Before coming up to the anchorage a few fathoms of chain should be

ranged before the windlass, sufficient at least to allow the anchor to

reach the bottom when let go.

It is best not to let go the anchor until the vessel has begun to gather

stern way; then give her chain gradually until she has taken out

enough--that is, under ordinary circumstances, about three times as much

length of chain as the depth of the water. If the chain is allowed to

run out all at once it will fall on the top of the anchor, a coil will

get round one of the flukes, dislodge the other fluke from the ground,

and the vessel will drag.

The end of the chain, especially if no windlass is used, should be

secured to a bolt in the chain locker or otherwise; else a careless hand

may let it all run overboard and thus lose both anchor and cable.

The chain should be marked at every five fathoms, by attaching a small

piece of cord to the link. The loose end of the first cord can have one

knot tied in it, the second cord two knots, and so on. The length of

chain that is overboard is thus easily ascertained.

Our vessel being now moored or anchored, we neatly stow our sails,

fasten the tyers round them, belay all halyards and sheets, and coil the

mainsheet and the other falls. If the ropes are dry, belay them slack,

for a shower would shrink them, and if they were belayed taut all the

life would be stretched out of them.

In the course of our cruise we did not contrive to get our yacht

aground, which was perhaps well for us, seeing how hard it was blowing.

When a vessel has run aground, the method of getting her off again

varies with circumstances.

If the keel is in soft mud and we were not running before the wind when

our vessel struck, we may get her off by slacking the main and mizzen

right out, so that the wind does not press on the sails, or by lowering

the mainsail and mizzen, while we haul the head sheets to windward, so

that the head sails turn her bows round and drive her astern at the same

time. If this is not enough to move her, we can assist the action of the

sails by shoving her off with poles; also by making our crew run from

side to side to roll her and so dislodge her keel from the mud; or, if

she is only aground forward and the rest of her is afloat, by bringing

the weight of all hands aft and so lightening the bows.

But if she has run upon a sloping shoal of sand or shingle, the above

method will seldom prove of any avail, for the opposition of the hard

bottom will prevent the keel from turning. Under these circumstances,

our only plan will be to lower all sail and drag her off by the same way

that she came on, that is, we must shove her astern with the poles and

if that is not sufficient, take an anchor out in the dinghy and let it

go in the deep water some distance astern, when we can haul her off with

the cable. If the anchor holds well, we can--in case our own strength is

insufficient--clap a watch tackle on the cable or pass it round the

windlass so as to gain more power.

If we were running before the wind when we got aground, we must in this

case also lower all sail and haul the vessel off stern first.

If the tide is dropping, there must be no delay in getting her off, or

the water will leave us, and we will have to remain where we are till

the next flood.

Be careful not to run aground on the top of high water spring tides, or

you may be _neaped_ as it is called, that is, you will not have water to

float you off until the next springs, and must remain stuck in the mud

for maybe a fortnight.

Many of our smaller and little-navigated rivers have narrow channels

winding among extensive shoals. These channels are often but

indifferently marked with beacons, so that a stranger attempting to find

his way up them at half flood or later, when the shoals are covered,

will in all probability run his vessel ashore.

His best plan is to remain at anchor at the mouth of the river until low

water, he can then work his way up the channel on the young flood, when

the shoals are uncovered and the channels easily distinguished. And even

if he does run aground, the water is rising under him so that he will

soon float off.

While sailing a small craft, if you pass close under the lee of a large

vessel, you will find that she will take all the wind out of your sails

and you will be becalmed. Look out, if the day be a breezy one, for the

sudden blow with which the wind will strike you again when the vessel

is passed. As your vessel will probably have lost nearly all her way

while under the lee of the other, the first pressure of the wind will be

entirely exerted in heeling your craft over.

Therefore lower your peak, or have your sheets ready to slack out while

under the lee of the other vessel.

* * * * *

The spinnaker is the only sail on board our yawl whose management has

not been described. When not in use, the spinnaker boom is topped along

the mast, and secured by lashings to the shrouds. To set the spinnaker,

cast off the boom lashings. Lower the boom over the side, keeping it

still well topped up. Guy it with the fore and the after guys. Bend the

outhaul and halyards on the sail. Belay the sheet loosely. First haul

the sail up with the halyards. Then haul it along the boom with the

outhaul. Then trim in the sheet.

Before we leave the subject of handling a fore-and-after, we will point

out that if a vessel be sluggish in stays, it is advisable, instead of

leaving the foresheet fast and keeping the foresail aback till the

vessel has paid off on the other tack, to let fly the foresheet as the

vessel comes up into the wind, thus taking the pressure off the head

sails and making her come up the quicker; then, as soon as the vessel is

in the wind’s eye, to haul the foresheet in again, so that the foresail

to windward helps the vessel round. Keep it to windward no longer than

is necessary; then, as before, let fly the weather sheet and trim in the

lee.

CHAPTER VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS HINTS.

Towing a dinghy--Berthon boats--To prevent a dinghy bumping against

an anchored yacht--Foul anchor--Mooring--The drogue--The management

of open boats in a heavy sea--Management of a yacht in a rough

sea--Boarding--Inventory.

In the last chapter we have described the principal manœuvres that must

be employed on a small yacht. This chapter will contain a variety of

wrinkles connected with the management of a yacht or boat which may be

of service to a novice.

TOWING A DINGHY.--If a yacht is running before a high sea, a dinghy

towing astern is apt to rush violently down upon the yacht at intervals

and possibly stave herself in. Some give a dinghy a long scope of

painter under these circumstances, so as to keep her far astern out of

the way. But the long painter allows her more play, and if she does

swoop down upon the yacht and strike her it will be with far greater

force than if the painter were short. The author, having no room for her

on the deck of his yacht, once towed a dinghy all the way to Copenhagen

and back, and though on several occasions he was running before a high

sea the dinghy never inflicted the slightest injury either on herself or

on the yacht. The method which he found to be the best in rough weather,

was to tow the dinghy with two very short painters, one to either

quarter of the yacht, while an iron half-hundred weight was lashed to

the floor of the dinghy close to her stern. This weight steadied her so

that she steered straight, did not yaw about, and did not run down upon

the yacht. The short painters kept her nose right out of the water so

that she could not be swamped. If a sea had filled her--it never did--it

would have almost all run out over her stern again. The yacht, it may be

mentioned, had a pointed stern, a great advantage when a boat must be

towed. Overhanging counters have caused the destruction of many dinghys.

Few small yachts have accommodation on deck for a wooden dinghy. A

Berthon collapsible boat, which can be easily stowed in the cabin or

laid flat on deck is therefore a great advantage for a small craft. For,

however safely a dinghy may tow astern, she greatly impedes the speed of

the yacht.

* * * * *

When a yacht is lying at anchor with her dinghy afloat, it often happens

that the wind and tide being opposed to each other, now one and then the

other influences the dinghy most, so that she wanders in erratic fashion

as far as her painter’s length will allow, now scraping along the

yacht’s sides, and now thumping into her stern, much to the damage of

the new paint.

The patience of the novice is often severely tried by such tricks on his

dinghy’s part. Half a dozen times in the night he leaves his snug berth

and leaps on deck to shift the dinghy’s painter from one part of the

vessel to the other, first to one side, then to the other, then to the

bows, and then back to the stern again, but all to no avail, for as soon

as he has turned in, the dismal “thud,” “thud” recommences.

If the yacht be a large one, and the bowsprit be therefore sufficiently

high above the water, the dinghy’s painter can be made fast to the

bowsprit end, and the dinghy will thus keep clear of the yacht. But if

the vessel is a small one and this plan is not practicable, the

following method generally proves successful. Drop an iron bucket with

a line attached to its handle over the dinghy’s stern. The bucket

sinking in the water will offer so much resistance to the tide that the

dinghy will ride to the tide only, and the wind will not have power to

blow her over the tide against the yacht’s sides.

* * * * *

FOUL ANCHOR.--If a yacht is at anchor in a tideway, the slack of the

chain is very liable to get round the anchor and foul it when the vessel

swings at the turn of the tide. It is therefore advisable to get in the

chain at slack water until the yacht is right over her anchor. As soon

as the new current has set in and the yacht has swung to it, the

necessary amount of chain can be given her.

* * * * *

MOORING.--If it is blowing hard, or the holding ground is bad, it may be

necessary to moor, that is, to ride to two anchors in different

directions. Having come to with one anchor, pay out chain and let the

vessel drop astern until you have out twice the length of chain you

intend to ride by. Then let go the other anchor. Slack out the last

anchor chain and heave in that of the first till the same scope of chain

is on each. Moor with open hawse towards the direction from which the

greatest pressure of wind or current is expected, that is, with a line

drawn between the two anchors opposite that direction.

The vessel in swinging round to the tide may get a _foul hawse_, that

is, one chain may take turns over the other. By steering the vessel,

setting a sail, or by other means adapted to the particular

circumstances, so tend her while she is swinging at each turn of the

tide that she never makes a complete revolution, but swings backwards

and forwards in the same semicircle. Foul hawse will thus be avoided.

TO UNMOOR.--Heave in on one anchor and pay out chain to the other, get

the first anchor on board, then heave in on the other anchor. To ride

easily in heavy weather put rope springs on the chain cables.

A coir rope makes an excellent cable for a small yacht. It floats on the

water, and has plenty of spring in it, so that the yacht rides very

lightly.

* * * * *

THE DROGUE.--When a small yacht cruises on broad and stormy seas such as

the North Sea, it is advisable to have a drogue or deep sea anchor among

her inventory. Many a small fishing boat has been saved from destruction

by this precaution.

A drogue is a conical bag of stout canvas sometimes having its mouth

bent on to an iron ring. When a little craft is far from the land and so

high a sea is running that she cannot sail or even lie to with safety,

the drogue is attached by a bridle to a hawser and let go over the bows

like an anchor. It offers so much resistance to the water that as the

vessel is driven astern by the wind the strain on the hawser keeps her

head to wind and sea, and she rides safely and easily. A tripping line

is attached to the pointed end of the drogue so that it can be capsized

and easily hauled on board.

If an open boat is being pulled across the breakers on a bar so as to

make a harbour, or is being rowed towards the shore before a heavy surf,

a drogue or even a bucket towed astern will keep the boat’s stern back

and prevent her from broaching to.

If a small boat be blown right out to sea and it is impossible to bring

her back to the shore either by rowing or sailing, a floating anchor can

be made by lashing the oars, the mast, and the yard with the sail bent

on it, together. The sail must be loosed and a weight can be attached

to its foot so as to sink it and offer more resistance to the water. A

short rope secured to both extremities of the raft forms a span to the

middle of which the cable is bent. Such a floating anchor breaks the sea

in a marvellous manner, and small boats have been often known to ride

out the most furious gales in this way.

* * * * *

BEACHING BOATS IN A SURF, ETC.--The National Lifeboat Institution has

published a very useful series of rules on the management of open boats

in rough water, these rules being founded on information gathered from

all parts of our coast as to the practice of the local boatmen and

fishermen.

I. IN ROWING TO SEAWARD.

As a general rule, _speed must be given to a boat rowing against a heavy

surf_. Indeed, under some circumstances, her safety will depend on the

utmost possible speed being attained on meeting a sea. For if the sea be

really heavy, and the wind blowing a hard on-shore gale, it can only be

by the utmost exertions of the crew that any headway can be made. The

great danger then is, that an approaching heavy sea may carry the boat

away on its front, and turn it broadside on or up-end it, either effect

being immediately fatal. A boat’s only chance in such a case is to

obtain such way as shall enable her to pass, end on, through the crest

of the sea, and leave it as soon as possible behind her. If there be

rather a heavy surf, but no wind, or the wind off shore, and opposed to

the surf, a boat might be propelled so rapidly through it that her bow

would fall more suddenly and heavily after topping the sea than if her

way had been checked; and it may therefore only be when the sea is of

such magnitude and the boat of such a character that there may be chance

of the former carrying her back before it, that full speed should be

given to her. It may also happen that, by careful management under such

circumstances, a boat may be made to avoid the sea, so that each wave

may break ahead of her; which may be the only chance of safety in a

small boat; but if the shore be flat, and the broken water extend to a

great distance from it, this will be impossible.

II. ON RUNNING BEFORE A BROKEN SEA, OR SURF, TO THE SHORE.

The one great danger, when running before a broken sea, is that of

_broaching to_. To that peculiar effect of the sea, so frequently

destructive of human life, the utmost attention must be directed. The

cause of a boat’s broaching to, when running before a broken sea or surf

is, that her own motion being in the same direction as that of the sea,

whether it be given by the force of oars or sails, or by the force of

the sea itself, she opposes no resistance to it, but is carried before

it. Thus, if a boat be running with her bow to the shore and her stern

to the sea, the first effect of a surf or roller overtaking her is to

throw up the stern, and as a consequence to depress the bow; if she then

has sufficient inertia (which will be proportioned to weight) to allow

the sea to pass her, she will in succession pass through the descending,

the horizontal, and the ascending position, as the crest of the wave

passes successively her stern, her midships, and her bow, in the reverse

order in which the same positions occur to a boat propelled to seaward

against a surf.

This may be defined as the safe method of running before a broken sea.

But if a boat on being overtaken by a heavy surf, has not sufficient

inertia to allow it to pass her, the first of the three positions above

enumerated alone occurs--her stern is raised high in the air, and the

wave carries the boat before it, on its front, or unsafe side, sometimes

with frightful velocity, the bow all the time deeply immersed in the

hollow of the sea, where the water being stationary, or comparatively

so, offers a resistance, whilst the crest of the sea, having the actual

motion which causes it to break, forces onward the stern or rear end of

the boat. A boat will in this position sometimes, aided by careful oar

steerage, run a considerable distance until the wave has broken and

expended itself. But it will often happen that, if the bow be low, it

will be driven under water, when the buoyancy being lost forward, whilst

the sea presses on the stern, the boat will be thrown end over end; or

if the bow be high, or if it be protected by a deck so that it does not

become submerged, that the resistance forward acting on one bow will

slightly turn the boat’s head, and the force of the surf being

transferred to the opposite quarter, she will in a moment be turned

round broadside by the sea, and be thrown by it on her beam ends, or

altogether capsize. It is in this manner that most boats are upset in a

surf, especially on flat coasts, and in this way many lives are annually

lost. Hence it follows that the management of a boat, when landing

through a heavy surf, must, as far as possible, be assimilated to that

when proceeding to seaward against one, at least so far as to stop her

progress shoreward at the moment of being overtaken by a heavy sea, and

then enabling it to pass her. There are different ways of effecting this

object--

1. _By turning the boat’s head to the sea before entering the broken

water, and then backing in stern foremost, pulling a few strokes ahead

to meet each heavy sea, and then again backing astern._ If a sea be

really heavy and a boat small, this plan will be generally the safest,

as a boat can be kept more under command when the full force of the oars

can be used against a heavy surf than by backing them only.

2. _If rowing to shore with the stern to seaward, by backing the oars on

the approach of a heavy sea, and rowing ahead again as soon as it has

passed the bow of the boat_; or as is practised in some lifeboats,

placing the after oarsmen with their faces forward, and making them row

back at each sea on its approach.

3. _If rowed in bow foremost, by towing astern a pig of ballast or large

stone, or a drogue_, the object of each being to hold the boat’s stern

back and prevent her being turned broadside to the sea or broaching to.

_Heavy weights should be kept out of the extreme ends of a boat_; but

when rowing before a heavy sea, the best trim is deepest by the stern. A

boat running before a heavy sea should be steered by an oar as the

rudder will then at times be of no use.

The following rules may therefore be depended on when running before a

heavy surf.

1. As far as possible avoid each sea by placing the boat where the sea

will break ahead of her.

2. If the sea is very heavy, or if the boat is small, and especially if

she has a square stern, bring her bow round to seaward and back her in,

rowing ahead against each heavy surf sufficiently to allow it to pass

the boat.

3. If it be considered safe to proceed to the shore bow foremost, back

the oars against each sea on its approach, so as to stop the boat’s way

through the water as much as possible, and if there is a drogue or other

instrument in the boat which may be used as one, tow it astern.

4. Bring the principal weights in the boat towards the end that is

seaward, but not to the extreme end.

5. If a boat worked by both sails and oars be running under sail for the

land through a heavy sea, her crew should, under all circumstances,

unless the beach be quite steep, take down her masts and sails before

entering the broken water, and take her to land under oars alone. If she

have sails alone, her sails should be much reduced, a half-lowered

foresail or other small headsail being sufficient.

III. BEACHING OR LANDING THROUGH A SURF.

The running before a surf or broken sea, and the beaching of a boat, are

two distinct operations; the management of boats, as above recommended,

has exclusive reference to running before a surf where the shore is so

flat that the broken water extends to some distance from the beach.

Thus, on a very steep beach, the first heavy fall of broken water will

be on the beach itself, whilst on some very flat shores there will be

broken water as far as the eye can reach. The outermost line of broken

water, on a flat shore, where the waves break in three or four fathoms

water, is the heaviest, and therefore the most dangerous, and when it

has been passed through in safety, the danger lessens as the water

shoals, until, on nearing the land, its force is spent and its power is

harmless. As the character of the sea is quite different on steep and

flat shores, so is the customary management of boats on landing

different in the two situations. On the flat shore, whether a boat be

run or backed in, she is kept straight before or end to the sea until

she is fairly aground, when each surf takes her further in as it

overtakes her, aided by the crew, who will then generally jump out to

lighten her, and drag her in by her sides. As above stated, sail will,

in this case, have been previously taken in if set, and the boat will

have been rowed or backed in by oars alone.

On the other hand, on the _steep_ beach, it is the general practice, in

a boat of any size, to retain speed right on to the beach, and in the

act of landing, whether under oars or sail, to turn the boat’s bow half

round towards the direction from which the surf is running, so that she

may be thrown on her broadside up the beach, when abundance of help is

usually at hand to haul her as quickly as possible out of reach of the

sea. In such situations, we believe, it is nowhere the practice to back

a boat in stern foremost under oars, but to row in under full speed as

above described.

* * * * *

MANAGEMENT OF A YACHT IN A ROUGH SEA.--When sailing a small yacht in a

rough sea certain precautions must be observed which we will describe as

briefly as possible, for to handle a vessel properly under these

circumstances requires a skill that cannot be imparted by books.

In the first place, do not carry on too much; for it will often be

necessary to bear away or luff according to the seas, regardless of the

wind; and if too much sail be carried this cannot be done.

A beam sea is the most dangerous. If you are obliged to sail in a

direction that brings the sea abeam, keep a sharp look-out and luff up

to every sea that looks dangerously steep, so as to take it at a sharp

angle instead of broadside on.

To run before a high sea is also dangerous, especially if the vessel is

a short and beamy one, for a sea may strike the stern on one side and

cause her to broach to; or again the vessel may be pooped, that is, a

sea may break on board over the stern, filling the well and even

swamping her.

While running before the sea, steer with great care, so that every

dangerous sea strike the vessel right aft, and not on the side, and be

ready to meet promptly with the tiller any tendency to broach to.

If you are sailing with the sea on the quarter, bear away to every

dangerous sea so as to bring it right aft.

To sail against the sea, as when one is close hauled, is the safest way

of meeting it. A sea breaking over the bows can do little harm in

comparison to one coming over the stern. Luff up so as to meet a

dangerous sea nearly end on, and bear away after it has passed, but take

care that the way of the vessel is not lost in doing this.

We have already explained how to heave to, the most prudent measure that

can be taken in bad weather, provided one has plenty of sea room to

leeward.

It may happen that when one is sailing along the coast for some harbour

of refuge, the wind is dead on shore so that the seas are on one’s beam.

If the seas are so dangerous that it becomes very hazardous to proceed

in this way, it is best to sail in a zigzag fashion towards one’s

port--that is, first to sail almost close hauled out to sea, then,

having watched one’s opportunity in a smooth, to bear away again and run

right before wind and sea towards the shore, and so on till the harbour

is reached.

The sea and wind are fortunately generally in the same direction; but

what is called a cross sea sometimes rolls up at intervals, especially

if the direction of the wind has recently changed. These cross seas must

be carefully watched and steered for.

Always wait for a smooth before tacking in rough water. In open water

there is a regular rhythm in the movement of the seas, and it will be

observed that at regular intervals three exceptionally heavy seas will

follow each other in succession. These heavy waves are invariably

followed by a short period of comparatively smooth water; and a sharp

steersman will always wait for this smooth before putting his vessel

about in rough weather.

* * * * *

BOARDING.--It will sometimes be necessary to go off in the dinghy to

one’s yacht when she is sailing or hove to in a rough sea, or one may

have to bring one’s boat alongside some large vessel, in order to board

her.

In doing this, certain precautions must be observed. In the first place,

a vessel should be boarded to leeward, as the sea will not be so violent

on the lee as on the windward side.

In boarding a vessel that is rolling a good deal, lower your boat’s

mast, if she has one, before getting alongside.

The line by which you make fast to the vessel must be long enough to

allow for the rising and falling of the sea. Have this line ready to

slip in a moment.

If the vessel is hove to, do not get alongside while she has sternway;

wait till she has headway.

Sometimes, as in the case of boarding a stranded vessel, it is dangerous

to get under her leeside, as the masts may fall on one, or the boat may

get entangled among drifting rigging. It is the practice of lifeboats,

under such circumstances, to anchor to windward of the wreck and veer

cable until one can throw a line on board.

CHAPTER IX.

FITTING OUT.

Ballasting a yacht--Lead on keel--The anchor--Setting up

rigging--Ventilation and dry rot--Mildew in sails--Stretching new

sails--Laying up a boat for the winter--Inventory.

BALLAST.--In ballasting a yacht, whatever material be used, certain

general rules must be observed.

In the first place no ballast should be stowed at either extremity of a

vessel; it should, as far as is possible, be concentrated in the midship

section. This cannot be done unless a heavy and therefore compact form

of ballast such as lead or iron is employed. If ballast be divided

throughout the entire length of a vessel she will be sluggish in a

sea-way; her head will not rise to the waves, but plunge into them, and

it will be the same with her stern; she will be a wet and uncomfortable

craft. On the other hand, a vessel whose ballast is concentrated

amidships will be lively, her bow and stern in succession will rise

buoyantly to the seas, and she will be a dry, seaworthy craft.

It is always well to have some of the ballast or a small yacht outside,

on her keel; for it will be generally found impossible to stow all the

ballast in the midship section without raising the floor and so

sacrificing head-room in the cabin.

In placing ballast on the outside of a vessel, the same precaution must

be taken as when stowing it inside--no weight must be put at the ends of

the vessel. The lead or iron keel should not be carried down her whole

length, as it often is, but should be mortised into the central portion

of the wooden keel.

In the next place, ballast should be stowed as low as possible; for the

lower it is, the less amount of it suffices to give the vessel the

necessary stability. Here again the advantage of a metal keel is

apparent. The leverage of the outside ballast is so enormous that the

yacht becomes practically uncapsizable. But an excessive weight of lead

on the keel will strain a vessel in rough water, she will recover

herself with a quick jerk after heeling over to a puff, and her every

motion will be violent. The most comfortable vessel at sea is

undoubtedly the one that carries only a moderate weight of ballast on

her keel, and the bulk of it inside.

Should a vessel be coppered, care must be taken that the sheathing does

not touch--or even approach within an inch or two--the iron keel; for

the galvanic action set up between the two metals would rapidly corrode

the iron.

In order that the ballast may fit closely and so lie as low as possible

in a vessel’s hold, it is well to have it cast in moulds shaped like the

interior of the vessel’s bottom. This is more important in the case of

the limber ballast, that is, the lowest layer of ballast which rests on

the vessel’s timbers. This can be so moulded as to project downwards

between the limbers and fill up what would otherwise be empty space; for

ballast must on no account be supported by the planking, but always by

the timbers or framework of the vessel. If you put pressure from the

inside on your yacht’s planking, do not be surprised if she soon becomes

nail-sick and leaky.

If ordinary pig and not moulded ballast be used, the spaces between the

bottom timbers are empty. It is an excellent plan to fill them up fore

and aft with Portland cement. This, hardening to the shape of the

vessel, becomes as it were a part of her and, far from exerting outward

pressure on the planking, strengthens the bottom considerably. It not

only serves as ballast, but effectually prevents the water leaking

through that portion of the vessel covered by it.

Lead is far the best ballast that can be used, the only objection to it

being its great cost. However, it may be set off against this that lead

does not corrode to any extent, and if the yacht is broken up or sold,

the lead ballast can be sold at its market value with as much ease as if

it were a precious metal.

The specific gravity of lead is to that of iron, roughly, as eleven to

seven. Not oxidizing readily, it makes much cleaner ballast than iron,

and it does not produce appreciable galvanic action and corrosion when

in contact with another metal. Iron ballast, unless it is painted, fills

the bilge water with rust, which will stain everything it comes across

when pumped on deck. Even if the pump leads, as it should do, over the

side, the water thrown out will leave an ugly stain on the paint.

If pig iron is used as ballast, the interstices between the pigs can be

fitted up with small fragments of scrap iron, which can be purchased

very cheaply.

If the spaces between the timbers are not filled with Portland cement,

by which the bilge is kept quite sweet, the limbers or holes through the

bottom timbers must be kept clear, so that the bilge water cannot

accumulate anywhere and become offensive, but will run down freely to

the pump well.

With this object, a small chain is generally kept rove through the

limber holes. By drawing it backwards and forwards the limbers are

cleared of shavings or other obstacles that are blocking them up.

We may here remark that it is important to arrange the pump-well so that

it can be got at in a moment; if the pump is choked, it can thus be

quickly cleared.

To keep the inside of a vessel sweet, tar the bottom timbers and

plankings before putting the ballast in; this of course also serves to

preserve the wood.

* * * * *

THE ANCHOR.--A good anchor should combine various qualities, the chief

of which, so far as a yacht’s anchors are concerned, are, holding power,

exemption from fouling, and easy stowage. Trotman’s patent anchors

appear to us to be the best suited for small yachts. They are

manufactured in every size. The two arms of a Trotman’s anchor are in

one solid piece and oscillate on a pivot in the shank, so that the arm

that is holding the ground is spread out by the strain on the chain;

while the other arm folds up along the shank and so offers no projection

round which the chain can get foul when the vessel swings. This anchor

has great holding power, and is easily stowed on deck. Patent stockless

anchors are now made, in which the arms oscillate not to and from the

shank, as in Trotman’s, but transversely to it, so that the two arms

enter the ground together. These anchors are well spoken of by those who

have tried them.

* * * * *

SETTING UP RIGGING.--The forestays, main shrouds, and other portions of

a yacht’s standing rigging are now very seldom made of hemp, but of

galvanized wire. These must always be set up taut as soon as they show

signs of slackness, but not quite so taut as hempen stays are set up,

for wire does not stretch like hemp does. Wire shrouds set up too taut

put an enormous strain on the sides of a boat, and will in course of

time pull them quite out of shape. The mast should not be so rigidly

stayed down that it has no play; on the contrary, when sail is set, a

mast should be allowed to bend and so take upon itself a considerable

proportion of the strain before any is thrown upon the weather shrouds.

The shroud lanyards are of rope, but are not long enough to give

sufficient play by stretching; however, they do give some life and

spring to the rigging, whereas the iron screws with which the shrouds on

some small yachts are set up cannot give and take in the least, must

strain the boat, and seem to us wholly objectionable, though they do

save some labour to an indolent mariner.

To set up a shroud, get it taut with a watch tackle (see Fig. 12)--the

smallest yacht ought to carry at least one watch tackle, or “handy

billy,” as sailors call it; it is useful for a variety of odd jobs--then

reeve the lanyards through the dead-eyes and make the ends fast.

When a yacht is under way in a fresh breeze the weather shrouds are very

taut and the lee shrouds slack. So the lee shrouds can easily be set up

by hand, and when the vessel has gone about on the other tack the other

shrouds will become the slack ones and can be set up in the same manner.

* * * * *

VENTILATION AND DRY-ROT.--One cause of dry-rot is the use of unseasoned

timber in the construction of a vessel, but this fatal evil has its

origin most frequently in want of ventilation.

The air should permeate freely every portion of a vessel’s woodwork. The

ballast should be so stowed that it does not interfere with the

ventilation of the hold; and holes, which can form an ornamental

pattern, must be drilled at intervals along the panelling of the cabin.

* * * * *

MILDEW IN SAILS is always the result of carelessness. It is not wet that

causes mildew, but dampness combined with want of ventilation. Thus, if

a sail be furled when it is damp, the inner folds will mildew. A wet

sail should always be furled loosely, and it should be shaken out and

dried at the earliest opportunity. If it has been lying furled in a damp

state for some time, do not wait for the sun, but shake it out and give

it air, even if the rain be falling.

Do not, because you have furled your sail dry and put its waterproof

cover on it, imagine that you can leave it thus with safety for an

indefinite time. The damp will get into it in some way, and half the

mildew in sails is due to a blind faith in sail-covers.

Remember that the light cotton of which the topsails and spinnakers of

small yachts are made is much more liable to mildew than flax canvas.

* * * * *

STRETCHING NEW SAILS.--If a new sail is not treated with proper care

when it first comes from the makers, it will stretch irregularly,

forming a great bag in one place, and having tight wrinkles in another.

If a sail be thus spoiled at the outset, the fault can never be

remedied, and it will remain a badly standing sail to the end.

Do not put too great a strain on any part of a new sail. For instance,

while bending the mainsail, do not haul out its peak and clews along the

gaff and boom with powerful tackle. Have them out taut, of course, but

do not try and stretch them out at first by main force so as to save

yourself future trouble. Let the whole sail stretch equally.

It is a good plan, and the delay will be well repaid, not to get under

way at once with one’s new sails, but to remain at anchor for a few

days, and haul the sails up for some hours each day. They will then,

with their own weight and the slight action of the wind swinging them

about without filling them, stretch in a gradual and uniform way.

After this you will find your mainsail slack along the gaff, and you can

tighten up your peak lashing and lacing.

The first day that you get under way with your new canvas should be a

fine one. If it comes on to blow hard, and you have to reef your

mainsail, it will certainly be pulled out of shape. You must not expect

your sails to stretch in a day. You will have to tighten up the lacing

and haul out the earing many times before your mainsail has stretched

its full, and the oftener the better for your sail’s flatness.

* * * * *

LAYING UP A BOAT FOR THE WINTER.--In laying up a small yacht, it is well

to have her upon shore, and if possible, under cover. She will thus

become thoroughly dry, and she will be far more buoyant when she is

launched again than if she had been lying on the mud all the winter with

the water soaking through her.

All the ballast should be taken out of a boat when she is laid up. If

the limber pieces be moulded to fit the shape of the bottom, each piece

should be numbered so that its particular place in the hold will be

known when fitting out again.

The bottom of the boat inside should be thoroughly cleaned and then

tarred.

If any weeds are growing on the outside, scrape them off as soon as the

yacht is on shore. It is much easier to do so when they are moist than

after they have dried on the wood.

When taking the running rigging off a small yacht, the simplest plan is

not to unreeve the halyards, but to unhook the blocks and carry them

away with the halyards. Write the name of each halyard on one of its

blocks, or, better still, mark both blocks of a halyard, showing which

is the upper and which the under.

You will thus greatly simplify the task of rigging the vessel again on

the following season; for to recognize one’s rigging when ropes and

blocks are lying in front of one unmarked is no easy matter.

If the yacht is to be left out of doors for the winter, cover the decks

with common varnish and the spars with grease and white lead. Resin

dissolved in boiled oil makes a very good varnish for coating woodwork

that is to be exposed to the open air during the winter.

Remember that there is nothing that will so spoil and blacken a vessel’s

decks as an accumulation of snow upon them. It is a wise precaution to

build a rough sloping roof over the deck, of hurdles and old canvas, or

anything that comes handy, when laying her up. If she is laid up in a

river where she may be exposed to floating ice, fasten hurdles round her

sides.

Skylights and hatches must be frequently opened during the winter, so as

to ventilate the vessel, and any water must be pumped out of her. A

yacht will deteriorate more through one winter’s neglect than in ten

years’ fair sailing.

The sails should of course be thoroughly dried before being stowed away

for the winter. They should be stowed in a dry, well-ventilated loft. If

they are soaked in sea water before being dried, they are not so liable

to mildew.

* * * * *

INVENTORY.--There are many small but necessary articles which the

amateur is likely to forget when starting for a cruise in his new boat.

We will enumerate some of the most important of these. Marline spikes, a

sail-maker’s needle and palm, plenty of spun-yarn and seaming twine.

Spare ropes, including stuff for lanyards, etc. Spare blocks, thimbles,

cliphooks, shackles, etc. The more necessary carpenter’s tools,

including the nails and screws likely to be required. Universal

spanners, for screwing on or unscrewing nuts of various sizes. Paints in

tins, with turpentine, oil, dryers, and brushes. Scrapers for removing

old paint, etc. Stout fenders, to be used while getting alongside a

wharf, and on other occasions, when outside paint is in danger. A good

warp--grass rope or coir will answer the purpose well. A watch tackle or

“handy billy,” which is, as we have shown, useful for a variety of

purposes. A snatch-block with a tail, very handy when a pull is required

on any rope, as it can be clapped on in a moment. A small screw-jack. A

serving mallet.

CHAPTER X.

THE ECONOMY BETWEEN DECKS.

The well--Arrangement of cabin--Leaky decks--Cabin lights--The

forecastle--Cooking stoves.

The available space in a small yacht is generally partitioned off into

an open well, a cabin, and a forecastle.

The steering is done from the well, and all the sheets are belayed to

cleats within easy reach of it. The well is surrounded with seats and

lockers. The after locker is sometimes used as a sail room: but in a

very small yacht the forecastle answers better for this purpose, and the

warps, etc., can be stowed in the after locker.

One of the side lockers of the well can be fitted with shelves, and will

then serve as a larder. Pierce holes for ventilation into the front of

it at some height above the floor.

Holes should be cut through the floor of the well, so that any water

that comes on board may escape into the bilge. A wooden grating on the

floor will keep one’s feet dry.

The cabin generally communicates with the well by folding doors, while a

small hatch is made to slide back in the cabin roof, thus making the

aperture larger and facilitating ingress and egress.

Personally we do not like cabin doors in a small yacht; they are always

in the way while open, and as they cannot be--or at any rate never

are--made water-tight, if a little water is shipped in the well it will

find its way through the closed doors and make the cabin uncomfortable.

A better plan is to have a water-tight bulkhead dividing the cabin from

the well, and at the top of the bulkhead to have a square opening which

can be closed when necessary with a vertical shutter or slide. When this

is open, and the hatch on the cabin roof is pushed back, it is easy to

step over into the cabin. Fig. 44 illustrates this arrangement.

[Illustration: Fig. 44.]

It adds considerably to the safety of a small vessel if her well be made

completely water-tight. In this case there must be an additional pump

in the well, to throw out any water that gets into it.

It is very convenient to have an awning that will fit over the well when

the vessel is at anchor. An additional room is thus obtained which will

be found very useful to perform one’s toilette in.

The raised roof over the cabin is generally covered with canvas and

painted white. This effectually prevents leakage.

It is not easy to keep a small yacht’s decks quite water-tight, and

every one who has been to sea in a little craft has passed through the

unpleasant sensation of having the water falling drop by drop upon his

face, as he lies in his bunk at night, from the seams in the planking

between the raised cabin roof and the waterways.

In dry weather, water should be freely poured on the decks morning and

evening, to prevent them shrinking.

A black marine putty is now made which in our experience serves as well

as pitch, and as it does not require heating is much more convenient to

use. Wherever a leak is discovered in the deck seams while on a voyage,

stop with cotton (using a blunt knife, not a caulking-iron) and fill up

the seam with this putty.

Tagg’s patent caulking, which swells as the planking shrinks, seems to

be very well adapted for the decks of small yachts, and can be

recommended as the best method of preventing leakage, next to covering

all the deck with canvas, an unyachty and unsightly way of meeting the

difficulty.

The cabin of a small yacht generally has a bunk on either side, serving

as sofas by day and beds by night, with lockers under them, useful for

the stowage of such stores as will not be spoiled by water. Two or more

cupboards are in the corners, and a table--one that can be folded up

when not in use is best--stands in the centre of the floor.

Water is sure to find its way into the cabin sometimes, so every article

of furniture must be chosen with a view to its getting wet. A carpet is

not suitable for the floor of a small yacht; it is unpleasant when wet,

and is difficult to dry. Oilcloth or linoleum is better, but these are

cold to the feet. The best material with which to cover the floor is

cocoanut matting of a good quality. It is made in every width, so a

piece of the breadth of the cabin floor can be procured. Cocoanut

matting looks well, is pleasant and warm to walk upon with bare feet,

can be washed easily, and dries very quickly.

Horsehair is of course the best material with which to stuff the

cushions of the bunks. These are often covered with American cloth,

which dries quickly, but is cold and disagreeable, especially if one’s

blanket slips off at night and one’s naked foot comes in contact with

it. Cretonnes and other cotton stuffs are cold when damp, and are

altogether unsuitable for the purpose. After having tried many

materials, the author prefers dark blue flannel to any other for cushion

covers. The flannel feels warm even when it is wet, and one will not

catch cold while sleeping on it.

The panelling of the cabin should be, if possible, of some hard wood,

polished. This is much more ornamental than painted wood, and though

more costly at the outset, is more economical in the long-run, for in

order to keep up a smart appearance paint must often be renewed.

If the cabin be painted, white panelling with a plain gilt moulding

round the top looks very well; but white paint gets dirty quickly, and a

fresh coat is required very frequently. Possibly the white enamel

paints now largely manufactured would answer the purpose better, as they

form a very hard coat which can be thoroughly washed without injury.

For cabin lights, spring candlestick lamps, swinging on gimbals, are the

best; these can be obtained at any yachting warehouse; they are provided

with globes, and with smoke shades to be screwed into the ceiling above

to prevent its discoloration. They can be lit in a moment, and are much

cleaner to handle than other lamps. But while on a cruise it will often

be necessary to have a light burning all night in the cabin, so as to be

able to refer to the chart, etc. A paraffin lamp swung over the table

will then be more convenient and economical.

The interior of a small yacht’s cabin can be made to look very pretty

and snug. The library shelf can be on the forward wall, with the aneroid

on one side of it and the clock on the other. On the side walls above

the bunks the charts, guns, and fishing-rods can be slung. A rack for

glasses and another for pipes can be fitted where most convenient.

As the blankets that serve for the yachtsman’s bedding cannot well be

stowed out of sight in a small cabin, it is well to have them as

ornamental as possible. Red blankets neatly folded up at one end of the

blue flannel bunk cushions give a bright appearance to the cabin. The

windows and the skylight should have little blinds--red silk looks very

well.

The forecastle of a yacht of the size we are speaking of is rarely large

enough to afford sleeping accommodation, unless it be to a small boy.

The chain-locker is here, and here too are stowed the spare sails, the

mops, brooms, buckets, etc. The cooking-stove should also be in the

forecastle. This, in our opinion, should invariably be a spirit stove,

on a small craft where little cooking is done. A paraffin stove has an

unpleasant smell, even if the wick be kept carefully trimmed, and it is

the cause of a great deal of dirt.

Excellent galvanized cooking-stoves for burning methylated spirits are

now manufactured. These produce no dirt. It may be of use to mention

here that spirits of wine for burning purposes can be procured in every

little continental town, and at a cost very far under that of methylated

spirits in England.

Mildew generates very quickly in the interior of a yacht; therefore it

is very necessary that all clothing and bedding be brought on deck to

dry at every convenient opportunity. Any shackles or other small iron

work not in use should--if ungalvanized--be greased before being put

away in the lockers.

There are so many odd corners in a yacht in which dirt can accumulate

and conceal itself that a scrupulous cleanliness is necessary. Scrub and

swab everything like a Dutch woman, and take care that no morsels of

meat or other perishable matter be swept through the chinks of the floor

into the bilge. Even paper and straw will produce a very unpleasant

odour after they have been lying sodden some while. Therefore take the

paper covers off your tins of meat before stowing them under the bunks.

CHAPTER XI.

THE LAWS OF THE SEA.

Board of Trade regulations concerning lights, fog signals, steering

and sailing rules, pilot signals, etc.--Custom House clearance on

returning from a foreign port--Explanation of the terms used in

giving steering directions, etc.

Any one who ventures to take charge of even a small yacht should be

familiar with the Board of Trade regulations for preventing collisions

at sea, and not only with those rules which have been laid down for his

own guidance, but with those applying specially to steamers, to fishing

boats or other craft differing from his own, that he may recognize their

manœuvres when he comes across them, and thus be able to avoid collision

with them.

We will now quote the Board of Trade regulations, making such comments

and explanations as we think will be useful.

ART. 1.--In the following rules every steam ship which is under

sail and not under steam is to be considered a sailing ship; and

every steam ship which is under steam, whether under sail or not,

is to be considered a ship under steam.

The following are the RULES CONCERNING LIGHTS:--

ART. 2.--The lights mentioned in the following Articles, numbered

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, and no others, shall be carried in

all weathers, from sunset to sunrise.

ART. 3.--A seagoing steam ship when under way shall carry--

(_a_) On or in front of the foremast, at a height above the hull of

not less than 20 feet, and if the breadth of the ship exceeds 20

feet, then at a height above the hull not less than such breadth, a

bright white light, so constructed as to show an uniform and

unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 20 points of the

compass; so fixed as to throw the light 10 points on each side of

the ship, viz., from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on

either side, and of such a character as to be visible on a dark

night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least five

miles.

(_b_) On the starboard side, a green light so constructed as to

show an uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 10

points of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right

ahead to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side, and of

such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear

atmosphere, at a distance of at least two miles.

(_c_) On the port side, a red light, so constructed as to show an

uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 10 points

of the compass; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to

two points abaft the beam on the port side; and of such a character

as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a

distance of at least two miles.

(_d_) The said green and red side lights shall be fitted with

inboard screens projecting at least three feet forward from the

light, so as to prevent these lights from being seen across the

bow.

ART. 4.--A steam ship, when towing another ship, shall, in addition to

her side lights, carry two bright white lights in a vertical line one

over the other, not less than three feet apart, so as to distinguish her

from other steam ships. Each of these lights shall be of the same

construction and character, and shall be carried in the same position as

the white light which other steam ships are required to carry.

ART. 5.--

(_a_) A ship, whether a steam ship or a sailing ship, which from

any accident is not under command, shall at night carry, in the

same position as the white light which steam ships are required to

carry, and, if a steam ship, in place of that light, three red

lights in globular lanterns, each not less than 10 inches in

diameter, in a vertical line one over the other, not less than

three feet apart, and of such a character as to be visible on a

dark night, with a clear atmosphere, at a distance of at least two

miles; and shall by day carry, in a vertical line one over the

other, not less than three feet apart, in front of but not lower

than her foremast head, three black balls or shapes, each two feet

in diameter.

(_b_) A ship, whether a steam ship or a sailing ship employed in

laying or in picking up a telegraph cable, shall at night carry in

the same position as the white light which steam ships are required

to carry, and, if a steam ship, in place of that light, three

lights in globular lanterns, each not less than 10 inches in

diameter, in a vertical line over one another, not less than six

feet apart: the highest and lowest of these lights shall be red,

and the middle light shall be white, and they shall be of such a

character that the red lights shall be visible at the same distance

as the white light. By day she shall carry in a vertical line one

over the other not less than six feet apart, in front of but not

lower than her foremast head, three shapes not less than two feet

in diameter, of which the top and bottom shall be globular in shape

and red in colour, and the middle one diamond in shape and white.

(_c_) The ships referred to in this Article, when not making any

way through the water, shall not carry the side lights, but when

making way shall carry them.

(_d_) The lights and shapes required to be shown by this Article

are to be taken by other ships as signals that the ship showing

them is not under command, and therefore cannot get out of the way.

The signals to be made by ships in distress and requiring

assistance are contained in Article 27.

ART. 6.--A sailing ship under way, or being towed, shall carry the same

lights as are provided by Article 3, for a steam ship under way, with

the exception of the white light, which she shall never carry.

ART. 7.--Whenever, as in the case of small vessels during bad weather,

the green and red side lights cannot be fixed, these lights shall be

kept on deck, on their respective sides of the vessel, ready for use;

and shall, on the approach of or to other vessels, be exhibited on their

respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision, in such manner

as to make them most visible, and so that the green light shall not be

seen on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side.

To make the use of these portable lights more certain and easy, the

lanterns containing them shall each be painted outside with the colour

of the light they respectively contain, and shall be provided with

proper screens.

ART. 8.--A ship, whether a steam ship or a sailing ship, when at anchor,

shall carry, where it can best be seen, but at a height not exceeding 20

feet above the hull, a white light in a globular lantern, of not less

than 8 inches in diameter, and so constructed as to show a clear uniform

and unbroken light visible all round the horizon, at a distance of at

least one mile.

ART. 9.--A pilot vessel, when engaged on her station on pilotage duty,

shall not carry the lights required for other vessels, but shall carry a

white light at the masthead, visible all round the horizon, and shall

also exhibit a flare-up light or flare-up lights at short intervals

which shall never exceed fifteen minutes.

A pilot vessel, when not engaged on her station on pilotage duty, shall

carry lights similar to those of other ships.

ART. 10.--Open boats and fishing vessels of less than 20 tons net

registered tonnage, when under way and when not having their nets,

trawls, dredges, or lines in the water, shall not be obliged to carry

the coloured side lights; but every such boat and vessel shall in lieu

thereof have ready at hand a lantern with a green glass on the one side

and a red glass on the other side, and on approaching to or being

approached by another vessel, such lantern shall be exhibited in

sufficient time to prevent collision, so that the green light shall not

be seen on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side.

The following portion of this article applies only to fishing vessels

and boats when in the seas off the coast of Europe lying north of Cape

Finisterre:--

(_a_) All fishing vessels and fishing boats of 20 tons net

registered tonnage, or upwards, when under way and when not

required by the following regulations in this Article to carry and

show the lights therein named, shall carry and show the same lights

as other vessels under way.

(_b_) All vessels when engaged in fishing with drift nets shall

exhibit two white lights from any part of the vessel where they can

be best seen. Such lights shall be placed so that the vertical

distance between them shall be not less than six feet, and not more

than 10 feet; and so that the horizontal distance between them

measured in a line with the keel of the vessel shall not be less

than five feet and not more than 10 feet. The lower of these two

lights shall be the more forward, and both of them shall be of such

a character, and contained in lanterns of such construction as to

show all round the horizon, on a dark night, with a clear

atmosphere, for a distance of not less than three miles.

(_c_) A vessel employed in line fishing with her lines out shall

carry the same lights as a vessel when engaged in fishing with

drift nets.

(_d_) If a vessel when fishing becomes stationary in consequence of

her gear getting fast to a rock or other obstruction, she shall

show the light and make the fog signal for a vessel at anchor.

(_e_) Fishing vessels and open boats may at any time use a flare-up

in addition to the lights which they are by this Article required

to carry and show. All flare-up lights exhibited by a vessel when

trawling, dredging, or fishing with any kind of drag net, shall be

shown at the after part of the vessel, excepting that, if the

vessel is hanging by the stern to her trawl, dredge, or drag net,

they shall be exhibited from the bow.

(_f_) Every fishing vessel and every open boat when at anchor

between sunset and sunrise shall exhibit a white light visible all

round the horizon at a distance of at least one mile.

(_g_) In fog, mist, or falling snow, a drift net vessel attached to

her nets and a vessel when trawling, dredging, or fishing with any

kind of drag net, and a vessel employed in line fishing with her

lines out, shall at intervals of not more than two minutes make a

blast with her fog horn and ring her bell alternately.

ART. 11.--A ship which is being overtaken by another shall show from her

stern to such last-mentioned ship a white light or a flare-up light.

It follows from the above regulations that the following lights must be

carried on board a small sailing boat--A white riding light, a green

starboard light, a red port light, and a bull’s-eye lantern, with which

last one can carry out the instructions conveyed in Article 11.

A very convenient lantern is now sold by the yachting outfitters, which

not only combines in itself the port and starboard lights, as permitted

by Article 10; but on the removal of a slide serves as a riding-light as

well.

Small yachts are generally provided with lanterns of smaller size and

lesser illuminating power than those enjoined in the regulations; but it

is best to comply with these rules if possible, so that one can have the

right on one’s side in case of a collision. It often happens again that

small lights burn in an unsatisfactory manner, and frequently go out. A

riding light that does this is a great nuisance, and spoils one’s

night’s rest when one is brought up in a crowded thoroughfare.

We prefer lanterns that burn paraffin, for sea work; if colza is used,

some camphor should be dissolved in it: this increases the illuminating

power, and in our opinion the light is not so likely to go out when this

is done.

* * * * *

The following rules relate to FOG SIGNALS. It will be observed that the

old-fashioned fog horn which is sounded with the mouth is not recognized

by the present regulations. It is, however, still generally used on

small craft, and will certainly make more noise than some of the

mechanical fog horns:--

ART. 12.--A steam ship shall be provided with a steam whistle or

other efficient steam sound signal, so placed that the sound may

not be intercepted by any obstructions, and with an efficient fog

horn to be sounded by a bellows or other mechanical means, and also

with an efficient bell. A sailing ship shall be provided with a

similar fog horn and bell.

In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether by day or night, the signals

described in this Article shall be used as follows; that is to

say--

(_a_) A steam ship under way shall make with her steam whistle, or

other steam sound signal, at intervals of not more than two

minutes, a prolonged blast.

(_b_) A sailing ship under way shall make with her fog horn, at

intervals of not more than two minutes, when on the starboard tack

one blast, when on the port tack two blasts in succession, and when

with the wind abaft the beam three blasts in succession.

(_c_) A steam ship and a sailing ship, when not under way, shall,

at intervals of not more than two minutes, ring the bell.

ART. 13.--Every ship, whether a sailing ship or steam ship, shall in

fog, mist, or falling snow, go at a moderate speed.

Next come the articles relating to the RULES OF STEERING AND SAILING.

In applying these the novice must never forget that when he stands on

his deck and looks forward, the port side of his vessel is on his left,

the starboard side on his right. When a vessel is on the port tack the

wind is blowing from the port or left side of him; when she is on the

starboard tack from the starboard or right side.

Let him also remember that though he should observe these rules as

closely as possible, Article 23 affords a fine loophole for the huge and

clumsy steamers that crowd the Thames and other rivers. It is a

well-known fact that big steamers _will not_ get out of the way of small

sailing craft, even when they can do so without difficulty, and the

little boat is expected to get out of their way.

The moral of this is:--Keep out of the way of the big steamers, not by

getting flurried and altering your course at the last moment, against

all the rules of the road, and so putting yourself in the wrong if there

is a collision, but by altering your course and showing them your

intentions some time before they are near you.

ART. 14.--When two sailing ships are approaching one another, so as

to involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out of the way

of the other, as follows, viz.:--

(_a_) A ship which is running free shall keep out of the way of a

ship which is close hauled.

(_b_) A ship which is close hauled on the port tack shall keep out

of the way of a ship which is close hauled on the starboard tack.

(_c_) When both are running free with the wind on different sides,

the ship which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the

way of the other.

(_d_) When both are running free with the wind on the same side,

the ship which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship

which is to leeward.

(_e_) A ship which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of

the other ship.

ART. 15.--If two ships under steam are meeting end on, or nearly end on,

so as to involve risk of collision, each shall alter her course to

starboard, so that each may pass on the port side of the other.

This Article only applies to cases where ships are meeting end on,

or nearly end on in such a manner as to involve risk of collision,

and does not apply to two ships which must, if both keep on their

respective courses, pass clear of each other.

The only cases to which it does apply are, when each of the two

ships is end on, or nearly end on, to the other; in other words, to

cases in which, by day, each ship sees the masts of the other in a

line, or nearly in a line, with her own; and by night, to cases in

which each ship is in such a position as to see both the side

lights of the other.

It does not apply, by day, to cases in which a ship sees another

ahead crossing her own course; or by night, to cases where the red

light of one ship is opposed to the red light of the other, or

where the green, light of one ship is opposed to the green light of

the other, or where a red light without a green light, or a green

light without a red light, is seen ahead, or where both green and

red lights are seen anywhere but ahead.

ART. 16.--If two ships under steam are crossing, so as to involve risk

of collision, the ship which has the other on her own starboard side

shall keep out of the way of the other.

ART. 17.--If two ships, one of which is a sailing ship and the other a

steam ship, are proceeding in such directions as to involve risk of

collision, the steam ship shall keep out of the way of the sailing ship.

ART. 18.--Every steamship, when approaching another ship, so as to

involve risk of collision, shall slacken her speed or stop and reverse,

if necessary.

ART. 19.--In taking any course authorized or required by these

Regulations, a steam ship under way may indicate that course to any

other ship which she has in sight by the following signals on her steam

whistle, viz.:--

One short blast to mean “I am directing my course to starboard.”

Two short blasts to mean “I am directing my course to port.”

Three short blasts to mean “I am going full speed astern.”

The use of these signals is optional; but if they are used, the course

of the ship must be in accordance with the signal made.

ART. 20.--Notwithstanding anything contained in any preceding Article,

every ship, whether a sailing ship or a steam ship, overtaking any

other, shall keep out of the way of the overtaken ship.

ART. 21.--In narrow channels every steam ship shall, when it is safe and

practicable, keep to that side of the fairway or mid-channel which lies

on the starboard side of such ship.

ART. 22.--Where, by the above rules, one of two ships is to keep out of

the way, the other shall keep her course.

ART. 23.--In obeying and construing these rules, due regard shall be had

to all dangers of navigation; and to any special circumstances which may

render a departure from the above rules necessary in order to avoid

immediate danger.

ART. 24.--Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any ship, or the owner,

or master, or crew thereof, from the consequences of any neglect to

carry lights or signals, or of any neglect to keep a proper look-out, or

of the neglect of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary

practice of seamen, or by the special circumstances of the case.

ART. 25.--Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the operation of a

special rule, duly made by local authority, relative to the navigation

of any harbour, river, or inland navigation.

ART. 26.--Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the operation of

any special rules made by the Government of any nation with respect to

additional station and signal lights for two or more ships of war, or

for ships sailing under convoy.

The next article relates to SIGNALS OF DISTRESS:--

ART. 27.--When a ship is in distress and requires assistance from

other ships or from the shore, the following shall be the signals

to be used or displayed by her, either together or separately, that

is to say:--

In the daytime--

1. A gun fired at intervals of about a minute.

2. The International Code signal of distress indicated by N.C.

3. The distant signal, consisting of a square flag, having either

above or below it a ball, or anything resembling a ball.

At night--

1. A gun fired at intervals of about a minute.

2. Flames on the ship (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel,

etc.).

3. Rockets or shells, throwing stars of any colour or description,

fired one at a time at short intervals.

The flags of the International Code of signals should be carried on

every cruising yacht, they will often be found of service. For a small

yacht, flags 2 feet by 1½ will suffice. These, together with the Code

Signal Book, will cost a little over two pounds. The book explains the

use of the flags, which is easily acquired.

While we are dealing with the Board of Trade Regulations, it may be well

to remind the amateur skipper that should he call at any foreign port,

he is bound under a heavy penalty to report himself to the Customs

Officers at the first British port he enters on his return home; and

that if, after sailing from some foreign port, he is ascending the

Thames, he must bring up opposite the Customs landing-stage at

Gravesend, that the authorities may clear him, and until he has obtained

his clearance he must fly the national ensign by day and carry a light

under his bowsprit by night.

* * * * *

The yachtsman will occasionally require the services of a pilot or local

fisherman to show him the way into some difficult harbour, and it is

probable that he will be considerably confused by the steering

directions given to him by his guide, and put the helm to port when he

should have put it to starboard or _vice versâ_. And this is not to be

wondered at; for even professionals are often puzzled by the somewhat

uncertain signification of the terms now in use.

First as to the orders most frequently given at sea--“Port!” and

“Starboard!” Surely there can be no vagueness about their meaning; but

every sailor will tell you that there is a vagueness, and one that is no

doubt responsible for many accidents.

When an English pilot cries out “Port!” or what comes to the same thing,

holds his hand out to port, he does not wish the vessel’s _head_ to be

turned to port, but that the _helm_ or _tiller_ be put to port, this

action of course turning the vessel’s head in a _starboard_ direction.

Wheels are now generally used in the place of tillers on all craft of

any size. Now a wheel works in a contrary direction to a tiller, that

is, a wheel turning to port turns the vessel’s head to port. In this

case, when an English pilot cries out “Port!” he means that the wheel

rudder and head of the vessel are all to be turned to starboard.

If this rule--viz., that on every occasion on which the orders “port” or

“starboard” are given, the vessel’s head must be turned in the opposite

direction--prevailed everywhere, all would accustom themselves to it and

there would not be much confusion. But, if we cross the Channel to

France, or visit some other continental countries, we find the pilots

always speak of the vessel’s head and not of the helm when they give an

order. In France, “Port!” does not signify “Port your helm!” but “Turn

your vessel’s head to port,” which is the reverse of what a British

pilot would mean when giving the same order.

There are other methods of giving orders to the man at the tiller which

must be thoroughly understood by every amateur. The author has seen a

somewhat experienced yachtsman puzzled when a boatman, who had come on

board to pilot us, cried out, “Bear up!” at the same time holding his

hand to windward.

Had he cried out “Bear away!” the yachtsman would have understood that

the order applied to the head of the vessel--that the vessel was to be

steered away from the wind. But “Bear up!” and the hand pointing to

windward confused him, and he steered to windward or luffed.

Now these two orders mean exactly the same; but whereas “Bear away!”

applies to the vessel’s head, “Bear up!” applies to the vessel’s helm or

tiller which must be pushed up to windward. So, too, the pilot’s hand,

pointing to windward, signified, “Put the helm in that direction,” and

not “Turn the vessel in that direction.”

In the table below the orders in general use are defined:--

1. “PORT” signifies “Turn the helm or tiller to port.”

2. “STARBOARD” signifies “Turn the helm or tiller to starboard.”

3. “LUFF” signifies “Turn the vessel’s head to windward.”

4. “BEAR AWAY” signifies “Turn the vessel’s head away from the

wind.”

5. “BEAR UP” signifies “Turn the helm or tiller to windward.”

6. “PUT THE HELM DOWN” signifies “Turn the helm or tiller away from

the wind.”

7. “PUT THE HELM UP” signifies “Turn the helm or tiller to

windward.”

It will be seen that 4, 5, and 7 are various methods of giving the same

order, while 3 and 6 are the same.

The following regulations relate to PILOT SIGNALS:--

IN THE DAYTIME.--The following signals, numbered 1 and 2, when used

or displayed together or separately, shall be deemed to be signals

for a pilot in the daytime:--

1. To be hoisted at the fore, the jack or other national colour

usually worn by merchant ships, having round it a white border,

one-fifth of the breadth of the flag; or

2. The international code pilotage signal, indicated by P.T.[A]

AT NIGHT.--The following signals, numbered 1 and 2, when used or

displayed together or separately, shall be deemed to be signals for

a pilot at night:--

1. The pyrotechnic light, commonly known as a blue light, every

fifteen minutes, or

2. A bright white light, flashed or shown at short or frequent

intervals, just above the bulwarks, for about a minute at a time.

And “Any master of a vessel who uses or displays, or causes or

permits any person under his authority to use or display, any of

the said signals for any other purpose than that of summoning a

pilot, or uses, or causes, or permits any person under his

authority to use any other signal for a pilot, shall incur a

penalty not exceeding twenty pounds.”

CHAPTER XII.

INSTRUMENTS OF NAVIGATION NECESSARY FOR COASTING.

Mercator’s chart--The mariner’s compass--The spirit

compass--Variation--Deviation--The log ship and line--The lead

line.

As soon as the amateur leaves the bay or river with whose features he is

well acquainted and ventures to take his vessel along a coast unknown to

him, he must provide himself with the necessary instruments for finding

his way and make himself familiar with their use.

As the management of large yachts is not within the scope of this book,

it will be unnecessary to treat here of navigation properly so called,

that is, the art of guiding a vessel across broad seas, out of sight of

land, by observation of the sun

[Illustration A: This is a square blue flag, having in its centre a

white square, hoisted over a flag of a similar shape--the latter showing

three vertical bars, coloured red, white, and blue.]

and stars and by dead reckoning. But we may remark that an educated man

will find no difficulty in rapidly acquiring the art of navigation if he

wishes to do so. It is the seamanship that will give him trouble; for to

acquire that a long apprenticeship and considerable natural capacity are

necessary.

For coasting purposes and for crossing narrow seas such as the Channel,

and the North Sea, and even for a voyage to the Baltic, sextants,

chronometers, and other instruments of navigation proper are not

required, and the following is a complete list of all that is needed for

the purpose of finding one’s way. 1. The necessary charts. 2. A

mariner’s compass. 3. A parallel rule. 4. A pair of compasses or

dividers. 5. A log ship and line. 6. A hand-lead and line. 7. One of the

small nautical almanacs which give the tide tables for the principal

harbours of Europe. Pearson’s almanac, which only costs sixpence, is one

of the best of these and, in addition to the tides, imparts a great deal

of useful information.

* * * * *

CHARTS.--Whatever method is employed for representing a portion of a

globe on a plane surface, the result can only be approximately correct.

Charts are drawn on what is known as Mercator’s projection, which,

though it greatly distorts the relative magnitudes, is the most

convenient for purposes of navigation.

The parallels of latitude on the globe are everywhere equidistant. On

the other hand, the meridians of longitude are furthest apart at the

equator, and gradually approach till they meet at the poles.

In Mercator’s chart the meridians of longitude are drawn parallel and

equidistant. The distortion in the direction of longitude resulting from

this projection is counterbalanced by distorting the latitude to a

proportionate extent; that is, the parallels of latitude are drawn

further apart as the poles are approached.

Thus, on a chart of the world, the polar regions are greatly magnified

when compared to the regions near the equator; still, as the degrees of

latitude and those of longitude are proportionately magnified, the

general shape of any particular tract is preserved.

The reason why this projection is the most adapted for purposes of

navigation is that it produces no errors of _direction_; that is, if one

place is north-west of another, it appears so on a Mercator’s chart.

It follows, from what has been said, that one scale of miles will not

serve for a chart; as the scale is ever varying. The method of

overcoming this difficulty while measuring the distance from one place

to another on the chart will now be explained.

On inspecting an ordinary chart it will be found that the top of it is

true north the bottom true south.

Along the top and bottom are _graduated parallels_, which are divided

into degrees and minutes, and which enable us to distinguish the

longitude of any position on the chart.

So, too, on the right and left sides of the chart we find _graduated

meridians_ also divided into degrees and minutes and which enable us to

measure the latitude of any position on the chart.

Now, as a degree or a minute of latitude is the same length everywhere,

we can use these _graduated meridians_ as scales of miles. Each degree

is divided into sixty minutes. A minute or nautical mile is about

one-sixth longer than an English mile.

But as Mercator’s chart distorts the latitudes, each portion of the

_graduated meridians_ serves as a scale of miles only to that part of a

chart immediately opposite to it, that is, on the same latitude.

Consequently, to measure the distance between two places on the chart,

for instance, Falmouth harbour in latitude 50° and Madeira in latitude

30°, we proceed as follows. The dividers are spread out till their

points are over the two places on the chart. This distance is then

measured off on the graduated meridian, by so placing the dividers on

the scale that the mean latitude of the two places, that is, latitude

40°, is marked on the graduated meridian exactly halfway between the two

points of the dividers.

The graduated parallels cannot, of course, be used as scales of miles

for purposes of measurement.

While measuring distances on the large scale charts used for coasting

purposes it matters little what portion of the graduated meridians be

used as a scale, for the error will be imperceptible. It is only while

using what are known as general charts, which extend across many degrees

of latitude, that a considerable error will result from not measuring

from the mean latitude.

Compasses are generally designed on various portions of a chart. These

compasses usually indicate the _magnetic_ and not the _true_ bearings.

(See COMPASS).

Various abbreviations are used on charts which are generally explained

in a corner of the chart itself. Thus the nature of the bottom is

indicated by _sft_ for soft, _c._ for coarse, _h._ for hard, etc., while

buoys are marked R. for red, H.S. for horizontally striped.

The soundings in fathoms or feet are indicated by numbers, the depth

being calculated at low water ordinary spring tides. Where shoals

sometimes dry, their height above low water spring tides is given by

underlined numerals.

Roman numerals on a chart give the hour of high water at that spot at

the full and change of the moon.

The velocity of the tide in knots is also indicated and its direction

shown by arrows.

The yachtsman should provide himself with large scale Admiralty charts;

for these alone can guide him into those shallow intricate channels

frequented by small coasters only, which he will be so often tempted to

enter.

THE MARINER’S COMPASS.--Every one is more or less familiar with the use

of the mariner’s compass, the instrument which enables us to know the

direction in which a vessel is sailing when out of sight of land.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.]

The compass card (Fig. 45) is divided into thirty-two points, so, as a

circle contains 360°, the distance from one point to the next is 11¼°.

Sometimes a point is expressed in its angular value, that is, the

number of degrees the point is west or east of the meridional line

joining north and south. Thus N. by E. would be called N. 11¼ E., and

N.E., N. 45° E.

Compass bearings are calculated to quarter points, as N.E. ¼ E., which

signifies N.E. and a quarter of a point towards E.

The compass card moves freely on a pivot in the _compass bowl_, which in

its turn is balanced on gimbals, enabling it to preserve a horizontal

position despite the vessel’s rolling and pitching.

The _binnacle_ or case in which the compass bowl is swung is provided

with a lamp, so that the man steering can read the compass card by

night.

Inside the bowl is a small mark, called the “lubber’s line,” which is

exactly in a line with the head of the ship. That portion of the card

which touches the lubber’s line therefore indicates the direction in

which the vessel is pointing.

The jerky motion of a small craft will often cause an ordinary compass

card to oscillate and even to completely revolve, so that the direction

in which one is steering cannot be ascertained. It is therefore

necessary to use a heavy compass card whose movement will be more

sluggish. A spirit compass--such as Dent’s spirit compass--in which the

card is surrounded by fluid--is the best adapted for small vessels.

But when a little craft is pitching quickly the very best compass will

oscillate to some extent. In this case, one must observe the extreme

points on either side reached by the swinging card and take the mean

between them as the ship’s direction.

The needle points to the _magnetic_ north, which coincides with the

_true_ north in certain portions of the earth only. The difference

between the magnetic and real north is called the _variation_ of the

compass, it differs in different places, and is constantly but very

slowly changing.

The variation at the mouth of the Thames, for instance, is now roughly

20° W., that is, the needle is dragged 20° to the west of north, so that

if a vessel’s head be pointing true north, her compass will indicate a

direction of about N.N.E.

The compasses designed on a chart generally show, as we have already

explained, the magnetic and not the true bearings. Consequently, in

order to ascertain the course that should be steered from one place to

another, we lay one edge of the parallel rules on the two places on the

chart, and by opening the rule we slide the other edge along--always

preserving the direction--until it is on the centre of one of the

compass designs on the chart. The direction thus indicated represents

the course to be steered by compass.

But if the compasses on the chart are, as sometimes happens, true and

not magnetic, the course shown by the rule is not the one to be steered

by compass. We must, in this case, discover the variation existing in

the locality--generally given on the chart--and convert the true course

as indicated by the edge of the rule into a compass or magnetic course.

To do this, if the variation is so many degrees west, the course to be

steered will be that number of degrees east of the true course; if the

variation is so many degrees east, the course to be steered will be that

number of degrees west of the true course.

Where there is local attraction, as in an iron ship, the compass

bearings will not be correct magnetic, but the needle will be dragged on

one side or the other of the magnetic meridian. This error is called the

_deviation_ of the compass.

On board a wooden yacht, if certain precautions are observed, there

should be no perceptible deviation of the compass. As iron ballast is

generally used on a yacht, the compass should be as high as possible

above it. If the boat have a well, the binnacle can at least be on a

level with the raised hatch on the deck.

Care must be taken that no elongated iron mass, especially if vertical,

such as a bolt, be near the compass.

Deviation is not uniform, like variation. When the vessel’s head is

pointing about E. or W. the deviation is generally greatest, and it is

different with every direction the vessel is turned to.

The deviation, if any, is ascertained by what is termed _swinging_ the

vessel. The correct magnetic bearing of some distant object is first

obtained. The vessel is then slowly swung round--this can often be done

by carrying the mooring line along one side of the deck aft, and then

along the other side to the bows again--and as the vessel’s head comes

to each point of the compass, a compass bearing is taken of the object,

and the difference between that bearing and the true magnetic one is

noted.

A table can then be drawn out showing the deviation to be applied for

each point of the compass towards which a vessel is steering.

When steering by compass, do not keep the eyes constantly fixed on the

compass card, as this is extremely wearying, especially by night. When

you have got the vessel on her course, get some object ahead--a distant

vessel, a cloud, a star, if no land is in sight--in line with the mast,

or one of the shrouds, and steer for that; referring only occasionally

to the compass, so as to correct the direction and get a new mark to

steer for when necessary.

THE LOG SHIP AND LINE are employed to calculate the speed at which a

vessel is travelling through the water. The log ship (Fig. 46) is a

quadrant-shaped piece of wood, loaded with lead at the bottom, so that

it may preserve an upright position in the water. It is attached to the

log line by means of a bridle.

[Illustration: Fig. 46.]

The ordinary log line is 120 fathoms long. The log glass generally used

is a common sand-glass, running out in 28 seconds. The line is divided

into equal distances by knots, each distance being the same fraction of

a nautical mile as 28 seconds is of one hour; the distance therefore

between two knots is about 47 feet.

A bit of bunting is attached to the line about 12 fathoms from the log

ship. These 12 fathoms are called the _stray_ line.

The process known as “heaving the log” is performed as follows: One hand

stands by, with the glass in hand, full end downwards; another hand

heaves the log ship overboard, which floats away astern; the line is

then steadily paid out from the reel, in such a way that no strain is

put on the log ship.

At the moment when the piece of bunting marking the stray line goes

overboard, the glass is smartly turned. As soon as the sand has run out,

the man holding the glass calls out, “Stop!” and the log line is

suddenly checked. The number of knots that have been reeled off

represent the number of sea miles the vessel is sailing an hour.

Several forms of self-registering logs are now in general use. These are

towed astern, and communicate the revolutions of a screw rotator to a

register--either overboard or on the taffrail of the vessel--which

indicates the distance run.

These patent logs do not act in an altogether satisfactory way on small

sailing craft. They generally under log the distance run when the vessel

is sailing slowly, and are more adapted for use on steamers. For

ordinary cruising purposes, on a small fore-and-after, we prefer the

old-fashioned log ship and line, and it is not very often that one has

occasion to use even that.

* * * * *

THE LEAD LINE.--Two leads are employed on vessels--the _deep sea_ lead

weighing 28 lb., and the hand lead weighing 14 lb. The latter, or even a

lead weighing somewhat less, is sufficient for a small yacht.

The line used for a hand lead is 25 fathoms long, and is generally

marked as follows:--

At 2 fathoms, Leather, with two ends.

3 “ Leather, with three ends.

5 “ White calico.

7 “ Red bunting.

10 “ Leather, with hole through it.

13 “ Blue serge.

15 “ White calico.

17 “ Red bunting.

20 “ Strand, with two knots in it.

It is possible, by the different feel of the materials used, to tell

what mark is in one’s hand in the dark. The above depths are called

_marks_; the intervening depths in fathoms which are unmarked are

called the _deeps_. Thus, in five fathoms, the leadsman sings out, “By

the mark five,” in eleven fathoms, “By the deep eleven.” He also calls

out the halves and quarters of fathoms thus, “And a half six,” for six

and a half fathoms, “A quarter less six,” for five fathoms and

three-quarters.

To sound when the vessel is under way, swing the lead round and throw it

as far forward as possible, so that the lead be at the bottom and the

line tight from it to the hand, when the vessel is just over the lead.

If the lead be hove properly, so that it draws the line through the

hands, it is easy to tell when it has reached the bottom, by the sudden

withdrawal of the strain.

When sailing on very shallow waters, soundings can be taken much quicker

with a pole or boathook than with a lead.

There is a hollow at the heel of a lead which can be filled--_armed_ as

it is termed--with tallow; a specimen of the bottom--mud, sand, or

shingle--is brought up with the lead, and this, by reference to the

chart, which generally marks the nature of the bottom, may enable us to

find our position.

CHAPTER XIII.

HOW TO FIND ONE’S WAY AT SEA.

Cross bearings--Tacking across the sea--Leeway--How to allow for a

current--To find the hour of high water.

Having in the last chapter described the various instruments which

enable a mariner to direct his course, we will now give some further

explanations of the method of employing the chart and compass.

CROSS BEARINGS.--When a vessel is in sight of land, her position can be

calculated with exactness by several methods.

_First._ By cross bearings of two known objects. If two well-known

landmarks are visible on shore, we observe how each of them bears by our

compass. We then refer to the chart, lay down these bearings with the

parallel rule, and the point where the lines cut will represent the

vessel’s position.

[Illustration: Fig. 47.]

For instance (see Fig. 47), the beacon A is found to be N.W. of us, the

beacon B N.E. of us. We lay our parallel rule on the magnetic compass

design on the chart so that its edge passes through N.W. and also

through the centre of the compass. We then slide the rule to the beacon

A on the chart--preserving the direction--and draw with a pencil the

line from A indicated by the edge of the rule.

In the same way we carry the direction N.E. from the compass design to

the beacon B, and draw the line from B indicated by the rule. The point

C where these lines cut represents the position of the vessel, and the

distance between C and the beacons or the shore can be measured with

the dividers by referring to the graduated meridian on the side of the

chart as a scale.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.]

While a vessel is sailing along the shore her distance from it can be

calculated as follows: We select any prominent point on the shore, as

the tree A in Fig. 48. We take its bearing, which we find to be N.W.

From A we draw the line A B in a N.W. magnetic direction by the compass

design. Our vessel’s course is N. by W. From any point B on the line A B

we draw a line B C in a N. by W. direction. When we have sailed a

certain distance, say five miles by the log, we take another bearing of

the tree and find it is now N.E. of us. From A we draw a line

corresponding to this last bearing, which cuts the line C B at C. Taking

C B a distance of five miles as our scale, we can measure the distance

between the vessel’s position C and the tree A. A chart is not needed

for the above method of calculating one’s distance. A sheet of paper

with a compass design sketched on it is all that is necessary.

The following is a very easy method of calculating the distance of an

object that one is passing, and requires no chart or diagram. Take a

bearing of the object, and observe the angle this bearing makes with

the vessel’s course; also note the time. As the vessel sails on, this

angle will increase until at last it is doubled. The vessel’s distance

from the object will then equal the distance she has travelled since the

first bearings were taken. Fig. 49 will make this method clear. A is the

object on shore, C and B the position of the vessel when the bearings

were taken. A C D is the angle formed by the course E D and the first

bearings. When this angle is doubled, as at A B D, the line B C will

equal the line A B.

[Illustration: Fig. 49.]

If one is sailing parallel to a coast, the following is a rapid method

of ascertaining one’s distance from the shore. Note the time when an

object on shore is exactly at right angles to the vessel’s course. When

one has brought the object at an angle of 45° to the vessel’s

course--looking aft--calculate the distance travelled since the time was

noted. The distance from the shore will be the same. Thus, in Fig. 50,

the vessel’s direction when she is at B is at right angles to the

bearings of A the object on shore. When the vessel has arrived at C, the

angle A C B has a value of 45°. It follows that C D, the distance from

the shore, equals C B, the distance travelled.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.]

An azimuth compass is one specially adapted for taking bearings. Its

card is more carefully divided than that of the steering compass, and it

is fitted with sight vanes.

However, bearings sufficiently accurate for practical purposes can be

taken with the ordinary compass. Hold a piece of string across the

centre of the compass, and, looking along it, direct it towards the

object whose bearing is required, as if taking an aim with a gun. The

direction of the string will then indicate the bearing on the compass

card beneath.

In taking cross bearings endeavour to obtain a difference between them

of as near 90° as possible; for if the difference be small, as, for

example, 10°, or large, as 150°, a small error in the bearing will cause

a great error in the calculation of the vessel’s position.