strategic feature of this route is the elevated position of Atta
Karez, thirty-one miles from Kandahar. He says: "On the whole road
this is the narrowest gateway, and this remarkable feature and the
concentration of roads [Footnote: The roads which meet at Atta Karez
are: the great Herat highway passing through Kokeran and crossing
the Argandab opposite Sinjari, whence it lies along the open plain
all the way to Atta Karez; the road which crosses the Argandab at
Panjwai; and the road from Taktipul towards Herat.] here, give to
Atta Karez a strategic importance unequalled by any other spot
between India and Central Asia."
General Biddulph examined this position carefully in 1879, and
discovered a site for a work which would command the valley of the
Argandab and sweep the elevated open plain toward the west and
northwest.
Abbaza is a village at the crossing of the Herat road over the
Helmund, forty-six miles west of Atta Karez. On the west bank lies
the ancient castle of Girishk. The country between the Argandab and
the Helmund is rolling and inclining gradually from the hills toward
the junction of these rivers. The plateau opposite Girishk is 175
feet above the river, which it commands.
The Helmund has already been described. There are numerous fords,
but, at certain times, bridges would be required for military
purposes. The land in the vicinity of the Helmund is very fertile
and seamed with irrigating canals.
From Girishk a road _via_ Washir runs through the hills to Herat;
this is said to be cool, well supplied with water and grazing, and
is a favorite military route. A road, parallel, to the south, goes
through Farrah, beyond which both roads blend into one main road to
the "Key." Still another road, by Bost, Rudbar, and Lash, along the
course of the river, exists. Although not so direct, it is an
important route to Herat; upon this road stand the ruins of the
ancient city of Bost in a wonderful state of preservation; here, as
elsewhere in this region, the remains of fortifications testify to
the former military importance of the spot. The citadel of Bost is
built on the debris of extensive works and rises 150 feet above the
river.
_British Generals_.--Perhaps the most prominent of modern British
commanders, next to Lord Wolseley--is the young and successful
soldier, Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Roberts, G.C.B., C.I.E.,
commanding the Anglo-Indian Army of the Madras Presidency. He has
already seen service in Afghanistan and elsewhere, and has been
appointed to the command of one of the principal divisions of the
British forces intended to oppose the threatened advance of the
Russians on Herat. It was said of him by one of the most brilliant
military leaders of the age,--Skobeleff: "For General Roberts I have
a great admiration. He seems to me to possess all the qualities of a
great general. That was a splendid march of his from Kabul to
Kandahar. I think more highly of him than I do of Sir Garnet
Wolseley, but there is this to be said of _all_ your generals, they
have only fought against Asiatic and savage foes. They have not
commanded an army against a European enemy, and we cannot tell,
therefore, what they are really made of."
The Commander-in-chief of the Army of India, General Sir Donald M.
Stewart, G.C.B., C.I.E., to whom has been intrusted the conduct of
the British forces in Afghanistan, is also a very distinguished and
experienced officer--probably more familiar with the nature of the
probable field of operations than any other in Her Majesty's
Service.
Like the United States, the great latent power of England is
indisputable, and so long as superiority at sea is maintained, time
is given to render that latent power active. For the first year of
the coming struggle England must lean heavily upon her navy. Nearly
all the regiments of infantry are below the average peace limit, and
if filled up simultaneously to a maximum war strength will include
more than fifty per cent, of imperfectly trained men, and as the
practice has been to fill up those corps ordered abroad with men
transferred from other small regiments, it may come to pass that
so-called "regular" regiments will consist largely of raw material.
Colonel Trench of the British Army says "the organization of the
regular cavalry is very defective," and especially complains of the
maladministration we have just noted. Demands for cavalry for the
Soudan were met by a heavy drain on the already depleted strength of
regiments in England. The Fifth Dragoon Guards, which stood next on
the roster for foreign service, gave away nearly two hundred horses
and one hundred men. Colonel Trench says that the reserve cavalry
have no training, and that there is no reserve of horses. It is
doubtful if more than seventy per cent. of the enlisted strength and
fifty per cent. of the horses, on paper, could be put in the field
now.
Allusion has already been made to the notorious weakness of the
British transport system. [Footnote: Captain Gaisford, who commanded
the Khaiber Levies in the Afghan campaign, recommended reforms in
the system of transport and supply. He advocated certain American
methods, as wind and water-mills to crush and cleanse the petrified
and gravelled barley, often issued, and to cut up the inferior hay;
the selection of transport employes who understand animals; and more
care in transporting horses by sea.] If this has been the case in
the numerous small wars in which her forces have been engaged for
the last twenty-five years, what may be expected from the strain of
a great international campaign.
On the other hand, Great Britain can boast of an inexhaustible
capital, not alone of the revenues which have been accumulating
during the last quarter of a century, but of patriotism, physical
strength, courage, and endurance, peculiar to a race of conquerors.
IV.
THE RUSSIAN FORCES AND APPROACHES.
A mere glance at the ponderous military machine with which Russia
enforces law and order within her vast domain, and by which she
preserves and extends her power, is all that we can give here.
No army in the world has probably undergone, within the last thirty
years, such a succession of extensive alterations in organization,
in administrative arrangements, and in tactical regulations, as that
of Russia. The Crimean War surprised it during a period of
transition. Further changes of importance were carried out after
that war. Once more, in 1874, the whole military system was
remodelled, while ever since the Peace of San Stefano, radical
reforms have been in progress, and have been prosecuted with such
feverish haste, that it is difficult for the observer to keep pace
with them. [Footnote: Sir L. Graham (_Journal Royal U. S.
Institution_).]
The military system of Russia is based upon the principles of
universal liability to serve and of territorial distribution. This
applies to the entire male population, with certain exemptions or
modifications on the ground, respectively, of age or education.
Annually there is a "lot-drawing," in which all over twenty, who
have not already drawn lots, must take part. Those who draw blanks
are excused from service with the colors, but go into the last
reserve, or "Opoltschenie."
The ordinary term of service is fifteen years,--six with the colors
and nine with the reserves; a reduction is made for men serving at
remote Asiatic posts; the War Office may send soldiers into the
reserve before the end of their terms. Reduction is also made, from
eleven to thirteen years and a half, for various degrees of
educational acquirement. Exemptions are also made for family reasons
and on account of peculiar occupation or profession. Individuals who
personally manage their estates or direct their own commercial
affairs (with the exception of venders of strong liquors) may have
their entry into service postponed two years. Men are permitted to
volunteer at seventeen (with consent of parents or guardians); all
volunteers serve nine years in the reserve; those joining the Guards
or cavalry must maintain themselves at their own expense. The total
contingent demanded for army and navy in 1880 was 235,000, and
231,961 were enrolled; of this deficit of 3,039, the greater number,
3,000, were Jews.
_Organization_.--The Emperor is the Commander-in-Chief, who issues
orders through the War Ministry, whose head is responsible for
the general efficiency of the Army. There is also the "Imperial
Head-quarters," under a general officer who, in the absence of the
War Minister, takes the Emperor's orders and sees to their
execution. The War Council, presided over by the War Minister,
supervises all financial matters in connection with the army. There
are also a High Court of Appeals, and the Head-quarters Staff, who
supervise the execution of all military duties. Commissariat,
artillery, engineer, medical, military education, Cossack, and
judge-advocate departments complete the list of bureaus.
The military forces are arranged into nineteen army corps: five
comprise three divisions of infantry; one, two divisions of cavalry;
the remainder, two divisions of cavalry and one of infantry; with a
due proportion of light artillery and engineers the war strength of
an army corps is 42,303 combatants, 10,755 horses, and 108 guns.
When war is declared an army is formed of two or more corps. The
general commanding exercises supreme control, civil and military, if
the force enters the enemy's country. His staff are detailed much as
usual at an American army head-quarters in the field.
There are in the active army--_Infantry_: 768 battalions (192
regiments, 48 divisions), 54 batt. riflemen. _Cavalry_: 56 regular
regiments (4 cuirassiers, 2 uhlans, 2 hussars, 48 dragoons); 29
regt. Cossacks, divided into 20 divisions, kept in time of peace at
768 men (864 with sub-officers) per regiment. _Artillery_: 51
brigades, or 303 batteries of 8 guns each; 30 horse-batteries of 6
guns each; besides 14 batteries with Cossack divisions. Fifty
"parks" and 20 sections of "parks" supply each infantry brigade and
cavalry division with cartridges.
THE LAND FORCES OF RUSSIA.
[Footnote: Approximately from latest (1884-85) returns. (Combatants
only.)]
EUROPE.
Field Troops
PEACE.
Engineers. 21,335
Cavalry. 52,902
Infantry. 49,581
Artillery. 323,701
Total. 447,519
Horses. 71,565
Guns. 1,188
WAR.
Total. 821,243
Horses. 155,149
Guns. 2,172
Reserve, Fortress, and Depot Troops
PEACE.
Engineers. -
Cavalry. 10,504
Infantry. 23,704
Artillery. 54,995
Total. 89,203
Horses. 8,703
Guns. 144
WAR.
Total. 891,404
Horses. 109,822
Guns. 1,236
CAUCASUS.
Field Troops
PEACE.
Engineers. 1,548
Cavalry. 12,364
Infantry. 8,442
Artillery. 59,254
Total. 81,608
Horses. 15,927
Guns. 198
WAR.
Total. 150,313
Horses. 31,700
Guns. 366
Reserve Fortress Troops
PEACE.
Engineers. -
Cavalry. 5,480
Infantry. 2,860
Artillery. 2,270
Total. 10,610
Horses. 6,137
Guns. 8
WAR.
Total. 51,776
Horses. 36,862
Guns. 12
TURKESTAN.
PEACE.
Engineers. 496
Cavalry. 6,744
Infantry. 2,468
Artillery. 12,522
Total. 22,230
Horses. 8,246
Guns. 48
WAR.
Total. 34,125
Horses. 12,780
Guns. 76
SIBERIA.
PEACE.
Engineers. 244
Cavalry. 2,606
Infantry. 1,273
Artillery. 7,752
Total. 11,875
Horses. 3,412
Guns. 24
WAR.
Total. 29,779
Horses. 14,745
Guns. 58
_Grand Aggregate of the Empire_.
PEACE.
Engineers. 23,623
Cavalry. 90,600
Infantry. 83,328
Artillery. 460,494
Total. 663,045
Horses. 113,990
Guns. 1,610
WAR.
Total. 1,978,640
Horses. 367,089
Guns. 3,920
During 1884 the engineer corps was reorganized. Henceforward the
peace establishment will consist of seventeen battalions of sappers;
eight battalions of pontoniers; sixteen field-telegraph companies,
each of which is mounted, so as to maintain telegraphic
communication for forty miles, and have two stations; six
engineering parks or trains, each ten sections, carrying each
sufficient tools and material for an infantry division; four
battalions of military railway engineers; four mine companies; two
siege trains, and one telegraph instruction company. The whole is
divided into six brigades, and provisions are taken for training
recruits and supplying the losses during war. The fortress troops,
for the defence of fortresses, consist of forty-three battalions of
twelve hundred men each in time of war, and nine companies of three
hundred men each. The depot troops, for garrison service, consist of
thirteen battalions and three hundred detachments.
The reserve troops supply 204 battalions of infantry, 56 squadrons
of cavalry, 57 batteries of artillery, and 34 companies of sappers.
If mobilized, they are intended to supply 544 battalions, 56
squadrons, 144 batteries, and 34 companies of engineers. The second
reserve, or "Zapas," consists of "cadres" for instruction, organized
in time of war.
The training of the Russian infantry comprises that of skirmishing
as of most importance; the whistle is used to call attention; the
touch is looser in the ranks than formerly; squares to resist
cavalry are no longer used; [Footnote: A British officer, who has
had good opportunities, says the infantry drill is second to none.]
the Berdan breech-loader is the infantry arm; sergeant-majors wear
officers' swords, and together with musicians carry revolvers.
A great stimulus has been given to rifle practice in the Russian
army, with fair results, but complaint is made of want of good
instructors. The dress and equipment of the infantry is noted for an
absence of ornament, and hooks are substituted for buttons. Every
thing has been made subordinate to comfort and convenience. Woollen
or linen bandages are worn instead of socks. The entire outfit of
the soldier weighs about fifty pounds. The Guards, alone, are yet
permitted to wear their old uniform with buttons. The arms of the
Turkestan troops are mixed Berdan and Bogdan rifles. The field
clothing is generally linen blouse with cloth shoulder-straps,
chamois-leather trousers, dyed red, and a white kepi. Officers wear
the same trousers in the field. Cossacks wear gray shirts of camel's
hair.
The artillery is divided into field artillery and horse artillery,
of which the strength is given elsewhere. The horse batteries have
the steel four-pound gun.
Col. Lumley, of the British army, says: "In Russia it is believed
that the field artillery is equal to that of any other Power, and
the horse artillery superior." Lieut. Grierson, R.A., from his
personal observation, confirms this opinion.
It is not too much to say that, in any European conflict in the near
future, the Russian cavalry will be conspicuous and extraordinarily
effective. In a war with England, in Asia, the use of large bodies
of cavalry, organized, instructed, and equipped after the American
plan, must become the main feature.
From the wonderful reforms instituted by Russia in her huge army of
horsemen, which have put her before all other nations, not excepting
Germany, we may expect to hear of wonderful mobility, stunning blows
at the enemy's depots, and the appropriation of choice positions
under his nose: of stubborn contests with the Anglo-Indian infantry,
the only weapon a Berdan carbine; of communications destroyed by
high explosives: especially, of the laying waste smiling Afghan
valleys, inexpedient to occupy:--these are a few of the surprises to
which we may be treated if Russia gets the chance. In this manner
she is doubtless prepared to take the initiative in her next war.
[Footnote: The bold operations of General Gourko in the
Russo-Turkish war of 1878, afford the best illustration of the
versatile qualities of the progressive military horseman since the
American war, 1861-5. An Austrian officer says: "The Russian cavalry
reconnoitred boldly and continuously, and gave proof of an
initiative very remarkable. Every one knows that Russian dragoons
are merely foot soldiers mounted, and only half horsemen: however,
that it should come to such a point as making dragoons charge with
the bayonet, such as took place July 16th near Twardista, seems
strange. Cossacks and Hussars dismounted on the 30th, formed
skirmishing lines, coming and going under the fire of infantry,
protecting their battery, and conducting alone an infantry fight
against the enemy. At Eski Zagra, July 31st, the dragoons did not
leave the field until all their cartridges were exhausted. On the
other hand, the _offensive_ action, and the spirit of enterprise and
dash, which are the proper qualifications of cavalry, were not
wanting in the Russians."]
The whole of the regular cavalry of the line has been converted into
dragoons armed with Berdan rifle and bayonet; the Guard regiments
must adopt the same change when ordered into the field, and the
Cossacks have been deprived of the lance (excepting for the front
rank); new musketry regulations have been prescribed. Great stress
is now laid upon the training of both horses and men in the
direction of long marches, and the passage of obstacles. Forced
marches are also made to cover the greatest possible distances in
the shortest possible time.
[Footnote: Among other experiments are noted that of 7 officers and
14 men of the Orenburg Cossacks who in November last in bad weather
travelled 410 versts between Niji Novgorod and Moscow in 5
days--about 53 miles a day; then covering 685 versts from Moscow to St.
Petersburg in 8 days--56 miles a day; on arrival an inspector
reported horses fresh and ready for service; the party was mentioned
in orders, and presented to the Czar. A month before, in snow and
intense cold, 7 officers and 7 men of the cavalry school covered 370
versts in 4 days--60 miles a day. It is asserted that the best
Russian cavalry can travel 70 miles a day, continuously, without
injury. General Gourko recently inspected two sotnias of Don
Cossacks who had cleared 340 versts in 3 days, or 74 miles a day.]
Swimming was practised in the Warsaw, Odessa, and Moscow districts,
the horses being regularly taught with the aid of inflated bags tied
under them. The Suprasl was crossed by the entire 4th Cavalry
Division swimming. In order to acquire a thorough knowledge of
pioneer duty, both the officers and non-commissioned officers of
cavalry are attached to the engineer camp for a short course of
instruction. In one division a regular pioneer squadron has been
formed for telegraphic and heliographic duty. The mounted force,
provided for in the Russian establishment, comprises twenty-one
divisions of 3,503 sabres and 12 guns each, or an aggregate of
73,563 men and 252 field guns.
A feature of the Russian cavalry equipment is the pioneer outfit,
consisting of tools for construction or destruction, as they desire
to repair a bridge or destroy a railroad; this outfit for each
squadron is carried on a pack-mule; dynamite is carried in a cart
with the ammunition train.
The Cossack (except of the Caucasus) is armed with a long lance
(front rank only), a sabre without guard, and a Berdan rifle. Those
of the Caucasus have in addition pistol and dagger, besides a
_nagaska_ or native whip. The uniform is blue, high boots, fur cap,
cloak with cape. The snaffle-bit is universally used, even by the
officers, although the average Russian troop-horse is noted for his
hard mouth.
In the mounted drill of the Cossacks there is a charge as
skirmishers (or "foragers") called the "lava," which is executed at
a great pace and with wild yells of "Hourra!"
Lieut. Grierson, of the British army, writes that: "A big fine man
mounted on a pony, with his body bent forward and looking very
top-heavy, always at a gallop, and waving his enormous whip, the
Cossack presents an almost ludicrous appearance to one accustomed
to our stately troopers. But this feeling is dashed with regret that
we possess no such soldiers."
_Transport and Supply_.--The Russian system of transport is in a
very experimental and unsatisfactory state. It is the only army
which provides regimentally for the _personnel_ and _materiel_ of
this department. In each regiment is a non-combatant company, in
which all men required for duty without arms are mustered.
All military vehicles required for the regiment are under charge of
this company. The intention of the system now developing is to
reduce the quantity of transportation required. [Footnote: In 1878
the head-quarters baggage of the Grand Duke Nicholas required five
hundred vehicles and fifteen hundred horses to transport it.]
Besides the wagons and carts used for ordinary movements of troops,
Russia will, in Afghanistan, depend upon the animals of the country
for pack-trains and saddle purposes. After the _Camel_, of which
large numbers exist in the region bordering Afghanistan on the
north, the most important aid to Russian military mobility is the
remarkable _Kirghiz Horse_. The accounts of the strength, speed,
endurance, and agility of this little animal are almost incredible,
[Footnote: In 1869 a Russian detachment of five hundred men, mounted
on Kirghiz horses, with one gun and two rocket-stands, traversed in
one month one thousand miles in the Orenburg Steppe, and only lost
three horses; half of this march was in deep sand. In October, M.
Nogak (a Russian officer) left his detachment _en route_, and rode
one horse into Irgiz, 166-2/3 miles in 34 hours.] but they are
officially indorsed in many instances. He is found in Turkestan, and
is more highly prized than any other breed. The Kirghiz horse is
seldom more than fourteen hands, and, with the exception of its
head, is fairly symmetrical; the legs are exceptionally fine, and
the hoofs well formed and hard as iron. It is seldom shod, and with
bare feet traverses the roughest country with the agility of a
chamois, leaping across wide fissures on the rocks, climbing the
steepest heights, or picking its way along mere sheep-tracks by the
side of yawning precipices, or covering hundreds of versts through
heavy sand, with a heavier rider, day after day. Its gaits are a
rapid and graceful walk of five and one half to six miles an hour,
and an amble [Footnote: Moving both feet on a side almost
simultaneously.] at the maximum rate of a mile in two minutes. This
animal crosses the most rapid streams not over three and one half
feet deep, lined with slippery boulders, with ease. They are good
weight carriers. [Footnote: The mounted messengers (pony express)
over the steppes, use these horses, and carry with them, over stages
of 350 miles in 8 days, an equipment and supplies for man and horse
of nearly 300 pounds.] With a view of stimulating horse-breeding in
Turkestan, the government in 1851 offered prizes for speed.
[Footnote: The greatest speed recorded (1853.) was 13-1/2 miles (on
a measured course) in 27 minutes and 30 seconds.] Kirghiz horses
have been thoroughly tested in the Russian army. For modern cavalry
and horse-artillery purposes they are unsurpassed. The average price
is L6, but an ambler will bring L12. Great Britain is said to
possess 2,800,000 horses, while Russia, in the Kirghiz steppes
alone, possesses 4,000,000 saddle or quick-draught horses.
The supply of the Russian army is carefully arranged under the
central Intendance. The ration in the field was, in 1878, 14.3
ounces of meat, 14.9 black bread, preserved vegetables and tea, with
an issue of brandy in the winter. Immense trains follow each
division, at intervals, forming consecutive mobile magazines of
food. A division provision train can carry ten days' supply for
230,000 men.
Forage is now supplied for transport in compressed cakes, of which
20,000,000 were used by Russia in her last war. [Footnote: A
compressed ration of forage was extensively used by the Russians in
1878, weighing 3-1/2 pounds; 5 days' supply could be carried on the
saddle with ease.]
Clothing is furnished by the supply bureau of certain regions in
which there are large government factories; it is usual to keep on
hand for an emergency 500,000 sets of uniform clothing.
_Routes_.--Having devoted a share of our limited space to an account
of the roads leading to Herat, from India, we may consider, briefly,
certain approaches to Afghanistan or India from the northwest. This
subject has been so clearly treated in a recent paper read before
the Royal United Service Institution by Captain Holdich, R.E., who
surveyed the region referred to, in 1880, that we quote liberally as
follows: