The Sultan of Bagirmeh — A Court of Birds of Prey — Saboun
determines to make a War — March over the Desert — Encounter
with a Rhinoceros — Punishment of Cowardice — Veneration for
Sultans — A White Beard — The Crown purifies — Sultan Arous —
Anecdote — Attack on the Birny of Bagirmeh — Victory — Act of
Cruelty — A Bedawin Traveller — A new Route to the Mediterranean
— Schmed-el-Fari — The Sheikh’s Father at Fezzan — Caravans
— Want of Water — Price in the Desert — An obdurate Sheikh
— Death of Saboun.
When Sultan Saboun had fixed himself firmly on the throne he
repressed all evil actions, and did all the good he could. I shall
notice how he punished the culpable conduct of Haj-Ahmed, sultan of
Bagirmeh. This prince had excessively tyrannised over his subjects,
so that at length the Ulemas were excited to present themselves
before him and utter the complaints of the nation. He received them
graciously, and asked what was their business. An old man replied,
that they came to beg him to cause his servants to cease from
their excesses, and told a parable of a great tree which grew in
the midst of a field, and harboured birds of prey that devoured the
harvest. “Thy subjects,” he said, “are the harvest, thou art
the great tree, and thy officers the birds of prey. We fear lest the
tree be cut down; for the master of the harvest is God, who hateth
tyranny.” The good old man farther quoted some wise saws and some
verses from the poets, and also the words of the Prophet, to the
effect that an hour of justice is worth seventy years of prayer.
When the sermon was concluded the Sultan burst out laughing,
and said, “Do you think that my birds, as you call them, can
live without eating or drinking? I tell you what. My subjects are
my subjects, my soldiers are my soldiers, and what they do is no
business of yours. It is your duty to teach law and religion to those
who are in want of these things. If it were not for your sacred
character I would put you all to death.” Then Ahmed called his
emirs, and said to one of them, “Thou art a hawk;” to another,
“Thou art a falcon;” to another, “Thou art a kite;” to
another, “Thou art a vulture.” In this way he applied to each of
them the name of a bird of prey in presence of the Ulemas, who were
stupified by this decision. They went away lamenting the perversity
of the Sultan, and the only result of their step was an increase
of oppression and iniquity. The people revolted in several places,
but were put down with fire and sword. The Ulemas again presented
themselves, and quoted a long list of sentences from the Koran;
but with as little success as before.
The Sultan of Bagirmeh, not content with these excesses, became
enamoured of his sister, who was married to one of his viziers. He
caused her to be divorced, and took her to wife, in spite of the
opposition of the priests and the disgust of his people. Still
greater turpitudes were imputed to him.
About this time Ahmed authorised one of his great viziers to make
a wanton incursion on the territories of Wadaï, for the sake of
collecting booty. This incursion being reported to Saboun, induced
him to write a letter of remonstrance to Ahmed, which remained
without any answer, except that a fresh attack was made. Saboun
wrote once more, and received at length a despatch containing these
words: “We received thy first letter, and afterwards thy second,
and we understood their contents. Salutations.” This derisive
answer induced Saboun to determine to make war upon Bagirmeh. He
consulted my father, who gave it as his opinion that war under such
circumstances would be justifiable. The preparations were made
with the greatest secrecy, and Saboun left Warah, under pretence
of making an excursion through his provinces. Some of the great
men made opposition to this expedition, thus suddenly planned;
but a well-timed severity repressed discontent, and a considerable
army was rapidly collected on the confines of Wadaï.
When everything was ready, the Sultan gave orders to commence the
march through the wilderness that separates the boundaries of Wadaï
and Bagirmeh. It is covered with lofty trees and vast expanses of
shrubs. In these savannahs are the repairs of lions and elephants,
and of the abou-kern, or unicorn, called in Egypt khartit, that is
to say, rhinoceros.[32] Saboun had sent people ahead to cut down
trees, and open for his troops a practicable road. Six Aguids,
each with four thousand slaves, formed the body of pioneers, which
preceded the main army by at least an hour. These slaves were armed
with hatchets, to cut down the trees and clear the way. Whilst they
were breaking through a thickset wood an enormous abou-kern suddenly
rushed upon the workmen, killed several whom he first met, and then
broke through the mass, slaying people right and left. Every one
fled, and the whole body of pioneers fell back upon the army, which,
soon being seized with a panic, took flight in all directions. The
Sultan soon found himself almost alone, and beheld the abou-kern
coming straight towards him. “What!” cried he, “is there no
one here that has the courage to fight this ignoble animal?” Now
it happened that there was a slave, named Ajmain, tall, well-built,
and vigorous, armed with buckler and javelins. He threw aside his
javelins, and stepped towards the animal with his shield and a long
knife. The Sultan looked on with anxiety. Ajmain waited until the
beast was near him, and then suddenly fell and allowed it to pass
over him. With a dexterous stroke of his knife, however, he succeeded
in ham-stringing the abou-kern, which rolled upon the ground. He
then fetched his javelin, and before the soldiers could come up
he had rendered their assistance unnecessary. Saboun ordered the
corpse to be dragged to an open place, and then calling together
his men, pronounced an angry speech against those who had been
most distinguished by cowardice. He ordered several of them to be
seized and executed on the spot. Among these was the governor of the
Jeataneh Arabs, in whose place he named the slave Ajmain. After this
bloody scene, Saboun said to his viziers and officers: “Whoever
of you flies at the time of combat, whatever may be the danger,
shall be put to death.” All humbly promised obedience. During
the whole war, indeed, the effect of these words was manifest; for
in the eyes of the Wadaïans obedience to the Sultan is a duty as
sacred as obedience to God and the Prophet. Indeed these people
often neglect their duties of piety, but never that which they
think they owe to the Sultan.
I shall relate an anecdote of the extreme veneration in which the
Sultan is held. It happened under the reign of Gaudeh. The wife
of one of his officers saw the sovereign pass, surrounded by his
courtiers, and in imperial dress. Age had whitened the beard of the
prince. In the evening, having returned home, the woman relating to
her husband what she had seen, said: “The procession was fine, the
Sultan was fine: what a pity it is that his beard is growing white
on both sides of his face! May God prolong the days of our master!”
Suddenly the husband fell upon his wife with violent blows,
saying:—“Ah! dost thou say that the beard on both sides of
our Sultan’s face is beginning to whiten? If any one heard thee,
respect for him would be gone. People would say that he is no longer
fit to go into battle.”
Having well beat her, he bound her, and left her in that spot
till the morning, when he presented himself before the Sultan, and
having related the adventure, added:—“I have left her there,
accursed woman that she is, bound hand and foot! Now, prince,
order what I shall do with her.”
The Sultan praised the officer for his good intentions, and presented
him with a garment; but he recommended him to forgive his wife this
one time, on condition that she should behave better for the future.
The veneration of the Wadaïans is encouraged by the Sultan, who
loves to be addressed with hyperbolical phrases and with extravagant
testimonies of respect. The people are persuaded that whoever is
raised to be Sultan of Wadaï immediately is illuminated by God,
becomes wise, is clothed with sanctity, even though before his
elevation he has given no sign of these things, and has lived
in debauchery and vice. The crown and sceptre are supposed to
purify. This belief is said to have arisen in the time of the
Sultan Arous, who had forbidden his name to be pronounced by any
person, either in his presence or out of it. In order to find out
whether any one infringed his order, he sent forth spies on all
sides—old women, children, youths—who were ordered to denounce
all delinquents. One day an officer of the police, made uneasy by
this strange order, went up to the top of a mountain where was a
cavern, into which he penetrated, and said in a low voice:—“The
Sultan Arous! the Sultan Arous! the Sultan Arous!” He believed
it impossible that he should be overheard by any one; but, by a
singular fatality, one of the spies had followed him unseen, and
overheard his words. Next day, accordingly, the officer was called
before Arous, who said to him,—
“Have I not forbidden thee, as well as others, to pronounce
my name?”
“It is true.”
“And wherefore hast thou done so?”
“Prince, I have not disobeyed.”
“Wilt thou swear to me that thou hast not done so?”
“I swear it.”
“Liar! thou didst go yesterday upon the mountain, and entered a
cavern and pronounced my name three times.”
Upon this the officer was forced to admit the truth, and all present
united in proclaiming that the Sultan was a seer.
When Saboun had crossed the frontiers of Bagirmeh, he took the
necessary steps to prevent the people from suffering much from
the invasion. Whenever he approached a village, he sent for
the Ulemas and principal personages, and spoke to them with
benevolence, and gave them presents. At all holy places he
gave alms. He also prevented his soldiers from acting violently
against the peasants. Thus most people prayed that victory should
be awarded him. He traversed the country without opposition, and
soon arrived near the Birny, or capital. A first battle was gained
by the intrepidity of Ajmain and other generals, and the city and
the palace were soon taken. The conflict, however, was desperate,
and the spectacle of the frightful carnage that took place was
sufficient to whiten the hair on the head of an infant. The city
was sacked, in spite of the orders of Saboun. An immense booty was
obtained; among other things, a large chamber was found filled with
leathern sacks full of silver dollars. The soldiers of Wadaï did
not know the value of this money, and changed away whole handfuls
for a pound of tobacco. The number of slaves taken was so great
that the price of them fell almost to nothing.
The Sultan Ahmed fell in this assault, but it was some time before
his body was found. Saboun was principally anxious on this account,
and calm did not enter his heart until the corpse of an old meagre
man was dragged forth and recognised by the women. In the meanwhile,
the Fecha[33] of Bagirmeh was infesting the roads towards Bornou,
and Saboun was obliged to send a body of troops against him. He
retired to Logou, the capital of Katakau. After this my father asked
permission of Saboun to go to Bornou, and, obtaining it, departed
with his wife, who was a sister of the Sultan, and his slaves. He
was soon attacked by the soldiers of the Fecha, and robbed of all he
possessed. But the Sultan of Logou, fearing to be invaded by Saboun,
caused everything to be restored to him.
Saboun now prepared to return to Wadaï. At the commencement of his
march, it must be noticed, an officer had endeavoured to persuade
him not to go to Bagirmeh, predicting defeat. The Sultan had ordered
this man to be tied to a tree, with his legs round the trunk, and
had set guards over him to give him to eat and drink, until the
return of the army. On reaching the spot again, Saboun passed the
night there, and in the morning ordered the officer to be untied
and brought before him. “Know,” said he, “that God has proved
thy prophecies to be fallacious, and has given me the victory over
mine enemies.” Then he ordered the wretched man to be executed,
and returned to his country.
Before leaving Bagirmeh, Saboun had placed upon the throne one of
the younger sons of the former Sultan. But the Wadaïan army had no
sooner departed than Chigama, the eldest son, who had fled, came
back with the Fecha and dethroned the young prince, and, throwing
him into prison, caused him to be starved to death. This led to a
new war. Ajmain was sent once more to reduce the country. Chigama
was made prisoner; but at last was made Sultan by Saboun himself,
and reigned successfully.
Some time afterwards Saboun undertook an expedition against
Dar-Tamah. His army was at first repulsed; but on a second attack
the mountain was taken, and the whole of the population put to
the sword. My father, with a little troop consisting of twenty-two
Magrebyns, armed with guns, was of great use in this action. The
Sultan of Darfur was angry at this aggression; but took no effectual
means to protect his vassal of Tamah, who finally agreed to pay
tribute to Wadaï. Having finished his wars, Saboun busied himself
with the internal affairs of his country, and did all he could to
make them prosper. One day there was presented to him a Magrebyn,
belonging to the Bedawins dependent on the regency of Tripoli;
he was accompanied by several members of the tribe of Bidegat,
a non-Arab tribe established to the north of Wadaï, who related
that this Bedawin had lost his way in the sands, and had been
found by them dying of thirst. They had given him water to drink,
and having kept and fed him for a month, had brought him to Warah
to present him to the Sultan.
Saboun said to the strange Bedawin, “From whence dost thou come?”
“I belong,” he replied, “to the Wallad-Ali, a tribe
neighbouring to Barca. We started about fifty Arab horsemen in the
direction of Soudan, hoping to make a profitable excursion. We lost
our road, and at length our supply of water was exhausted. Three of
us, of which I was one, went out in search of a well. I missed my two
companions, and wandered I knew not whither. At length my horse broke
down, and I abandoned it and proceeded on foot during three whole
days. On the fourth the heat overcame me; I was dying of thirst;
and if God had not sent me these men I should have perished.”
“How many days didst thou remain without tasting water?” inquired
the Sultan.
“Six days without a single drop.”
These words astonished the audience, and some believed, whilst
others disbelieved.
It was about this time that I came to Wadaï, for the Sultan of
Darfur had delivered me from my prison, and I often saw this
Bedawin, who was named Ali. He related to me his adventures,
without contradicting himself once. Saboun made him many presents,
and placed under his orders ten slaves, that they might learn the
use of fire-arms. But Ali used often to say,—“If the Sultan,
instead of making me teach his slaves how to shoot, would confide to
me a caravan, and allow me to return to my tribe by the direct road,
a great advantage would result to the king and to the country.”
These words were reported to the Sultan, who called Ali before him,
and asked if it were true that he had spoken of a caravan road. He
replied that it was, but that he feared to go by it because of
the robbers he might meet at the outset of the journey. The Sultan
then sent for the Chief of Bidegat, and said to him: “Prepare a
caravan with the necessary men and provisions, and go with this
Bedawin until he says, ‘I know the place where we are,’ and
proves the truth of his words.”
The chief Bidegat accordingly departed with Ali and about twenty men
on camel-back, and penetrating into the desert, made forced marches
for fifteen days. At length Ali cried out, “Good news! there are
the palm-trees of Jalou.”
“And how dost thou know that this is Jalou?”
“In this way. During our expedition we halted at this place,
and passed the night there, tying our horses in one direction,
and making a fire in another.”
Ali pointed out these two spots, and convinced the Bidegat that what
he said was true. They returned, therefore, to the Sultan Saboun,
and related the result of their journey. He asked them to what
distance they had penetrated, and they said, “To reach the place
where we halted would require, with camels and slaves, forty days,
but in a forced march it might be done in twenty-five.”
The Sultan ordered a caravan to be prepared immediately, and caused
it to be proclaimed at Hejeir and at Noumro, that whoever desired
to undertake a commercial expedition to the Magreb, as far as Derna
and Bengazi, should prepare to start with the caravan. He put the
expedition under the charge of the Bidegat as far as Jalou, and
Ali guided it during the rest of the journey. It arrived safely at
its destination and returned. Next year Saboun despatched a second
caravan, under the command of the Shereef Ahmed-el-Fasi, that is to
say, of Fas or Fez, who had succeeded my father in the functions of
Vizier. This Ahmed was remarkable for his instruction, his memory,
and his literary erudition; he was a profound jurisconsult, and
versed in the sacred traditions; he had some knowledge of anatomy,
and even gave lectures on that science. I was present at one of
his demonstrations on the construction of the eye, and he acquitted
himself in a remarkable manner. God had endowed him with wonderful
talents, but he was irascible, and disposed to hate. In the end
he alienated all people from him, and became so odious that he
was assassinated.
From time immemorial the caravans of Wadaï had been accustomed to
proceed to Fezzan with slaves, and to bring back various kinds of
merchandise. But Saboun was delighted when the Bidegat had opened
a new route to the Magreb. The fact was, that he was angry with
El-Mountaser, sultan of Fezzan, because when my father went to
Tripoli with merchandise on account of Saboun, El-Mountaser wished
to put him to death. Had it not been for the great distance that
separates Wadaï from Fezzan, and the arid and waterless deserts
which it would have been necessary to traverse, Saboun would have
declared war against Mountaser. This is the reason that he was
delighted at the discovery of the road of Jalou, by which he could
send his caravans direct to Barbary.
I shall relate in a few words the circumstances that indisposed
El-Mountaser against my father. When he had resolved to quit Wadaï,
and go to Tunis, he spoke of his project to Saboun, and begged him
to allow him to depart. Upon this the Sultan asked my father,—
“After Fezzan, what country comes?”
“The regency of Tripoli.”
“The price of slaves, then, must be higher there than in Fezzan,
and merchandise must be cheaper?”
“Doubtless.”
“Shall I send with thee one of my faithful servants, a man who
is devoted to me, and who will take with him slaves, whom thou
shalt sell at Tripoli on my account? From the price of the sale
thou shalt buy for me such and such merchandise.”
“Willingly, prince.”
Then the Sultan chose one of his faithful servants, and confided
to him about three hundred slaves, enjoining him to obey my father
in all things. The caravan arrived safely at Fezzan, Mountaser
hailed its arrival with joy, for the greatest part of his revenue
was derived from taxes upon trade. The merchants who accompanied
my father sold their slaves at the capital, Mourzouk; but the
agent of Saboun refused to sell. Mountaser being informed of this
circumstance, called my father before him and said,—
“It is thou who hast determined Saboun to send slaves to Tripoli,
instead of having them sold here.”
“It was not I who counselled Saboun. He learned that slaves were
dearer at Tripoli than Mourzouk, and therefore chose that market.”
“This is not the custom of Saboun,” replied Mountaser; “and
the counsel comes from thee.”
These words were pronounced with anger, and my father feared that
he would be arrested and put to death; but he was let off, after
giving a present of six of his finest slaves, and arrived safely at
Tripoli. This extortion, however, irritated the Pacha of that regency
so much, that he swore to destroy Mountaser, who accordingly was
soon violently dispossessed, and replaced by Mohammed El-Moknee.[34]
To return to Saboun. When the road of Aujilah was discovered,
he habitually sent his caravans by that route. In other cases he
despatched them by way of Egypt, and thence to Jalou, and thence to
Bengazi; for, by the way of Egypt, the road to Bengazi is shorter
than by the way of Tripoli. Saboun learned that his caravans easily
traversed Egypt, and that that country was governed by a just and
renowned prince. He accordingly sent letters and presents to the
Pacha, asking for his friendship; and Ibrahim, son of the Viceroy,
returned presents and a favourable answer, borne by two persons
of his suite and a Kawas. The Zaghawy of Darfur learned that the
Egyptian caravan was to pass near them, and that it was not in
strength sufficient to defend itself. They accordingly attacked
and pillaged it, but the Kawas escaped and carried the letter to
Saboun, who received him well and sent him back with presents, under
escort of a caravan. But the Zaghawy again attacked and destroyed,
or made prisoners, the whole. It was this that led to the conquest
of Kordofal by the Egyptians.
The Sultan Saboun, who had also sent an expedition to chastise
the Zaghawy, now fitted out an immense caravan for the Magreb. The
Shereef Ahmed El-Fasi went with it, bearing considerable riches. It
was ordered to take the route by way of Aujalou, and was protected
in the early part of its course by a strong escort. Then it entered
the desert, and wandered from the track. The supply of water was
rapidly spent, and it became so rare, that a single draught was
sold for seventy dollars (14_l_.). Many camels were killed, and
the water within them was also sold at a high price—at least so
I am assured by the Marabout Omar of Mesratta, and other of the
travellers. Many slaves and members of the caravan died of thirst.
The Shereef El-Fasi had an abundant supply of water. His companions
asked him for some to save them from perishing, but he refused. “I
am,” said he, “the head of a numerous family; this water is
my salvation and theirs. I have young children, and must preserve
myself for them. If they die by my fault, I shall have to answer
for it at the day of judgment. I will not be the artisan of their
misfortune.”—“Sell us water,” cried they, “at any price
you may name. We will give the acknowledgment, and pay exactly on
our arrival.” The Shereef remained inflexible.
But the sufferings of thirst became more and more intense. The
caravan saw that there was another means of salvation. They came in
great crowds to the Shereef, and said to him,—“Thou must at once
give us water, or we will take it by force. It is not just, even in
the eyes of God, that thou shouldst have an abundant supply whilst
we are dying of thirst.” The Shereef persisted in his refusal,
so they burst into his tents, and distributed his water equally,
leaving him only his exact share. His numerous slaves, therefore,
soon began to suffer from thirst, and the greater part perished. The
Shereef himself, however, with his children and three camels,
contrived to push on to Jalou, and escape. From this place he,
and the rest of the caravan, returned with hired camels to where
they had been obliged to abandon their wealth, their bales of gum,
their elephants’ teeth, and their ostrich feathers. The whole was
transported to Bengazi and sold. But the Shereef Ahmed obtained an
opinion from the Ulemas of Tripoli, that the caravan was responsible
for all his losses. When he returned, therefore, to Wadaï with this
opinion, and was restored to the viziership, he persecuted all his
travelling companions, and cast them into prison and spoiled them,
so that he obtained many times the value of what he had lost. For
this conduct, however, he was punished after the death of Saboun;
for the people, irritated by his tyranny, rose against him at Noumro,
and killed him, and burnt his body, and cast the ashes to the wind.
It was from the Grand Kadi of Wadaï, who passed through Cairo in
the year 1257 (A.D. 1841), that I got information about the death
of Saboun, and the events which followed. It appears that the Sultan
went out after dark, _incognito_, on a visit to his mother, who lived
in a village about a quarter of an hour from Warah. He remained some
hours, and returned on horseback. As he advanced, he saw two robbers
driving away a cow, and riding upon them, frightened them away. He
told two slaves who were with him to seize the animal, and went in
pursuit of the thieves, who separated, one flying to the right and
the other to the left. Saboun followed closely at the heels of one
of them, who, finding he could not escape, turned fiercely round,
and exclaimed,—“What wouldst thou with me? I have abandoned my
prey.”—“I want to seize thee.”—“Take my advice, and go
back.” Saboun paid no attention to these words, and rushed upon the
robber, who cast a javelin at him, and inflicted a mortal wound. The
slaves led him back to the palace, where he died in three days.
After him reigned first his son, named Abd-el-Kader, and then another
son, named Kharifein, who so provoked the people by his tyranny,
that he was murdered. To him succeeded his young son, named Rechib,
chosen by the conspirators. But he soon died of the small-pox, and,
being buried secretly, was replaced by a boy, who was instructed how
to play his part. After another short reign, a younger brother of
Saboun, with the assistance of a Darfur army, succeeded in placing
himself on the throne of Wadaï, where he now reigns. A quarrel
which arose with his allies was the cause that the pilgrim caravan of
Wadaï, instead of passing through Darfur as usual, went by way of
Aujalou to Egypt. But let us here check our pen, which hurries too
far and fast over these historical events. Lengthy details engender
weariness; God and the Prophet know what has been and what shall be.