction of the impediment, and at the

same time frightened the animals with the sound of trumpets. The whales

dived, and again rose at the prow of the vessels, so as to give the

appearance of a naval combat; but they soon made off.

13. Those who now sail to India speak of the size of these animals and

their mode of appearance, but as coming neither in bodies nor

frequently, yet as repulsed by shouts and by the sound of trumpets. They

affirm that they do not approach the land, but that the bones of those

which die, bared of flesh, are readily thrown up by the waves, and

supply the Ichthyophagi with the above-mentioned material for the

construction of their cabins. According to Nearchus, the size of these

animals is three and twenty orguiæ in length.[438]

[CAS. 726] Nearchus says that he proved the confident belief of the

sailors in the existence of an island situated in the passage, and

destructive to those who anchored near it, to be false.

A bark in its course, when it came opposite to this island, was never

afterwards seen, and some men who were sent in search did not venture to

disembark upon the island, but shouted and called to the crew, when,

receiving no answer, they returned. But as all imputed this

disappearance to the island, Nearchus said that he himself sailed to it,

went ashore, disembarked with a part of his crew, and went round it. But

not discovering any trace of those of whom he was in search, he

abandoned the attempt, and informed his men that no fault was to be

imputed to the island (for otherwise destruction would have come upon

himself and those who disembarked with him), but that some other cause

(and innumerable others were possible) might have occasioned the loss of

the vessel.

14. Carmania is the last portion of the sea-coast which begins from the

Indus. Its first promontory projects towards the south into the Great

Sea.[439] After it has formed the mouth of the Persian Gulf towards the

promontory, which is in sight, of Arabia Felix, it bends towards the

Persian Gulf, and is continued till it touches Persia.

Carmania is large, situated in the interior, and extending itself

between Gedrosia and Persia, but stretches more to the north than

Gedrosia. This is indicated by its fertility, for it not only produces

everything, but the trees are of a large size, excepting however the

olive; it is also watered by rivers. Gedrosia also differs little from

the country of the Ichthyophagi, so that frequently there is no produce

from the ground. They therefore keep the annual produce in store for

several years.

Onesicritus says, that a river in Carmania brings down gold-dust; that

there are mines of silver, copper, and minium; and that there are two

mountains, one of which contains arsenic, the other salt.

There belongs to it a desert tract, which is contiguous to Parthia and

Parætacene. The produce of the ground is like that of Persia; and among

other productions the vine. The Carmanian vine, as we call it, often

bears bunches of grapes of two cubits in size; the seeds are very

numerous and very large; probably the plant grows in its native soil

with great luxuriance.

Asses, on account of the scarcity of horses, are generally made use of

even in war. They sacrifice an ass to Mars, who is the only deity

worshipped by them, for they are a warlike people. No one marries before

he has cut off the head of an enemy and presented it to the king, who

deposits the scull in the royal treasury. The tongue is minced and mixed

with flour, which the king, after tasting it, gives to the person who

brought it, to be eaten by himself and his family. That king is the most

highly respected, to whom the greatest number of heads are presented.

According to Nearchus, most of the customs and the language of the

inhabitants of Carmania resemble those of the Persians and Medes.

The passage across the mouth of the Persian Gulf does not occupy more

than one day.

CHAPTER III.

1. Next to Carmania is Persis. A great part of it extends along the

coast of the Gulf, which has its name from the country, but a much

larger portion stretches into the interior, and particularly in its

length, reckoned from the south, and Carmania to the north, and to the

nations of Media.

It is of a threefold character, as we regard its natural condition and

the quality of the air. First, the coast, extending for about 4400 or

4300 stadia, is burnt up with heat; it is sandy, producing little except

palm trees, and terminates at the greatest river in those parts, the

name of which is Oroatis.[440] Secondly, the country above the coast

produces everything, and is a plain; it is excellently adapted for the

rearing of cattle, and abounds with rivers and lakes.

The third portion lies towards the north, and is bleak and mountainous.

On its borders live the camel-breeders.

[CAS. 727] Its length, according to Eratosthenes, towards the north and

Media,[441] is about 8000, or, including some projecting promontories,

9000 stadia; the remainder (from Media) to the Caspian Gates is not more

than 3000 stadia. The breadth in the interior of the country from Susa

to Persepolis is 4200 stadia, and thence to the borders of Carmania 1600

stadia more.

The tribes inhabiting this country are those called the Pateischoreis,

the Achæmenidæ, and Magi; these last affect a sedate mode of life; the

Curtii and Mardi are robbers, the rest are husbandmen.

2. Susis also is almost a part of Persis. It lies between Persis and

Babylonia, and has a very considerable city, Susa. For the Persians and

Cyrus, after the conquest of the Medes, perceiving that their own

country was situated towards the extremities, but Susis more towards the

interior, nearer also to Babylon and the other nations, there placed the

royal seat of the empire. They were pleased with its situation on the

confines of Persis, and with the importance of the city; besides the

consideration that it had never of itself undertaken any great

enterprise, had always been in subjection to other people, and

constituted a part of a greater body, except, perhaps, anciently in the

heroic times.

It is said to have been founded by Tithonus, the father of Memnon. Its

compass was 120 stadia. Its shape was oblong. The Acropolis was called

Memnonium. The Susians have the name also of Cissii. Æschylus[442] calls

the mother of Memnon, Cissia. Memnon is said to be buried near Paltus in

Syria, by the river Badas, as Simonides says in his Memnon, a

dithyrambic poem among the Deliaca. The wall of the city, the temples

and palaces, were constructed in the same manner as those of the

Babylonians, of baked brick and asphaltus, as some writers relate.

Polycletus however says, that its circumference was 200 stadia, and that

it was without walls.

3. They embellished the palace at Susa more than the rest, but they did

not hold in less veneration and honour the palaces at Persepolis and

Pasargadæ.[443] For in these stronger and hereditary places were the

treasure-house, the riches, and tombs of the Persians. There was another

palace at Gabæ, in the upper parts of Persia, and another on the

sea-coast, near a place called Taoce.[444]

This was the state of things during the empire of the Persians. But

afterwards different princes occupied different palaces; some, as was

natural, less sumptuous, after the power of Persis had been reduced

first by the Macedonians, and secondly still more by the Parthians. For

although the Persians have still a kingly government, and a king of

their own, yet their power is very much diminished, and they are subject

to the king of Parthia.

4. Susa is situated in the interior, upon the river Choaspes, beyond the

bridge; but the territory extends to the sea: and the sea-coast of this

territory, from the borders of the Persian coast nearly as far as the

mouths of the Tigris, is a distance of about 3000 stadia.

The Choaspes flows through Susis, terminating on the same coast, and has

its source in the territory of the Uxii.[445] For a rugged and

precipitous range of mountains lies between the Susians and Persis, with

narrow defiles, difficult to pass; they were inhabited by robbers, who

constantly exacted payment even from the kings themselves, at their

entrance into Persis from Susis.

Polycletus says, that the Choaspes, and the Eulæus,[446] and the Tigris

also enter a lake, and thence discharge themselves into the sea; that on

the side of the lake is a mart, as the rivers do not receive the

merchandise from the sea, nor convey it down to the sea, on account of

dams in the river, purposely constructed, and that the goods are

transported by land a distance of 800 stadia[447] to Susa; according to

others, the rivers which flow through Susis discharge themselves by the

intermediate canals of the Euphrates into the single stream of the

Tigris, which on this account has at its mouth the name of Pasitigris.

[CAS. 729] 5. According to Nearchus, the sea-coast of Susis is swampy,

and terminates at the river Euphrates; at its mouth is a village, which

receives the merchandise from Arabia; for the coast of Arabia approaches

close to the mouths of the Euphrates and the Pasitigris; the whole

intermediate space is occupied by a lake which receives the Tigris; on

sailing up the Pasitigris 150 stadia is the bridge of rafts leading to

Susa from Persis, and is distant from Susa 60 (600?) stadia; the

Pasitigris is distant from the Oroatis about 2000 stadia; the ascent

through the lake to the mouth of the Tigris is 600 (6000?) stadia;[448]

near the mouth stands the Susian village (Aginis), distant from Susa 500

stadia; the journey by water from the mouth of the Euphrates, up to

Babylon, through a well-inhabited tract of country, is a distance of

more than 3000 stadia.

Onesicritus says that all the rivers discharge themselves into the lake,

both the Euphrates and the Tigris; and that the Euphrates, again issuing

from the lake, discharges itself into the sea by a separate mouth.

6. There are many other narrow defiles in passing out through the

territory of the Uxii, and entering Persis. These Alexander forced in

his march through the country at the Persian Gates, and at other places,

when he was hastening to see the principal parts of Persis, and the

treasure-holds, in which wealth had been accumulated during the long

period that Asia was tributary to Persis.

He crossed many rivers, which flow through the country and discharge

themselves into the Persian Gulf.

Next to the Choaspes are the Copratas[449] and the Pasitigris, which has

its source in the country of the Uxii. There is also the river Cyrus,

which flows through Cœle Persis,[450] as it is called, near Pasargadæ.

The king changed his name, which was formerly Agradatus, to that of this

river. Alexander crossed the Araxes[451] close to Persepolis. Persepolis

was distinguished for the magnificence of the treasures which it

contained. The Araxes flows out of the Parætacene,[452] and receives the

Medus,[453] which has its source in Media. These rivers run through a

very fruitful valley, which, like Persepolis, lies close to Carmania

and to the eastern parts of the country. Alexander burnt the palace at

Persepolis, to avenge the Greeks, whose temples and cities the Persians

had destroyed by fire and sword.

7. He next came to Pasargadæ,[454] which also was an ancient royal

residence. Here he saw in a park the tomb of Cyrus. It was a small

tower, concealed within a thick plantation of trees solid below, but

above consisting of one story and a shrine which had a very narrow

opening; Aristobulus says, he entered through this opening, by order of

Alexander, and decorated the tomb. He saw there a golden couch, a table

with cups, a golden coffin, and a large quantity of garments and dresses

ornamented with precious stones. These objects he saw at his first

visit, but on a subsequent visit the place had been robbed, and

everything had been removed except the couch and the coffin which were

only broken. The dead body had been removed from its place; whence it

was evident that it was the act not of the Satrap,[455] but of robbers,

who had left behind what they could not easily carry off. And this

occurred although there was a guard of Magi stationed about the place,

who received for their daily subsistence a sheep, and every month a

horse.[456] The remote distance to which the army of Alexander had

advanced, to Bactra and India, gave occasion to the introduction of many

disorderly acts, and to this among others.

Such is the account of Aristobulus, who records the following

inscription on the tomb. “O MAN, I AM CYRUS,[457] I ESTABLISHED THE

PERSIAN EMPIRE AND WAS KING OF ASIA. GRUDGE ME NOT THEREFORE THIS

MONUMENT.”

Onesicritus however says that the tower had ten stories, that Cyrus lay

in the uppermost, and that there was an inscription in Greek, cut in

Persian letters, “I CYRUS, KING OF KINGS, LIE HERE.” And another

inscription to the same effect in the Persian language.

8. Onesicritus mentions also this inscription on the tomb of Darius: “I

WAS A FRIEND TO MY FRIENDS, I WAS THE FIRST OF HORSEMEN AND ARCHERS, I

EXCELLED AS HUNTER, I COULD DO EVERYTHING.”

[CAS. 730] Aristus of Salamis, a writer of a much later age than these,

says, that the tower consisted of two stories, and was large; that it

was built at the time the Persians succeeded to the kingdom (of the

Medes); that the tomb was preserved; that the above-mentioned

inscription was in the Greek, and that there was another to the same

purport in the Persian language.

Cyrus held in honour Pasargadæ, because he there conquered, in his last

battle, Astyages the Mede, and transferred to himself the empire of

Asia; he raised it to the rank of a city, and built a palace in memory

of his victory.

9. Alexander transferred everything that was precious in Persis to Susa,

which was itself full of treasures and costly materials; he did not,

however, consider this place, but Babylon, as the royal residence, and

intended to embellish it. There too his treasure was deposited.

They say that, besides the treasures in Babylon and in the camp of

Alexander, which were not included in the sum, the treasure found at

Susa and in Persis was reckoned to amount to 40,000, and according to

some writers to 50,000, talents. But others say, that the whole

treasure, collected from all quarters, and transported to Ecbatana,

amounted to 180,000 talents, and that the 8,000 talents which Darius

carried away with him in his flight from Media became the booty of those

who put him to death.

10. Alexander preferred Babylon, because he saw that it far surpassed

the other cities in magnitude, and had other advantages. Although Susis

is fertile, it has a glowing and scorching atmosphere, particularly near

the city, as he (Aristobulus?) says. Lizards and serpents at mid-day in

the summer, when the sun is at its greatest height, cannot cross the

streets of the city quick enough to prevent their being burnt to death

midway by the heat. This happens nowhere in Persis, although it lies

more towards the south.

Cold water for baths is suddenly heated by exposure to the sun. Barley

spread out in the sun is roasted[458] like barley prepared in ovens. For

this reason earth is laid to the depth of two cubits upon the roofs of

the houses. They are obliged to construct their houses narrow, on

account of the weight placed upon them, and from want of long beams,

but, as large dwellings are required to obviate the suffocating heat,

the houses are long.

The beam made of the palm tree has a peculiar property, for although it

retains its solidity, it does not as it grows old give way downwards,

but curves upwards with the weight, and is a better support to the roof.

The cause of the scorching heat is said to be high, overhanging

mountains on the north, which intercept the northern winds. These,

blowing from the tops of the mountains at a great height, fly over

without touching the plains, to the more southern parts of Susis. There

the air is still, particularly when the Etesian winds cool the other

parts of the country which are burnt up by heat.

11. Susis is so fertile in grain, that barley and wheat produce,

generally, one hundred, and sometimes two hundred fold. Hence the

furrows are not ploughed close together, for the roots when crowded

impede the sprouting of the plant.

The vine did not grow there before the Macedonians planted it, both

there and at Babylon. They do not dig trenches, but thrust down into the

ground iron-headed stakes, which when drawn out are immediately replaced

by the plants.

Such is the character of the inland parts. The sea-coast is marshy and

without harbours; hence Nearchus says, that he met with no native

guides, when coasting with his fleet from India to Babylonia, for

nowhere could his vessels put in, nor was he able to procure persons who

could direct him by their knowledge and experience.

12. The part of Babylonia formerly called Sitacene, and afterwards

Apolloniatis,[459] is situated near Susis.

Above both, on the north and towards the east, are the Elymæi[460] and

the Parætaceni, predatory people relying for security on their situation

in a rugged and mountainous country. The Parætaceni lie more immediately

above the Apolloniatæ, and therefore annoy them the more. The Elymæi are

at war with this people and with the Susians, and the Uxii with the

Elymæi, but not so constantly at present as might be expected, on

account of the power of the Parthians, to whom all the inhabitants

[CAS. 732] of those regions are under subjection. When therefore the

Parthians are quiet, all are tranquil, and their subject nations. But

when, as frequently happens, there is an insurrection, which has

occurred even in our own times, the event is not the same to all, but

different to different people. For the disturbance has benefited some,

but disappointed the expectation of others.

Such is the nature of the countries of Persis and Susiana.

13. The manners and customs of the Persians are the same as those of the

Susians and the Medes, and many other people; and they have been

described by several writers, yet I must mention what is suitable to my

purpose.

The Persians do not erect statues nor altars, but, considering the

heaven as Jupiter, sacrifice on a high place.[461] They worship the sun

also, whom they call Mithras, the moon, Venus, fire, earth, winds, and

water. They sacrifice, having offered up prayers, in a place free from

impurities, and present the victim crowned.[462]

After the Magus, who directs the sacrifice, has divided the flesh, each

goes away with his share, without setting apart any portion to the gods;

for the god, they say, requires the soul of the victim, and nothing

more. Nevertheless, according to some writers, they lay a small piece of

the caul upon the fire.

14. But it is to fire and water especially that they offer sacrifice.

They throw upon the fire dry wood without the bark, and place fat over

it; they then pour oil upon it, and light it below; they do not blow the

flame with their breath, but fan it; those who have blown the flame with

their breath, or thrown any dead thing or dirt upon the fire, are put to

death.

They sacrifice to water by going to a lake, river, or fountain; having

dug a pit, they slaughter the victim over it, taking care that none of

the pure water near be sprinkled with blood, and thus be polluted. They

then lay the flesh in order upon myrtle or laurel branches; the Magi

touch it with slender twigs,[463] and make incantations, pouring oil

mixed with milk and honey, not into the fire, nor into the water, but

upon the earth. They continue their incantations for a long time,

holding in the hands a bundle of slender myrtle rods.

15. In Cappadocia (for in this country there is a great body of Magi,

called Pyræthi,[464] and there are many temples dedicated to the Persian

deities) the sacrifice is not performed with a knife, but the victim is

beaten to death with a log of wood, as with a mallet.

The Persians have also certain large shrines, called Pyrætheia.[465] In

the middle of these is an altar, on which is a great quantity of ashes,

where the Magi maintain an unextinguished fire. They enter daily, and

continue their incantation for nearly an hour, holding before the fire a

bundle of rods, and wear round their heads high turbans of felt,

reaching down on each side so as to cover the lips and the sides of the

cheeks. The same customs are observed in the temples of Anaïtis and of

Omanus. Belonging to these temples are shrines, and a wooden statue of

Omanus is carried in procession. These we have seen ourselves.[466]

Other usages, and such as follow, are related by historians.

16. The Persians never pollute a river with urine, nor wash nor bathe in

it; they never throw a dead body, nor anything unclean, into it. To

whatever god they intend to sacrifice, they first address a prayer to

fire.

17. They are governed by hereditary kings. Disobedience is punished by

the head and arms being cut off, and the body cast forth. They marry

many women, and maintain at the same time a great number of concubines,

with a view to a numerous offspring.

The kings propose annual prizes for a numerous family of children.

Children are not brought into the presence of their parents until they

are four years old.

Marriages are celebrated at the beginning of the vernal equinox. The

bridegroom passes into the bride-chamber, having previously eaten some

fruit, or camel’s marrow, but nothing else during the day.

18. From the age of five to twenty-four years they are taught to use the

bow, to throw the javelin, to ride, and to speak the truth. They have

the most virtuous preceptors, [CAS. 733] who interweave useful fables

in their discourses, and rehearse, sometimes with, sometimes without,

music, the actions of the gods and of illustrious men.

The youths are called to rise before day-break, at the sound of brazen

instruments, and assemble in one spot, as if for arming themselves or

for the chase. They are arranged in companies of fifty, to each of which

one of the king’s or a satrap’s son is appointed as leader, who runs,

followed at command by the others, an appointed distance of thirty or

forty stadia.

They require them to give an account of each lesson, when they practise

loud speaking, and exercise the breath and lungs. They are taught to

endure heat, cold, and rains; to cross torrents, and keep their armour

and clothes dry; to pasture animals, to watch all night in the open air,

and to eat wild fruits, as the terminthus,[467] acorns, and wild pears.

[These persons are called Cardaces, who live upon plunder, for “carda”

means a manly and warlike spirit.][468]

The daily food after the exercise of the gymnasium is bread, a cake,

cardamum,[469] a piece of salt, and dressed meat either roasted or

boiled, and their drink is water.

Their mode of hunting is by throwing spears from horseback, or with

the bow or the sling.

In the evening they are employed in planting trees, cutting roots,

fabricating armour, and making lines and nets. The youth do not eat the

game, but carry it home. The king gives rewards for running, and to the

victors in the other contests of the pentathla (or five games). The

youths are adorned with gold, esteeming it for its fiery appearance.

They do not ornament the dead with gold, nor apply fire to them, on

account of its being an object of veneration.

19. They serve as soldiers in subordinate stations, and in those of

command from twenty to fifty years of age, both on foot and on

horseback. They do not concern themselves with the public markets, for

they neither buy nor sell. They are armed with a romb-shaped shield.

Besides quivers, they have battle-axes and short swords. On their heads

they wear a cap rising like a tower. The breastplate is composed of

scales of iron.

The dress of the chiefs consists of triple drawers, a double tunic with

sleeves reaching to the knees; the under garment is white, the upper of

a variegated colour. The cloak for summer is of a purple or violet

colour, but for winter of a variegated colour. The turbans are similar

to those of the Magi; and a deep double shoe. The generality of people

wear a double tunic reaching to the half of the leg. A piece of fine

linen is wrapped round the head. Each person has a bow and a sling.

The entertainments of the Persians are expensive. They set upon their

table entire animals in great number, and of various kinds. Their

couches, drinking-cups, and other articles are so brilliantly ornamented

that they gleam with gold and silver.

20. Their consultations on the most important affairs are carried on

while they are drinking, and they consider the resolutions made at that

time more to be depended upon than those made when sober.

On meeting persons of their acquaintance, and of equal rank with

themselves, on the road, they approach and kiss them, but to persons of

an inferior station they offer the cheek, and in that manner receive the

kiss. But to persons of still lower condition they only bend the body.

Their mode of burial is to smear the bodies over with wax, and then to

inter them. The Magi are not buried, but the birds are allowed to devour

them. These persons, according to the usage of the country, espouse even

their mothers.

Such are the customs of the Persians.

21. The following, mentioned by Polvcletus, are perhaps customary

practices:

At Susa each king builds in the citadel, as memorials of the

administration of his government, a dwelling for himself,

treasure-houses, and magazines for tribute collected (in kind).

From the sea-coast they obtain silver, from the interior the [CAS. 735]

produce of each province, as dyes, drugs, hair, wool, or anything else

of this sort, and cattle. The apportionment of the tribute was settled

by Darius [Longimanus, who was a very handsome person with the exception

of the length of his arms, which reached to his knees].[470] The greater

part both of gold and silver is wrought up, and there is not much in

coined money. The former they consider as best adapted for presents, and

for depositing in store-houses. So much coined money as suffices for

their wants they think enough; but, on the other hand, money is coined

in proportion to what is required for expenditure.[471]

22. Their habits are in general temperate. But their kings, from the

great wealth which they possessed, degenerated into a luxurious way of

life. They sent for wheat from Assos in Æolia, for Chalybonian[472] wine

from Syria, and water from the Eulæus, which is the lightest of all, for

an Attic cotylus measure of it weighs less by a drachm (than the same

quantity of any other water).

23. Of the barbarians the Persians were the best known to the Greeks,

for none of the other barbarians who governed Asia governed Greece. The

barbarians were not acquainted with the Greeks, and the Greeks were but

slightly acquainted, and by distant report only, with the barbarians. As

an instance, Homer was not acquainted with the empire of the Syrians nor

of the Medes, for otherwise as he mentions the wealth of Egyptian Thebes

and of Phœnicia, he would not have passed over in silence the wealth of

Babylon, of Ninus, and of Ecbatana.

The Persians were the first people that brought Greeks under their

dominion; the Lydians (before them) did the same, they were not however

masters of the whole, but of a small portion only of Asia, that within

the river Halys; their empire lasted for a short time, during the reigns

of Crœsus and Alyattes; and they were deprived of what little glory they

had acquired, when conquered by the Persians.

The Persians, (on the contrary, increased in power and,) as soon as they

had destroyed the Median empire, subdued the Lydians and brought the

Greeks of Asia under their dominion. At a later period they even passed

over into Greece and were worsted in many great battles, but still they

continued to keep possession of Asia, as far as the places on the

sea-coast, until they were completely subdued by the Macedonians.

24. The founder of their empire was Cyrus. He was succeeded by his son

Cambyses, who was put to death by the Magi. The seven Persians who

killed the Magi delivered the kingdom into the hands of Darius, the son

of Hystaspes. The succession terminated with Arses, whom Bagous the

eunuch having killed set up Darius, who was not of the royal family.

Alexander overthrew Darius, and reigned himself twelve years.[473] The

empire of Asia was partitioned out among his successors, and transmitted

to their descendants, but was dissolved after it had lasted about two

hundred and fifty years.[474]

At present the Persians are a separate people, governed by kings, who

are subject to other kings; to the kings of Macedon in former times, but

now to those of Parthia.

BOOK XVI. [CAS. 736]

SUMMARY

The sixteenth Book contains Assyria, in which are the great

cities Babylon and Nisibis; Adiabene, Mesopotamia, all Syria;

Phœnicia, Palestine; the whole of Arabia; all that part of

India which touches upon Arabia; the territory of the

Saracens, called by our author Scenitis; and the whole country

bordering the Dead and Red Seas.

CHAPTER I.

1. ASSYRIA is contiguous to Persia and Susiana. This name is given to

Babylonia, and to a large tract of country around; this tract contains

Aturia,[475] in which is Nineveh, the Apolloniatis, the Elymæi, the

Parætacæ, and the Chalonitis about Mount Zagrum,[476]—the plains about

Nineveh, namely, Dolomene, Calachene, Chazene, and Adiabene,—the nations

of Mesopotamia, bordering upon the Gordyæi;[477] the Mygdones about

Nisibis, extending to the Zeugma[478] of the Euphrates, and to the great

range of country on the other side that river, occupied by Arabians, and

by those people who are properly called Syrians in the present age. This

last people extend as far as the Cilicians, Phœnicians, and Jews, to the

sea opposite the Sea of Egypt, and to the Bay of Issus.

2. The name of Syrians seems to extend from Babylonia as far as the Bay

of Issus, and, anciently, from this bay to the Euxine.

Both tribes of the Cappadocians, those near the Taurus and those near

the Pontus, are called to this time Leuco-Syrians (or White

Syrians),[479] as though there existed a nation of Black Syrians. These

are the people situated beyond the Taurus, and I extend the name of

Taurus as far as the Amanus.[480]

When the historians of the Syrian empire say that the Medes were

overthrown by the Persians, and the Syrians by the Medes, they mean no

other Syrians than those who built the royal palaces at Babylon and

Nineveh; and Ninus, who built Nineveh in Aturia, was one of these

Syrians. His wife, who succeeded her husband, and founded Babylon, was

Semiramis. These sovereigns were masters of Asia. Many other works of

Semiramis, besides those at Babylon, are extant in almost every part of

this continent, as, for example, artificial mounds, which are called

mounds of Semiramis, and walls[481] and fortresses, with subterraneous

passages; cisterns for water; roads[482] to facilitate the ascent of

mountains; canals communicating with rivers and lakes; roads and

bridges.

The empire they left continued with their successors to the time of [the

contest between] Sardanapalus and Arbaces.[483] It was afterwards

transferred to the Medes.

3. The city Nineveh was destroyed immediately upon the overthrow of the

Syrians.[484] It was much larger than Babylon, and situated in the plain

of Aturia. Aturia borders upon the places about Arbela; between these is

the river Lycus.[485] Arbela and the parts about it[486] belong to

Babylonia. In the country on the other side of the Lycus are the plains

of Aturia, which surround Nineveh.[487]

[CAS. 737] In Aturia is situated Gaugamela, a village where Darius was

defeated and lost his kingdom. This place is remarkable for its name,

which, when interpreted, signifies the Camel’s House. Darius, the son of

Hystaspes, gave it this name, and assigned (the revenues of) the place

for the maintenance of a camel, which had undergone the greatest

possible labour and fatigue in the journey through the deserts of

Scythia, when carrying baggage and provision for the king. The

Macedonians, observing that this was a mean village, but Arbela a

considerable settlement (founded, as it is said, by Arbelus, son of

Athmoneus), reported that the battle was fought and the victory obtained

near Arbela, which account was transmitted to historians.

4. After Arbela and the mountain Nicatorium[488] (a name which

Alexander, after the victory at Arbela, superadded), is the river

Caprus,[489] situated at the same distance from Arbela as the Lycus. The

country is called Artacene.[490] Near Arbela is the city Demetrias; next

is the spring of naphtha, the fires, the temple of the goddess

Anæa,[491] Sadracæ, the palace of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the

Cyparisson, or plantation of Cypresses, and the passage across the

Caprus, which is close to Seleucia and Babylon.

5. Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is 385[492]

stadia in circumference, and 32 feet in thickness. The height of the

space between the towers is 50, and of the towers 60 cubits. The roadway

upon the walls will allow chariots with four horses when they meet to

pass each other with ease. Whence, among the seven wonders of the world,

are reckoned this wall and the hanging garden: the shape of the garden

is a square, and each side of it measures four plethra. It consists of

vaulted terraces, raised one above another, and resting upon cube-shaped

pillars. These are hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the

largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the terraces

are constructed of baked brick and asphalt.

The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their side are

water engines, by means of which persons, appointed expressly for the

purpose, are continually employed in raising water from the Euphrates

into the garden. For the river, which is a stadium in breadth, flows

through the middle of the city, and the garden is on the side of the

river. The tomb also of Belus is there. At present it is in ruins,

having been demolished, as it is said, by Xerxes. It was a quadrangular

pyramid of baked brick, a stadium in height, and each of the sides a

stadium in length. Alexander intended to repair it. It was a great

undertaking, and required a long time for its completion (for ten

thousand men were occupied two months in clearing away the mound of

earth), so that he was not able to execute what he had attempted, before

disease hurried him rapidly to his end. None of the persons who

succeeded him attended to this undertaking; other works also were

neglected, and the city was dilapidated, partly by the Persians, partly

by time, and, through the indifference of the Macedonians to things of

this kind, particularly after Seleucus Nicator had fortified Seleucia on

the Tigris near Babylon, at the distance of about 300 stadia.

Both this prince and all his successors directed their care to that

city, and transferred to it the seat of empire. At present it is larger

than Babylon; the other is in great part deserted, so that no one would

hesitate to apply to it what one of the comic writers said of

Megalopolitæ in Arcadia,

“The great city is a great desert.”

On account of the scarcity of timber, the beams and pillars of the

houses were made of palm wood. They wind ropes of twisted reed round the

pillars, paint them over with colours, and draw designs upon them; they

cover the doors with a coat of asphaltus. These are lofty, and all the

houses are vaulted on account of the want of timber. For the country is

bare, a great part of it is covered with shrubs, and produces [CAS.

739] nothing but the palm. This tree grows in the greatest abundance in

Babylonia. It is found in Susiana also in great quantity, on the Persian

coast, and in Carmania.

They do not use tiles for their houses, because there are no great

rains. The case is the same in Susiana and in Sitacene.

6. In Babylon a residence was set apart for the native philosophers

called Chaldæans, who are chiefly devoted to the study of astronomy.

Some, who are not approved of by the rest, profess to understand

genethlialogy, or the casting of nativities. There is also a tribe of

Chaldæans, who inhabit a district of Babylonia, in the neighbourhood of

the Arabians, and of the sea called the Persian Sea.[493] There are

several classes of the Chaldæan astronomers. Some have the name of

Orcheni, some Borsippeni, and many others, as if divided into sects, who

disseminate different tenets on the same subjects. The mathematicians

make mention of some individuals among them, as Cidenas, Naburianus, and

Sudinus. Seleucus also of Seleuceia is a Chaldæan, and many other

remarkable men.

7. Borsippa is a city sacred to Diana and Apollo. Here is a large linen

manufactory. Bats of much larger size than those in other parts abound

in it. They are caught and salted for food.

8. The country of the Babylonians is surrounded on the east by the

Susans, Elymæi, and Parætaceni; on the south by the Persian Gulf, and

the Chaldæans as far as the Arabian Meseni; on the west by the Arabian

Scenitæ as far as Adiabene and Gordyæa; on the north by the Armenians

and Medes as far as the Zagrus, and the nations about that river.

9. The country is intersected by many rivers, the largest of which are

the Euphrates and the Tigris: next to the Indian rivers, the rivers in

the southern parts of Asia are said to hold the second place. The Tigris

is navigable upwards from its mouth to Opis,[494] and to the present

Seleuceia. Opis is a village and a mart for the surrounding places. The

Euphrates also is navigable up to Babylon, a distance of more than 3000

stadia. The Persians, through fear of incursions from without, and for

the purpose of preventing vessels from ascending these rivers,

constructed artificial cataracts. Alexander, on arriving there,

destroyed as many of them as he could, those particularly [on the Tigris

from the sea] to Opis. But he bestowed great care upon the canals; for

the Euphrates, at the commencement of summer, overflows. It begins fill

in the spring, when the snow in Armenia melts: the ploughed land,

therefore, would be covered with water and be submerged, unless the

overflow of the superabundant water were diverted by trenches and

canals, as in Egypt the water of the Nile is diverted. Hence the origin

of canals. Great labour is requisite for their maintenance, for the soil

is deep, soft, and yielding, so that it would easily be swept away by

the stream; the fields would be laid bare, the canals filled, and the

accumulation of mud would soon obstruct their mouths. Then, again, the

excess of water discharging itself into the plains near the sea forms

lakes, and marshes, and reed-grounds, supplying the reeds with which all

kinds of platted vessels are woven; some of these vessels are capable of

holding water, when covered over with asphaltus; others are used with

the material in its natural state. Sails are also made of reeds; these

resemble mats or hurdles.

10. It is not, perhaps, possible to prevent inundations of this kind

altogether, but it is the duty of good princes to afford all possible

assistance. The assistance required is to prevent excessive overflow by

the construction of dams, and to obviate the filling of rivers, produced

by the accumulation of mud, by cleansing the canals, and removing

stoppages at their mouths. The cleansing of the canals is easily

performed, but the construction of dams requires the labour of numerous

workmen. For the earth being soft and yielding, does not support the

superincumbent mass, which sinks, and is itself carried away, and thus a

difficulty arises in making dams at the mouth. Expedition is necessary

in closing the canals to prevent all the water flowing out. When the

canals dry up in the summer time, they cause the river to dry up also;

and if the river is low (before the canals are closed), it cannot supply

the canals in time with water, of which the country, burnt up and

scorched, requires a very large quantity; [CAS. 740] for there is no

difference, whether the crops are flooded by an excess or perish by

drought and a failure of water. The navigation up the rivers (a source

of many advantages) is continually obstructed by both the

above-mentioned causes, and it is not possible to remedy this unless the

mouths of the canals were quickly opened and quickly closed, and the

canals were made to contain and preserve a mean between excess and

deficiency of water.

11. Aristobulus relates that Alexander himself, when he was sailing up

the river, and directing the course of the boat, inspected the canals,

and ordered them to be cleared by his multitude of followers; he

likewise stopped up some of the mouths, and opened others. He observed

that one of these canals, which took a direction more immediately to the

marshes, and to the lakes in front of Arabia, had a mouth very difficult

to be dealt with, and which could not be easily closed on account of the

soft and yielding nature of the soil; he (therefore) opened a new mouth

at the distance of 30 stadia, selecting a place with a rocky bottom, and

to this the current was diverted. But in doing this he was taking

precautions that Arabia should not become entirely inaccessible in

consequence of the lakes and marshes, as it was already almost an island

from the quantity of water (which surrounded it). For he contemplated

making himself master of this country; and he had already provided a

fleet and places of rendezvous; and had built vessels in Phœnicia and at

Cyprus, some of which were in separate pieces, others were in parts,

fastened together by bolts. These, after being conveyed to Thapsacus in

seven distances of a day’s march, were then to be transported down the

river to Babylon. He constructed other boats in Babylonia, from cypress

trees in the groves and parks, for there is a scarcity of timber in

Babylonia. Among the Cossæi, and some other tribes, the supply of timber

is not great.

The pretext for the war, says Aristobulus, was that the Arabians were

the only people who did not send their ambassadors to Alexander; but the

true reason was his ambition to be lord of all.

When he was informed that they worshipped two deities only, Jupiter and

Bacchus, who supply what is most requisite for the subsistence of

mankind, he supposed that, after his conquests, they would worship him

as a third, if he permitted them to enjoy their former national

independence. Thus was Alexander employed in clearing the canals, and in

examining minutely the sepulchres of the kings, most of which are

situated among the lakes.

12. Eratosthenes, when he is speaking of the lakes near Arabia, says,

that the water, when it cannot find an outlet, opens passages

under-ground, and is conveyed through these as far as the

Cœle-Syrians,[495] it is also compressed and forced into the parts near

Rhinocolura[496] and Mount Casius,[497] and there forms lakes and deep

pits.[498] But I know not whether this is probable. For the overflowings

of the water of the Euphrates, which form the lakes and marshes near

Arabia, are near the Persian Sea. But the isthmus which separates them

is neither large nor rocky, so that it was more probable that the water

forced its way in this direction into the sea, either under the ground,

or across the surface, than that it traversed so dry and parched a soil

for more than 6000 stadia; particularly, when we observe, situated

midway in this course, Libanus, Antilibanus, and Mount Casius.[499]

[CAS. 742] Such, then, are the accounts of Eratosthenes and

Aristobulus.

13. But Polycleitus says, that the Euphrates does not overflow its

banks, because its course is through large plains; that of the mountains

(from which it is supplied), some are distant 2000, and the Cossæan

mountains scarcely 1000 stadia, that they are not very high, nor covered

with snow to a great depth, and therefore do not occasion the snow to

melt in great masses, for the most elevated mountains are in the

northern parts above Ecbatana; towards the south they are divided,

spread out, and are much lower; the Tigris also receives the greater

part of the water [which comes down from them], and thus overflows its

banks.[500]

The last assertion is evidently absurd, because the Tigris descends into

the same plains (as the Euphrates); and the above-mentioned mountains

are not of the same height, the northern being more elevated, the

southern extending in breadth, but are of a lower altitude. The quantity

of snow is not, however, to be estimated by altitude only, but by

aspect. The same mountain has more snow on the northern than on the

southern side, and the snow continues longer on the former than on the

latter. As the Tigris therefore receives from the most southern parts of

Armenia, which are near Babylon, the water of the melted snow, of which

there is no great quantity, since it comes from the southern side, it

should overflow in a less degree than the Euphrates, which receives the

water from both parts (northern and southern); and not from a single

mountain only, but from many, as I have mentioned in the description of

Armenia. To this we must add the length of the river, the large tract of

country which it traverses in the Greater and in the Lesser Armenia, the

large space it takes in its course in passing out of the Lesser Armenia

and Cappadocia, after issuing out of the Taurus in its way to Thapsacus

(forming the boundary between Syria below and Mesopotamia), and the

large remaining portion of country as far as Babylon and to its mouth, a

course in all of 36,000 stadia.

This, then, on the subject of the canals (of Babylonia).

14. Babylonia produces barley in larger quantity than any other[501]

country, for a produce of three hundred-fold is spoken of. The palm tree

furnishes everything else, bread, wine, vinegar, and meal; all kinds of

woven articles are also procured from it. Braziers use the stones of the

fruit instead of charcoal. When softened by being soaked in water, they

are food for fattening oxen and sheep.

It is said that there is a Persian song in which are reckoned up 360

useful properties of the palm.

They employ for the most part the oil of sesamum, a plant which is rare

in other places.

15. Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes

describes it as follows.

The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in Susiana; the

dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it

near the Euphrates. When this river overflows at the time of the melting

of the snow, the spring also of asphaltus is filled, and overflows into

the river, where large clods are consolidated, fit for buildings

constructed of baked bricks. Others say that the liquid kind also is

found in Babylonia. With respect to the solid kind, I have described its

great utility in the construction of buildings. They say that boats (of

reeds) are woven,[502] which, when besmeared with asphaltus, are firmly

compacted. The liquid kind, called naphtha, is of a singular nature.

When it is brought near the fire, the fire catches it; and if a body

smeared over with it is brought near the fire, it burns with a flame,

which it is impossible to extinguish, except with a large quantity of

water; with a small quantity it burns more violently, but it may be

smothered and extinguished by mud, vinegar, alum, and glue. It is said

that Alexander, as an experiment, ordered naphtha to be poured over a

boy in a bath, and a lamp to be brought near his body. The boy became

enveloped in flames, and would have perished if the bystanders had not

mastered the fire by pouring upon him a great quantity of water, and

thus saved his life.

Poseidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of

which produce white, others black, naphtha; the first of these, I mean

the white naphtha, which attracts flame, [CAS. 743] is liquid sulphur;

the second, or black naphtha, is liquid asphaltus, and is burnt in lamps

instead of oil.

16. In former times the capital of Assyria was Babylon; it is now called

Seleuceia upon the Tigris. Near it is a large village called Ctesiphon.

This the Parthian kings usually made their winter residence, with a view

to spare the Seleucians the burden of furnishing quarters for the

Scythian soldiery. In consequence of the power of Parthia,

Ctesiphon[503] may be considered as a city rather than a village; from

its size it is capable of lodging a great multitude of people; it has

been adorned with public buildings by the Parthians, and has furnished

merchandise, and given rise to arts profitable to its masters.

The kings usually passed the winter there, on account of the salubrity

of the air, and the summer at Ecbatana and in Hyrcania,[504] induced by

the ancient renown of these places.

As we call the country Babylonia, so we call the people Babylonians, not

from the name of the city, but of the country; the case is not precisely

the same, however, as regards even natives of Seleuceia, as, for

instance, Diogenes, the stoic philosopher [who had the appellation of

the Babylonian, and not the Seleucian].[505]

17. At the distance of 500 stadia from Seleuceia is Artemita, a

considerable city, situated nearly directly to the east, which is the

position also of Sitacene.[506] This extensive and fertile tract of

country lies between Babylon and Susiana, so that the whole road in

travelling from Babylon to Susa passes through Sitacene. The road from

Susa[507] into the interior of Persis, through the territory of the

Uxii,[508] and from Persis into the middle of Carmania,[509] leads also

towards the east.

Persis, which is a large country, encompasses Carmania on the

[west][510] and north. Close to it adjoin Parætacene,[511] and the

Cossæan territory as far as the Caspian Gates, inhabited by mountainous

and predatory tribes. Contiguous to Susiana is Elymaïs, a great part of

which is rugged, and inhabited by robbers. To Elymaïs adjoin the country

about the Zagrus[512] and Media.[513]

18. The Cossæi, like the neighbouring mountaineers, are for the most

part archers, and are always out on foraging parties. For as they occupy

a country of small extent, and barren, they are compelled by necessity

to live at the expense of others. They are also necessarily powerful,

for they are all fighting men. When the Elymæi were at war with the

Babylonians and Susians, they supplied the Elymæi with thirteen thousand

auxiliaries.

The Parætaceni attend to the cultivation of the ground more than the

Cossæi, but even these people do not abstain from robbery.

The Elymæi occupy a country larger in extent, and more varied, than that

of the Parætaceni. The fertile part of it is inhabited by husbandmen.

The mountainous tract is a nursery for soldiers, the greatest part of

whom are archers. As it is of considerable extent, it can furnish a

great military force; their king, who possesses great power, refuses to

be subject, like others, to the king of Parthia. The country was

similarly independent in the time of the Persians, and afterwards[514]

in the time of the Macedonians, who governed Syria. When Antiochus the

Great attempted to plunder the temple of Belus, the neighbouring

barbarians, unassisted, attacked and put him to death. In after-times

the king of Parthia[515] heard that the temples in their country

contained great wealth, but knowing that the people would not submit,

and admonished by the fate of Antiochus, he invaded their country with a

large army; he took the temple of Minerva, and that of Diana, called

Azara, and carried away treasure to the amount of 10,000 [CAS. 744]

talents. Seleuceia also, a large city on the river Hedyphon,[516] was

taken. It was formerly called Soloce.

There are three convenient entrances into this country; one from Media

and the places about the Zagrus, through Massabatice; a second from

Susis, through the district Gabiane. Both Gabiane and Massabatice are

provinces of Elymæa. A third passage is that from Persis. Corbiane also

is a province of Elymaïs.

Sagapeni and Silaceni, small principalities, border upon Elymaïs.

Such, then, is the number and the character of the nations situated

above Babylonia towards the east.

We have said that Media and Armenia lie to the north, and Adiabene and

Mesopotamia to the west of Babylonia.

19. The greatest part of Adiabene consists of plains, and, although it

is a portion of Babylon, has its own prince. In some places it is

contiguous to Armenia.[517] For the Medes, Armenians, and Babylonians,

the three greatest nations in these parts, were from the first in the

practice, on convenient opportunities, of waging continual war with each

other, and then making peace, which state of things continued till the

establishment of the Parthian empire.

The Parthians subdued the Medes and Babylonians, but never at any time

conquered the Armenians. They made frequent inroads into their country,

but the people were not subdued, and Tigranes, as I have mentioned in

the description of Armenia,[518] opposed them with great vigour and

success.

Such is the nature of Adiabene. The Adiabeni are also called

Saccopodes.[519]

We shall describe Mesopotamia and the nations towards the south, after

premising a short account of the customs of the Assyrians.

20. Their other customs are like those of the Persians, but this is

peculiar to themselves: three discreet persons, chiefs of each tribe,

are appointed, who present publicly young women who are marriageable,

and give notice by the crier, beginning with those most in estimation,

of a sale of them to men intending to become husbands. In this manner

marriages are contracted.

As often as the parties have sexual intercourse with one another, they

rise, each apart from the other, to burn perfumes. In the morning they

wash, before touching any household vessel. For as ablution is customary

after touching a dead body, so it is practised after sexual

intercourse.[520] There is a custom prescribed by an oracle for all the

Babylonian women to have intercourse with strangers. The women repair to

a temple of Venus, accompanied by numerous attendants and a crowd of

people. Each woman has a cord round her head. The man approaches a

woman, and places on her lap as much money as he thinks proper; he then

leads her away to a distance from the sacred grove, and has intercourse

with her. The money is considered as consecrated to Venus.

There are three tribunals, one consisting of persons who are past

military service, another of nobles, and a third of old men, besides

another appointed by the king. It is the business of the latter[521] to

dispose of the virgins in marriage, and to determine causes respecting

adultery; of another to decide those relative to theft; and of the

third, those of assault and violence.

The sick are brought out of their houses into the highways, and inquiry

is made of passengers whether any of them can give information of a

remedy for the disease. There is no one so ill-disposed as not to accost

the sick person, and acquaint [CAS. 745] him with anything that he

considers may conduce to his recovery.

Their dress is a tunic reaching to the feet, an upper garment of wool,

[and] a white cloak. The hair is long. They wear a shoe resembling a

buskin. They wear also a seal, and carry a staff not plain, but with a

figure upon the top of it, as an apple, a rose, a lily, or something of

the kind. They anoint themselves with oil of sesamum. They bewail the

dead, like the Egyptians and many other nations. They bury the body in

honey, first besmearing it with wax.

There are three communities which have no corn. They live in the

marshes, and subsist on fish. Their mode of life is like that of the

inhabitants of Gedrosia.[522]

21. Mesopotamia has its name from an accidental circumstance. We have

said that it is situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, that the

Tigris washes its eastern side only, and the Euphrates its western and

southern sides. To the north is the Taurus, which separates Armenia from

Mesopotamia. The greatest distance by which they are separated from each

other is that towards the mountains. This distance may be the same which

Eratosthenes mentions, and is reckoned from Thapsacus,[523] where there

was the (Zeugma) old bridge of the Euphrates, to the (Zeugma) passage

over the Tigris, where Alexander crossed it, a distance, that is, of

2400 stadia. The least distance between them is somewhere about

Seleuceia and Babylon, and is a little more than 200 stadia.

The Tigris flows through the middle of the lake called Thopitis[524] in

the direction of its breadth, and after traversing it to the opposite

bank, sinks under ground with a loud noise and rushing of air. Its

course is for a long space invisible, but it rises again to the surface

not far from Gordyæa. According to Eratosthenes, it traverses the lake

with such rapidity, that although the lake is saline and without

fish,[525] yet in this part it is fresh, has a current, and abounds with

fish.

22. The contracted shape of Mesopotamia extends far in length, and

somewhat resembles a ship. The Euphrates forms the larger part of its

boundary. The distance from Thapsacus to Babylon, according to

Eratosthenes, is 4800 stadia, and from the (Zeugma)[526] bridge in

Commagene, where Mesopotamia begins, to Thapsacus, is not less than 2000

stadia.

23. The country lying at the foot of the mountains is very fertile. The

people, called by the Macedonians Mygdones, occupy the parts towards the

Euphrates, and both Zeugmata, that is, the Zeugma in Commagene, and the

ancient Zeugma at Thapsacus. In their territory is Nisibis,[527] which

they called also Antioch in Mygdonia, situated below Mount Masius,[528]

and Tigranocerta,[529] and the places about Carrhæ, Nicephorium,[530]

Chordiraza,[531] and Sinnaca, where Crassus was taken prisoner by

stratagem, and put to death by Surena, the Parthian general.[532]

24. Near the Tigris are the places belonging to the Gordyæi,[533] whom

the ancients called Carduchi; their cities are Sareisa, Satalca, and

Pinaca, a very strong fortress with three citadels, each enclosed by its

own wall, so that it is as it were a triple city. It was, however,

subject to the king of Armenia; the Romans also took it by storm,

although the Gordyæi had the reputation of excelling in the art of

building, and to be skilful in the construction of siege engines. It was

for this reason Tigranes took them into his service. The rest of

Mesopotamia (Gordyæa?) was subject to the Romans. Pompey assigned to

Tigranes the largest and best portion of the country; for it has fine

pastures, is rich in plants, and produces evergreens and an aromatic,

the amomum. It breeds lions also. It furnishes naphtha, and the stone

called Gangitis,[534] which drives away reptiles.

25. Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, is related to have colonized

Gordyene. The Eretrians[535] afterwards, who were carried away by force

by the Persians, settled here. We shall soon speak of Triptolemus in our

description of Syria.

26. The parts of Mesopotamia inclining to the south, and [CAS. 747] at

a distance from the mountains, are an arid and barren district, occupied

by the Arabian Scenitæ, a tribe of robbers and shepherds, who readily

move from place to place, whenever pasture or booty begin to be

exhausted. The country lying at the foot of the mountains is harassed

both by these people and by the Armenians. They are situated above, and

keep them in subjection by force. It is at last subject for the most

part to these people, or to the Parthians, who are situated at their

side, and possess both Media and Babylonia.

27. Between the Tigris and the Euphrates flows a river called Basileios

(or the Royal river), and about Anthemusia another called the

Aborrhas.[536] The road for merchants going from Syria to Seleuceia and

Babylon lies through the country of the (Arabian) Scenitæ, [now called

Malii,][537] and through the desert belonging to their territory. The

Euphrates is crossed in the latitude of Anthemusia, a place in

Mesopotamia.[538] Above the river, at the distance of four schœni, is

Bambyce, which is called by the names of Edessa and Hierapolis,[539]

where the Syrian goddess Atargatis is worshipped. After crossing the

river, the road lies through a desert country on the borders of

Babylonia to Scenæ, a considerable city, situated on the banks of a

canal. From the passage across the river to Scenæ is a journey of five

and twenty days. There are (on the road) owners of camels, who keep

resting-places, which are well supplied with water from cisterns, or

transported from a distance.

The Scenitæ exact a moderate tribute from merchants, but [otherwise] do

not molest them: the merchants, therefore, avoid the country on the

banks of the river, and risk a journey through the desert, leaving the

river on the right hand at a distance of nearly three days’ march. For

the chiefs of the tribes living on both banks of the river, who occupy

not indeed a fertile territory, yet one less sterile than the rest (of

the country), are settled in the midst of their own peculiar domains,

and each exacts a tribute of no moderate amount for himself. And it is

difficult among so large a body of people, and of such daring habits, to

establish any common standard of tribute advantageous to the merchant.

Scenæ is distant from Seleuceia 18 schœni.

28. The Euphrates and its eastern banks are the boundaries of the

Parthian empire. The Romans and the chiefs of the Arabian tribes occupy

the parts on this side the Euphrates as far as Babylonia. Some of the

chiefs attach themselves in preference to the Parthians, others to the

Romans, to whom they adjoin. The Scenitæ nomades, who live near the

river, are less friendly to the Romans than those tribes who are

situated at a distance near Arabia Felix. The Parthians were once

solicitous of conciliating the friendship of the Romans, but having

repulsed Crassus,[540] who began the war with them, they suffered

reprisals, when they themselves commenced hostilities, and sent Pacorus

into Asia.[541] But Antony, following the advice of the Armenian,[542]

was betrayed, and was unsuccessful (against them). Phraates, his[543]

successor, was so anxious to obtain the friendship of Augustus Cæsar,

that he even sent the trophies, which the Parthians had set up as

memorials of [CAS. 748] the defeat of the Romans. He also invited Titius

to a conference, who was at that time præfect of Syria, and delivered

into his hands, as hostages, four of his legitimate sons, Seraspadanes,

Rhodaspes, Phraates, and Bonones, with two of their wives and four of

their sons; for he was apprehensive of conspiracy and attempts on his

life.[544] He knew that no one could prevail against him, unless he was

opposed by one of the Arsacian family, to which race the Parthians were

strongly attached. He therefore removed the sons out of his way, with a

view of annihilating the hopes of the disaffected.

The surviving sons, who live at Rome, are entertained as princes at the

public expense. The other kings (his successors) have continued to send

ambassadors (to Rome), and to hold conferences (with the Roman

præfects).

CHAPTER II.

1. Syria is bounded on the north by Cilicia and the mountain Amanus;

from the sea to the bridge on the Euphrates (that is, from the Issic Bay

to the Zeugma in Commagene) is a distance of 1400 stadia, and forms the

above-mentioned (northern) boundary; on the east it is bounded by the

Euphrates and the Arabian Scenitæ, who live on this side the Euphrates;

on the south, by Arabia Felix and Egypt; on the west, by the Egyptian

and Syrian Seas as far as Issus.

2. Beginning from Cilicia and Mount Amanus, we set down as parts of

Syria, Commagene, and the Seleucis of Syria, as it is called, then

Cœle-Syria, lastly, on the coast, Phœnicia, and in the interior, Judæa.

Some writers divide the whole of Syria into Cœlo-Syrians, Syrians, and

Phœnicians, and say that there are intermixed with these four other

nations, Jews, Idumæans, Gazæans, and Azotii, some of whom are

husbandmen, as the Syrians and Cœlo-Syrians, and others merchants, as

the Phœnicians.

3. This is the general description [of Syria].[545]

In describing it in detail, we say that Commagene is rather a small

district. It contains a strong city, Samosata, in which was the seat of

the kings. At present it is a (Roman) province. A very fertile but small

territory lies around it. Here is now the Zeugma, or bridge, of the

Euphrates, and near it is situated Seleuceia, a fortress of Mesopotamia,

assigned by Pompey to the Commageneans. Here Tigranes confined in prison

for some time and put to death Selene, surnamed Cleopatra, after she was

dispossessed of Syria.[546]

4. Seleucis is the best of the above-mentioned portions of Syria. It is

called and is a Tetrapolis, and derives its name from the four

distinguished cities which it contains; for there are more than four

cities, but the four largest are Antioch Epidaphne,[547] Seleuceia in

Pieria,[548] Apameia,[549] and Laodiceia.[550] They were called Sisters

from the concord which existed between them. They were founded by

Seleucus Nicator. The largest bore the name of his father, and the

strongest his own. Of the others, Apameia had its name from his wife

Apama, and Laodiceia from his mother.

In conformity with its character of Tetrapolis, Seleucis, according to

Poseidonius, was divided into four satrapies; Cœle-Syria into the same

number, but [Commagene, like] Mesopotamia, consisted of one.[551]

Antioch also is a Tetrapolis, consisting (as the name implies) [CAS.

750] of four portions, each of which has its own, and all of them a

common wall.[552]

[Seleucus] Nicator founded the first of these portions, transferring

thither settlers from Antigonia, which a short time before Antigonus,

son of Philip, had built near it. The second was built by the general

body of settlers; the third by Seleucus, the son of Callinicus; the

fourth by Antiochus, the son of Epiphanes.

5. Antioch is the metropolis of Syria. A palace was constructed there

for the princes of the country. It is not much inferior in riches and

magnitude to Seleuceia on the Tigris and Alexandreia in Egypt.

[Seleucus] Nicator settled here the descendants of Triptolemus, whom we

have mentioned a little before.[553] On this account the people of

Antioch regard him as a hero, and celebrate a festival to his honour on

Mount Casius[554] near Seleuceia. They say that when he was sent by the

Argives in search of Io, who first disappeared at Tyre, he wandered

through Cilicia; that some of his Argive companions separated from him

and founded Tarsus; that the rest attended him along the sea-coast, and,

relinquishing their search, settled with him on the banks of the

Orontes;[555] that Gordys the son of Triptolemus, with some of those who

had accompanied his father, founded a colony in Gordyæa, and that the

descendants of the rest became settlers among the inhabitants of

Antioch.

6. Daphne,[556] a town of moderate size, is situated above Antioch at

the distance of 40 stadia. Here is a large forest, with a thick covert

of shade and springs of water flowing through it. In the midst of the

forest is a sacred grove, which is a sanctuary, and a temple of Apollo

and Diana. It is the custom for the inhabitants of Antioch and the

neighbouring people to assemble here to celebrate public festivals. The

forest is 80 stadia in circumference.

7. The river Orontes flows near the city. Its source is in Cœle-Syria.

Having taken its course under-ground, it reäppears, traverses the

territory of Apameia to Antioch, approaching the latter city, and then

descends to the sea at Seleuceia. The name of the river was formerly

Typhon, but was changed to Orontes, from the name of the person who

constructed the bridge over it.

According to the fable, it was somewhere here that Typhon was struck

with lightning, and here also was the scene of the fable of the Arimi,

whom we have before mentioned.[557] Typhon was a serpent, it is said,

and being struck by lightning, endeavoured to make its escape, and

sought refuge in the ground; it deeply furrowed the earth, and (as it

moved along) formed the bed of the river; having descended under-ground,

it caused a spring to break out, and from Typhon the river had its name.

On the west the sea, into which the Orontes discharges itself, is

situated below Antioch in Seleuceia, which is distant from the mouth of

the river 40, and from Antioch 120 stadia. The ascent by the river to

Antioch is performed in one day.

To the east of Antioch are the Euphrates, Bambyce,[558] Berœa,[559] and

Heracleia, small towns formerly under the government of Dionysius, the

son of Heracleon. Heracleia is distant 20 stadia from the temple of

Diana Cyrrhestis.

8. Then follows the district of Cyrrhestica,[560] which extends as far

as that of Antioch. On the north near it are Mount Amanus and Commagene.

Cyrrhestica extends as far as these places, and touches them. Here is

situated a city, Gindarus, the acropolis of Cyrrhestica, and a

convenient resort for robbers, and near it a place called Heracleium. It

was near these places that Pacorus, the eldest of the sons of the

Parthian king, who had invaded Syria, was defeated by Ventidius, and

killed.

Pagræ,[561] in the district of Antioch, is close to Gindarus. It [CAS.

751] is a strong fortress situated on the pass over the Amanus, which

leads from the gates of the Amanus into Syria. Below Pagræ lies the

plain of Antioch, through which flow the rivers Arceuthus, Orontes, and

Labotas.[562] In this plain is also the trench of Meleagrus, and the

river Œnoparas,[563] on the banks of which Ptolemy Philometor, after

having defeated Alexander Balas, died of his wounds.[564]

Above these places is a hill called Trapezon from its form,[565] and

upon it Ventidius engaged Phranicates[566] the Parthian general.

After these places, near the sea, are Seleuceia[567] and Pieria, a

mountain continuous with the Amanus and Rhosus, situated between Issus

and Seleuceia.

Seleuceia formerly had the name of Hydatopotami (rivers of water). It is

a considerable fortress, and may defy all attacks; wherefore Pompey,

having excluded from it Tigranes, declared it a free city.

To the south of Antioch is Apameia, situated in the interior, and to the

south of Seleuceia, the mountains Casius and Anti-Casius.

Still further on from Seleuceia are the mouths of the Orontes, then the

Nymphæum, a kind of sacred cave, next Casium, then follows

Poseidium[568] a small city, and Heracleia.[569]

9. Then follows Laodiceia, situated on the sea; it is a very well-built

city, with a good harbour; the territory, besides its fertility in other

respects, abounds with wine, of which the greatest part is exported to

Alexandreia. The whole mountain overhanging the city is planted almost

to its summit with vines. The summit of the mountain is at a great

distance from Laodiceia, sloping gently and by degrees upwards from the

city; but it rises perpendicularly over Apameia.

Laodiceia suffered severely when Dolabella took refuge there. Being

besieged by Cassius, he defended it until his death, but he involved in

his own ruin the destruction of many parts of the city.[570]

10. In the district of Apameia is a city well fortified in almost every

part. For it consists of a well-fortified hill, situated in a hollow

plain, and almost surrounded by the Orontes, which, passing by a large

lake in the neighbourhood, flows through wide-spread marshes and meadows

of vast extent, affording pasture for cattle and horses.[571] The city

is thus securely situated, and received the name Cherrhonesus (or the

peninsula) from the nature of its position. It is well supplied from a

very large fertile tract of country, through which the Orontes flows

with numerous windings. Seleucus Nicator, and succeeding kings, kept

there five hundred elephants, and the greater part of their army.

It was formerly called Pella by the first Macedonians, because most of

the soldiers of the Macedonian army had settled there; for Pella, the

native place of Philip and Alexander, was held to be the metropolis of

the Macedonians. Here also the soldiers were mustered, and the breed of

horses kept up. There were in the royal stud more than thirty thousand

brood mares and three hundred stallions. Here were employed

colt-breakers, instructors in the method of fighting in heavy armour,

and all who were paid to teach the arts of war.

The power Trypho, surnamed Diodotus, acquired is a proof of the

influence of this place; for when he aimed at the empire of Syria, he

made Apameia the centre of his operations. He was born at Casiana, a

strong fortress in the Apameian district, and educated in Apameia; he

was a favourite of the king and the persons about the court. When he

attempted to effect a revolution in the state, he obtained his supplies

from Apameia and from the neighbouring cities, Larisa,[572] Casiana,

Megara, Apollonia, and others like them, all of which were reckoned to

belong to the district of Apameia. He was proclaimed king of this

country, and maintained his sovereignty for a long time. Cæcilius

Bassus, at the head of two legions, caused Apameia to revolt, and was

besieged by two large Roman armies, but his resistance was so vigorous

and long that he only surrendered voluntarily and on his own

conditions.[573] For the country supplied his army with provisions,

[CAS. 753] and a great many of the chiefs of the neighbouring tribes

were his allies, who possessed strongholds, among which was Lysias,

situated above the lake, near Apameia, Arethusa,[574] belonging to

Sampsiceramus and Iamblichus his son, chiefs of the tribe of the

Emeseni.[575] At no great distance were Heliopolis and Chalcis,[576]

which were subject to Ptolemy, son of Mennæus,[577] who possessed the

Massyas[578] and the mountainous country of the Ituræans. Among the

auxiliaries of Bassus was Alchædamnus,[579] king of the Rhambæi, a tribe

of the Nomades on this side of the Euphrates. He was a friend of the

Romans, but, considering himself as having been unjustly treated by

their governors, he retired to Mesopotamia, and then became a tributary

of Bassus. Poseidonius the Stoic was a native of this place, a man of

the most extensive learning among the philosophers of our times.

11. The tract called Parapotamia, belonging to the Arab chiefs, and

Chalcidica, extending from the Massyas, border upon the district of

Apameia on the east; and nearly all the country further to the south of

Apameia belongs to the Scenitæ, who resemble the Nomades of Mesopotamia.

In proportion as the nations approach the Syrians they become more

civilized, while the Arabians and Scenitæ are less so. Their

governments are better constituted [as that of Arethusa under

Sampsiceramus, that of Themella under Gambarus, and other states of this

kind].[580]

12. Such is the nature of the interior parts of the district of

Seleuceia.

The remainder of the navigation along the coast from Laodiceia is such

as I shall now describe.

Near Laodiceia are the small cities, Poseidium, Heracleium, and Gabala.

Then follows the maritime tract[581] of the Aradii, where are

Paltus,[582] Balanæa, and Carnus,[583] the arsenal of Aradus, which has

a small harbour; then Enydra,[584] and Marathus, an ancient city of the

Phœnicians in ruins. The Aradii[585] divided the territory by lot. Then

follows the district Simyra.[586] Continuous with these places is

Orthosia,[587] then the river Eleutherus, which some make the boundary

of Seleucis towards Phœnicia and Cœle-Syria.

13. Aradus is in front of a rocky coast without harbours, and situated

nearly between its arsenal[588] and Marathus. It is distant from the

land 20 stadia. It is a rock, surrounded by the sea, of about seven

stadia in circuit, and covered with dwellings. The population even at

present is so large that the houses have many stories. It was colonized,

it is said, by fugitives from Sidon. The inhabitants are supplied with

water partly from cisterns containing rain water, and partly [CAS. 754]

from the opposite coast. In war time they obtain water a little in front

of the city, from the channel (between the island and the mainland), in

which there is an abundant spring. The water is obtained by letting down

from a boat, which serves for the purpose, and inverting over the spring

(at the bottom of the sea), a wide-mouthed funnel of lead, the end of

which is contracted to a moderate-sized opening; round this is fastened

a (long) leathern pipe, which we may call the neck, and which receives

the water, forced up from the spring through the funnel. The water first

forced up is sea water, but the boatmen wait for the flow of pure and

potable water, which is received into vessels ready for the purpose, in

as large a quantity as may be required, and carry it to the city.[589]

14. The Aradii were anciently governed by their own kings in the same

manner as all the other Phœnician cities. Afterwards the Persians,

Macedonians, and now the Romans have changed the government to its

present state.

The Aradii, together with the other Phœnicians, consented to become

allies of the Syrian kings; but upon the dissension of the two brothers,

Callinicus Seleucus and Antiochus Hierax, as he was called, they

espoused the party of Callinicus; they entered into a treaty, by which

they were allowed to receive persons who quitted the king’s dominions,

and took refuge among them, and were not obliged to deliver them up

against their will. They were not, however, to suffer them to embark and

quit the island without the king’s permission. From this they derived

great advantages; for those who took refuge there were not ordinary

people, but persons who had held the highest trusts, and apprehended the

worst consequences (when they fled). They regarded those who received

them with hospitality as their benefactors; they acknowledged their

preservers, and remembered with gratitude the kindness which they had

received, particularly after their return to their own country. It was

thus that the Aradii acquired possession of a large part of the opposite

continent, most of which they possess even at present, and were

otherwise successful. To this good fortune they added prudence and

industry in the conduct of their maritime affairs; when they saw their

neighbours, the Cilicians, engaged in piratical adventures, they never

on any occasion took part with them in such (a disgraceful)

occupation.[590]

15. After Orthosia and the river Eleutherus is Tripolis, which has its

designation from the fact of its consisting of three cities, Tyre,

Sidon, and Aradus. Contiguous to Tripolis is Theoprosopon,[591] where

the mountain Libanus terminates. Between them lies a small place called

Trieres.

16. There are two mountains, which form Cœle-Syria, as it is called,

lying nearly parallel to each other; the commencement of the ascent of

both these mountains, Libanus and Antilibanus, is a little way from the

sea; Libanus rises above the sea near Tripolis and Theoprosopon, and

Antilibanus, above the sea near Sidon. They terminate somewhere near the

Arabian mountains, which are above the district of Damascus and the

Trachones as they are there called, where they form fruitful hills. A

hollow plain lies between them, the breadth of which towards the sea is

200 stadia, and the length from the sea to the interior is about twice

that number of stadia. Rivers flow through it, the largest of which is

the Jordan, which water a country fertile and productive of all things.

It contains also a lake, which produces the aromatic rush and reed. In

it are also marshes. The name of the lake is Gennesaritis. It produces

also balsamum.[592]

Among the rivers is the Chrysorrhoas, which commences [CAS. 755] from

the city and territory of Damascus, and is almost entirely drained by

water-courses; for it supplies with water a large tract of country, with

a very deep soil.

The Lycus[593] and the Jordan are navigated upwards chiefly by the

Aradii, with vessels of burden.

17. Of the plains, the first reckoning from the sea is called Macras and

Macra-pedium. Here Poseidonius says there was seen a serpent lying dead,

which was nearly a plethrum in length, and of such a bulk and thickness

that men on horseback standing on each side of its body could not see

one another; the jaws when opened could take in a man on horseback, and

the scales of the skin were larger than a shield.

18. Next to the plain of Macras is that of Massyas, which also contains

some mountainous parts, among which is Chalcis, the acropolis, as it

were, of the Massyas. The commencement of this plain is at

Laodiceia,[594] near Libanus. The Ituræans and Arabians, all of whom are

freebooters, occupy the whole of the mountainous tracts. The husbandmen

live in the plains, and when harassed by the freebooters, they require

protection of various kinds. The robbers have strongholds from which

they issue forth; those, for example, who occupy Libanus have high up on

the mountain the fortresses Sinna, Borrhama, and some others like them;

lower down, Botrys and Gigartus, caves also near the sea, and the castle

on the promontory Theoprosopon. Pompey destroyed these fastnesses, from

whence the robbers overran Byblus,[595] and Berytus[596] situated next

to it, and which lie between Sidon and Theoprosopon.

Byblus, the royal seat of Cinyrus, is sacred to Adonis. Pompey delivered

this place from the tyranny of Cinyrus, by striking off his head. It is

situated upon an eminence at a little distance from the sea.

19. After Byblus is the river Adonis,[597] and the mountain Climax, and

Palæ-Byblus, then the river Lycus, and Berytus. This latter place was

razed by Tryphon, but now the Romans have restored it, and two legions

were stationed there by Agrippa, who also added to it a large portion of

the territory of Massyas, as far as the sources of the Orontes. These

sources are near Libanus, the Paradeisus, and the Egyptian

Fort near the district of Apameia. These places lie near the sea.

20. Above the Massyas is the Royal Valley, as it is called, and the

territory of Damascus, so highly extolled. Damascus is a considerable

city, and in the time of the Persian empire was nearly the most

distinguished place in that country.

Above Damascus are the two (hills) called Trachones; then, towards the

parts occupied by Arabians and Ituræans promiscuously, are mountains of

difficult access, in which were caves extending to a great depth. One of

these caves was capable of containing four thousand robbers, when the

territory of Damascus was subject to incursions from various quarters.

The Barbarians used to rob the merchants most generally on the side of

Arabia Felix,[598] but this happens less frequently since the

destruction of the bands of the robbers under Zenodorus, by the good

government of the Romans, and in consequence of the security afforded by

the soldiers stationed and maintained in Syria.

21. The whole country[599] above Seleucis, extending towards Egypt and

Arabia, is called Cœle-Syria, but peculiarly the tract bounded by

Libanus and Antilibanus, of the remainder one part is the coast

extending from Orthosia[600] as far as Pelusium,[601] and is called

Phœnicia, a narrow strip of land along the sea; the other, situated

above Phœnicia in the interior between Gaza and Antilibanus, and

extending to the Arabians, called Judæa.

22. Having described Cœle-Syria properly so called, we pass on to

Phœnicia, of which we have already described[602] the part extending

from Orthosia to Berytus.

Next to Berytus is Sidon, at the distance of 400 stadia. Between these

places is the river Tamyras,[603] and the grove of Asclepius and

Leontopolis.

Next to Sidon is Tyre,[604] the largest and most ancient city of the

Phœnicians. This city is the rival of Sidon in magnitude, fame, and

antiquity, as recorded in many fables. For although poets have

celebrated Sidon more than Tyre (Homer, however, does not even mention

Tyre), yet the colonies sent into Africa and Spain, as far as, and

beyond the Pillars, extol [CAS. 756] much more the glory of Tyre. Both

however were formerly, and are at present, distinguished and illustrious

cities, but which of the two should be called the capital of Phœnicia is

a subject of dispute among the inhabitants.[605] Sidon is situated upon

a fine naturally-formed harbour on the mainland.

23. Tyre is wholly an island, built nearly in the same manner as Aradus.

It is joined to the continent by a mound, which Alexander raised, when

he was besieging it. It has two harbours, one close, the other open,

which is called the Egyptian harbour. The houses here, it is said,

consist of many stories, of more even than at Rome; on the occurrence,

therefore, of an earthquake, the city was nearly demolished.[606] It

sustained great injury when it was taken by siege by Alexander, but it

rose above these misfortunes, and recovered itself both by the skill of

the people in the art of navigation, in which the Phœnicians in general

have always excelled all nations, and by (the export of) purple-dyed

manufactures, the Tyrian purple being in the highest estimation. The

shell-fish from which it is procured is caught near the coast, and the

Tyrians have in great abundance other requisites for dyeing. The great

number of dyeing works renders the city unpleasant as a place of

residence, but the superior skill of the people in the practice of this

art is the source of its wealth. Their independence was secured to them

at a small expense to themselves, not only by the kings of Syria, but

also by the Romans, who confirmed what the former had conceded.[607]

They pay extravagant honours to Hercules.

The great number and magnitude of their colonies and cities are proofs

of their maritime skill and power.

Such then are the Tyrians.

24. The Sidonians are said by historians to excel in various kinds of

art, as the words of Homer also imply.[608] Besides, they cultivate

science and study astronomy and arithmetic, to which they were led by

the application of numbers (in accounts) and night sailing, each of

which (branches of knowledge) concerns the merchant and seaman; in the

same manner the Egyptians were led to the invention of geometry by the

mensuration of ground, which was required in consequence of the Nile

confounding, by its overflow, the respective boundaries of the country.

It is thought that geometry was introduced into Greece from Egypt, and

astronomy and arithmetic from Phœnicia. At present the best

opportunities are afforded in these cities of acquiring a knowledge of

these, and of all other branches of philosophy.

If we are to believe Poseidonius, the ancient opinion about atoms

originated with Mochus, a native of Sidon, who lived before the Trojan

times. Let us, however, dismiss subjects relating to antiquity. In my

time there were distinguished philosophers, natives of Sidon, as

Boethus, with whom I studied the philosophy of Aristotle,[609] and

Diodotus his brother. Antipater was of Tyre, and a little before my time

Apollonius, who published a table of the philosophers of the school of

Zeno, and of their writings.

Tyre is distant from Sidon not more than 200 stadia. Between the two is

situated a small town, called Ornithopolis, (the city of birds); next a

river[610] which empties itself near Tyre into the sea. Next after Tyre

is Palæ-tyrus (ancient Tyre), at the distance of 30 stadia.[611]

[CAS. 758] 25. Then follows Ptolemaïs, a large city, formerly called

Ace.[612] It was the place of rendezvous for the Persians in their

expeditions against Egypt. Between Ace and Tyre is a sandy beach, the

sand of which is used in making glass. The sand, it is said, is not

fused there, but carried to Sidon to undergo that process. Some say that

the Sidonians have, in their own country, the vitrifiable sand;

according to others, the sand of every place can be fused. I heard at

Alexandria from the glass-workers, that there is in Egypt a kind of

vitrifiable earth, without which expensive works in glass of various

colours could not be executed, but in other countries other mixtures are

required; and at Rome, it is reported, there have been many inventions

both for producing various colours, and for facilitating the

manufacture, as for example in glass wares, where a glass bowl may be

purchased for a copper coin,[613] and glass is ordinarily used for

drinking.

26. A phenomenon[614] of the rarest kind is said to have occurred on the

shore between Tyre and Ptolemaïs. The people of Ptolemaïs had engaged in

battle with Sarpedon the general, and after a signal defeat were left in

this place, when a wave from the sea, like the rising tide, overwhelmed

the fugitives; some were carried out to sea and drowned, others perished

in hollow places; then again the ebb succeeding, uncovered and displayed

to sight the bodies lying in confusion among dead fish.