CHAPTER XVI.

GLOSSARY OF NAUTICAL TERMS 146

INDEX 153

SAILING.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

The choice of a boat--Description of the various parts of a cutter.

More, probably, could be written on boat-sailing than on any other

sport; for this pursuit owes much of its extraordinary fascination to

the fact that its science is practically infinite; the most experienced

sailor has always something new to learn, and is ever acquiring fresh

wrinkles. Of all inanimate objects a boat is surely the most beloved of

its owner; there is something almost human in its ways and vagaries; and

whereas it is possible to conceive the attainment of perfection in the

design of the instrument employed in any other sport, the complexity of

the problem involved in producing the ablest craft renders improvement

ever possible, and the sailing of a boat is not more fascinating than

the designing of one.

It is easy to acquire the art of sailing a boat under favourable

circumstances; but it is only after considerable experience that the

sailor is able to do the right thing promptly in the various emergencies

which he is sure to encounter. The tyro will soon discover that the more

he knows the more he has left to learn, and if once he commences to

acquire this knowledge of seamanship, he will be thirsty for more, and

he will never weary of his favourite sport all the days of his life.

This book is intended for the tyro, and in it, therefore, only the more

necessary and elementary portions of nautical science will be treated

of.

In the first place, he must have his boat, and to assist him in the

selection of this is no easy task--so much depends on the idiosyncrasy

of the tyro, the character of the waters he proposes to navigate, and

other circumstances. It may be safely premised that he cannot possibly

know what sort of boat will best satisfy his needs, and as his more

experienced friends have each their separate views as to what he should

procure in the way of a craft--their views of course depending not on

his, but on their separate idiosyncrasies--it is many chances to one

that, whether he follows the friend’s advice or his own inexperienced

inclination, he will not in the first instance obtain the boat he really

requires. It is, indeed, as an old salt remarked, as impossible to

choose for another man the boat that will suit him as to pick out a wife

for him; and some men--good sailors too--never succeed in mating

themselves with the right craft, but are perpetually building or buying

and selling again without ever satisfying themselves.

We, therefore, recommend the novice not to be over-ambitious at first.

Let him content himself with a modest and inexpensive craft until he has

acquired at least the rudiments of the art of sailing, and is better

capable of deciding what he wants. Of course, if he has friends who own

boats, on board which he can pass his apprenticeship, so much the

better; but we have observed that as soon as a young fellow is bitten

with a taste for sailing, he--small blame to him--insists on having a

boat of his very own, and will take little pleasure in the boat of

another.

In recommending the novice to content himself at first with a cheap

boat, we of course do not mean a cheap _bad_ boat, not one of those

extraordinary bargains one comes across in the advertisement columns of

the newspapers--a five-ton yacht, for instance, going for the ridiculous

sum of five pounds, an ancient hull patched up with paint and putty,

which will certainly cause much heartburning to the innocent novice who

acquires possession of her, and will probably so disgust him that he

will abandon yachting altogether. For first she requires a new mast,

then she must have new sails, then it is found necessary to re-timber

her, possibly re-deck her, and then, after twenty times the

purchase-money has been spent upon her, it is discovered that the hull

is so rotten that it were madness to put to sea in her at all; so all

the expense has been for nothing, and the great bargain slowly falls to

pieces, neglected, on a mud flat.

The following hints may prove of some service to a novice who, despite

what we have said, determines to commence his aquatic career by

purchasing a second-hand yacht, without having a friend who can assist

him in the examination of a vessel.

Though a craft will often be found to be as sound after thirty years or

more as on the day she was launched, still if sappy wood was used in her

construction, or if she has been neglected while lying up, she may

become utterly worthless in less than ten years.

In surveying an old vessel, soft spots can be detected by thrusting a

penknife into the wood.

Those streaks of her planking that are between wind and water,

alternately dry and wet will generally rot first.

The interior of the bottom should be carefully examined, in order to

ascertain the soundness of the planking and timbers. Dry rot is likely

to find its way into the inner sides of the stem and stern posts. If

possible remove some of the saloon panels, for the space between a

vessel’s skins is a favourite nest for dry rot.

If a vessel is coppered and she is hauled up, the sheathing will be

wrinkled in a horizontal direction if she has been in any way strained.

These wrinkles beneath the channels show infallibly that her sides have

been strained by the rigging. Vertical or irregular wrinkles on other

portions of her copper may merely indicate that she has rubbed against

some hard substance.

Look to the nails and bolts and see if they are corroded, or if copper

nails have worked loose in consequence of the vessel’s straining.

If spars are cracked in the direction of their length, this is of little

consequence, unless the cracks are very deep. Such cracks should be

stopped with putty when the wood is quite dry, so as to keep the wet

out. When a spar is sprung the cracks will be transverse as well as

lengthways.

A mast is liable to decay where it passes through the deck, also under

the hounds.

Look with suspicion on a vessel that has cement in her bottom; for this

prevents a proper examination of her interior. To fill up the spaces

between the lower timbers with Portland cement is, as we shall show

further on, an admirable plan; but it is often resorted to in order to

conceal serious defects. The bottom of many an old craft is practically

held together by cement.

Before describing the various forms of boats suitable for pleasure

sailing, it will be well to give to the reader a general idea of the

rigging and other parts of a small craft, so that certain terms which we

shall have to use constantly may be understood by him.

Fig. 1 represents a small cutter rigged as simply as possible.

[Illustration: Fig 1.]

The spars are (1) the _mast_, which is what is known as a pole mast,

that is, a mast complete in itself, having no topmast above it; (2) the

_bowsprit_; (3) the _boom_; and (4) the _gaff_.

To support the mast and bowsprit, _shrouds_ and _stays_ are employed.

The _mainshrouds_ (5) and the _forestay_ (6) are now generally of iron

wire rope; the former rest on the projecting shoulders known as _hounds_

(13), and are attached to the _channels_ (14) on the side of the boat;

7 is the _bobstay_ and 8 are the _backstays_ or _runners_.

The sails are, A, the _mainsail_; B, the _foresail_; C, the _jib_. The

mainsail is spread between the gaff and boom, being laced to the former.

The foresail is hoisted up the forestay, to which it is attached by iron

hoops. The upper edge of a sail is called the _head_; the lower edge is

the _foot_; the fore edge is the _luff_, and the after edge is the

_leach_. The upper fore corner is the _throat_ of a sail; the upper

after corner is the _peak_; the lower fore corner is the _tack_, and the

lower after corner is the _clew_.

The ropes by which the sails are hoisted are called _halyards_. The

mainsail has two halyards, the _throat_ halyards which hoist the fore

end of the gaff, and the _peak_ halyards which raise its after end. The

_topping lift_ (10) tops up the boom and relieves the sail of its

weight.

The _reef pennant_ (15), passing through an iron ring called the

_cringle_ (12) and the rows of _reef points_ (11), serve to _reef_ or

shorten sail when necessary.

CHAPTER II.

THE ROPES.

Knots, Bends, and Hitches.

A man cannot be even an amateur sailor until he knows his ropes. A great

number of knots, hitches, bends, _et cætera_, are employed by sailors;

but the skipper of a small fore-and-after will find that the different

manipulations of cordage which we will now describe will suffice his

needs.

The ropes in ordinary use are what are known as hawser-laid ropes, and

are thus put together. Several threads of hemp, called _yarns_, are

twisted together to form a _strand_. Three strands twisted together from

_right_ to _left_ form the hawser-laid or right-handed rope.

What is called a cable-laid rope contains nine strands, that is, three

ordinary right-handed ropes twisted together from left to right into one

large rope. Right-handed rope must be coiled “with the sun” from right

to left. Cable-laid ropes must be coiled from left to right.

The ends of all ropes should be _whipped_ to prevent the strands from

unravelling. This is done with spun-yarn or tarred twine. The twine is

wound round the rope in such a way that both ends of the twine are

covered, and so secured by the laps, and no knot is necessary. It is

very easy to whip a rope’s end, but very difficult to describe the

process in such a way as to make one’s self intelligible to one who has

never seen it.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

Where a rope is liable to be chafed, as in the eyes of the rigging, it

is _wormed_, _parcelled_, and _served_. Fig. 2 will show how these

operations are performed. Worming consists of laying spun-yarn between

the strands, so as to fill up the spiral groove which every rope

presents, and obtain a smooth surface. Parcelling is wrapping narrow

strips of tarred canvas over the worming, it is put on _with_ the lay,

that is, follows the direction of the strands. Serving a rope is the

laying on of spun-yarn or other small stuff over the parcelling and

worming. Service is put on _against_ the lay of the rope. Before

commencing to protect a rope in this way it should be stretched out as

taut as possible with tackle, and the worming, parcelling, and service

should be laid on as tightly as possible. The service is hauled taut by

a serving mallet. If the rope is a small one, it may be served without

worming, as the grooves between the strands are not deep enough to cause

great unevenness of surface.

_Splicing_, by which the ends of ropes are neatly and permanently

joined, is a necessary accomplishment of the yachtsman, and is easily

acquired.

A _Short Splice_ (Fig. 3).--Unlay the strands of both rope ends for a

little way. Interlace the three loose strands of one rope with the three

loose strands of the other, so that each strand of one rope is between

two strands of the opposite rope. Then force each strand under the next

strand but one opposite to it, and draw all tight. Repeat this operation

with each strand, and the splice is made; but to finish it off neatly,

untwist each strand end, cut away half the yarns, and tuck in these

reduced strands as before. A marline-spike or pricker is necessary to

force open the strands under which the ends have to pass.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.]

When two rope ends are joined by a _Long Splice_ (Fig. 4), the joined

portion is no thicker than the rest of the rope, and will reeve through

any block that will admit that rope; this splice is therefore very

useful for repairing a halyard that has broken. Unlay the ends of the

two ropes for a distance six times greater than for a short splice, and

place the strands together as for a short splice. Unlay one strand of

one rope for a considerable distance further, and fill up the interval

thus left with the opposite strand from the other rope. Repeat this

process with one strand of the other rope. Where the opposite strands

meet divide them, take an overhand knot in them, and tuck them in as in

a short splice; but before cutting off the half-strands the rope should

be well stretched.

The yachtsman will use the _Eye Splice_ (Fig. 5) more frequently than

any other. The end of the rope is bent round so as to form a loop of the

required size and the unlaid strands are tucked into the rope exactly as

in the short splice.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

If one strand of an otherwise sound rope be cut through it can be

replaced thus. Cut off about two feet of the injured strand. Take a

somewhat greater length of a strand of the same size and lay it in the

interval left by the removed portion of injured strand, then proceed to

halve the strands, knot and tuck in as in a long splice.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.]

A _Grommet_ (Fig. 6) is a rope ring. Unlay a strand, without stretching

it and so disturbing the turns in it. Form a ring of the required size

by bending the end round on to the standing part. Then wind the strand

twice round this ring, fitting it carefully into the crevices, so that

the ring then presents exactly the appearance of the original rope from

which the strand was taken. Where the ends meet, take an overhand knot

with them, halve the yarns, and tuck them in as in the long splice.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.]

We now come to the various useful knots, bends, and hitches, all easy to

acquire, but difficult to describe in words. However, if the reader will

study the accompanying diagrams with a bit of rope in his hand, he will

soon discover for himself how these knots are formed. They all serve

their purpose admirably--that is, they are quickly made, are secure, and

cannot slip, and yet are readily undone again.

We must explain that the _standing part_ of a rope is the portion held

in the hand; the _bight_ is the loop made in tying the knot; the _end_

is that extremity of the rope on which the knot is to be made.

First we have the common _Overhand Knot_ (Fig. 7), to which we have

already alluded.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.]

[Illustration: Fig. 8.]

One overhand knot on the top of another will form a _Reef Knot_ (Fig.

8), that is if the ends are crossed the right way; for otherwise it will

be a _granny_ (Fig. 9), the sailor’s detestation. The novice on board a

yacht is sure to be unmercifully chaffed should he have assisted at

reefing the mainsail, and a granny be afterwards discovered among the

reef points. The figures will show that in the reef-knot both parts--the

standing part and the end--pass through the bight the same way, not one

under and one above, as in the granny.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.]

A _Common Bend_ (Fig. 10) will bend two ropes together. Take up the end

of one rope into a bight, and pass the end of the other rope through the

bight round both parts and under its own standing part. A common bend

also serves to bend a rope into an eye spliced into the end of another

rope. The signal halyards are thus bent on to the burgee.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.]

A _Carrick Bend_ (Fig. 11) will bend two ropes together more securely

than the common bend.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.]

When it is desired to fasten one rope on to the middle of another rope,

so as to haul upon it, a _Rolling Hitch_ must be used, as this, when

jammed, cannot slip down the rope, and yet it is easily cast off again.

Fig. 12 represents a watch-tackle, with the tail of its upper block bent

with a rolling hitch on to the rope it is intended to pull upon, while

the hook on its lower block is made fast with a Blackwall hitch.

A watch-tackle is a very handy tackle on board ship, and is used for a

variety of purposes. A tail is strapped to the upper block and an iron

hook to the lower block.

A very powerful purchase is obtained by using two watch-tackles in

combination. This is done by making fast the tail of one watch-tackle to

the hook on the lower block of the other tackle.

With a _Blackwall Hitch_ a rope can be rapidly and securely fastened to

a hook for a temporary purpose.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.]

The diagram will show how it is formed. The hitch is prevented from

slipping by the jamming of the rope between its own standing part and

the stem of the hook.

_Two Half Hitches_ (Fig. 13) are very useful for bending a rope to a

ring, a boat’s painter to a post, and other purposes.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.]

A _Clove Hitch_ (Fig. 14) is employed to fasten a rope to a spar or to a

stouter rope. In this way the ratlines are hitched to the shrouds, and a

buoy-rope is fastened to an anchor.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.]

[Illustration: Fig. 15.]

The _Bowline Knot_ (Fig. 15) is somewhat more difficult to make than any

of the preceding, but if the reader diligently imitate the form of the

diagram with a piece of rope or string he will soon acquire the secret.

Where an easily running noose is required, a _Running Bowline_ (Fig. 16)

is useful.

A rope can be quickly bent on to a spar by means of a _Timber Hitch_

(Fig. 17), which does not readily slip.

A _Topsail Halyard Bend_ (Fig. 18) is still less likely to slip. In this

case a description may assist the diagram. Take three turns round the

spar; come back round the standing part; pass under all three turns,

then over the last two turns and under the first turn.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17.]

[Illustration: Fig. 18.]

[Illustration: Fig. 19.]

The most secure way of fastening a hawser to a mooring ring or dolphin

is by means of the _Fisherman’s Bend_ (Fig. 19). This is also one of

the best ways of bending a hemp cable on to an anchor ring. When used

for this last purpose it is well to seize the ends as shown in the

diagram.

New rope, especially manilla rope, is very apt to twist itself up into

loops or kinks. This tendency to kink can be prevented by stretching the

rope well before using it.

CHAPTER III.

THE THEORY OF SAILING.

Leeway and lateral resistance--Heeling--Balancing

sails--Tacking--Action of rudder--Longitudinal resistance--Deep

keel or centre-board.

Any object floating on the water will have a tendency to drift before

the wind; but a boat, with its scientifically constructed hull, sails,

and rudder, can be so guided as to sail with the wind on her quarter or

abeam, or even close-hauled, as it is called, that is, with the wind

meeting her at an angle of about forty-five degrees.

Fig. 20 represents the deck plan of a boat sailing close-hauled under

two sails. The sails A and B are drawn aft with the sheets till they

form an acute angle with the line of the keel. The wind, whose direction

is indicated by the arrow W, strikes the sails at a very acute angle, so

that they do not shake, but are just full.

The result of this pressure on the sails is that the boat is propelled

forward and also sideways away from the wind, making leeway, as it is

called.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.]

If a boat has a deep keel, her lateral resistance to the water will

cause the leeway to be insignificant. If the boat is of very shallow

draught and so offers little lateral resistance to the water, she will

not go ahead at all, and the entire force of the wind will be expended

in driving her bodily to leeward. Lee-boards and centre-boards are

fitted to shallow boats in order to obviate this.

The pressure of the wind on the sails, in addition to producing the

above effects, heels a boat over. A sailing-boat is so constructed as to

resist this tendency to capsize. Either she is made narrow and deep and

is weighted with ballast as far as possible below the water-line, or she

is shallow but of considerable beam. The deep and weighted boat will

heel over more readily than the beamy shallow boat, but the further she

heels the greater pressure of wind is necessary to make her heel still

more, for the leverage of her ballast increases as she heels, and many

boats with lead upon their keels are practically uncapsizable. On the

other hand, the beamy shallow boat does not heel so readily, but after

she has heeled to a certain angle she will capsize.

* * * * *

The pressure of the wind on the sails not only propels, drives to

leeward, and heels over a boat, but, unless the sails are absolutely

balanced, it tends to turn her in one direction or the other.

In Fig. 20 we have a boat with two sails. If the after sail is the more

powerful, it is obvious that the wind will drive round that sail and the

stern of the boat with it in the direction of the arrow C, while the

head of the boat will run up into the wind. If, on the other hand, the

head sail be the more powerful of the two, the bow will be driven off

the wind and the boat will bear away.

The sails of a boat should be so balanced that she has a slight

tendency to run up into the wind; and to counteract this _weather helm_,

as it is called, the steersman will have to keep the rudder slightly to

leeward of the line of the keel.

If a boat carrying weather helm be left to her own devices in a squall

she will at once do the right thing, luff up into the wind and be in

safety; whereas a boat with too much head-canvas and carrying lee-helm

will run off her course and put herself in a dangerous position.

A boat should not _gripe_, that is, carry too much weather helm, for

steering will then be very hard, and the rudder, forced far over to

counteract the helm, will act as a serious drag in the water.

In balancing the sails, it must be remembered that the further out a

sail is on an extremity of a boat, the greater its effect in driving

that end of the boat off the wind.

Sometimes a vessel’s sails are not properly balanced because the ballast

has not been stowed in the right place. It is obvious, for instance,

that if ballast be shifted aft the weather helm will be diminished, for

the stern of the boat will draw more water and so offer more lateral

resistance, whereas the stem of the boat will draw less water, and will

therefore be more easily blown round. A centre-board, again, is

generally placed well forward, so it is found that when this is lowered

the weather helm of the boat is considerably increased.

* * * * *

We have explained that a boat properly constructed and rigged can sail

within forty-five degrees of the wind. Now, if it be desired to sail to

some point more directly to windward than this, what is called _tacking_

becomes necessary. This consists of sailing a certain distance close

hauled with the wind on one side, and then turning round and sailing

close hauled with the wind on the other side. A zigzag course is thus

taken, each _tack_ being at about right angles to the last.

One diagram of Fig. 21 illustrates the process of tacking with the wind

right ahead, and in the other diagram the wind is a point or two off, so

that one tack is longer than the other, there being, in sailor language,

a short leg and a long leg.

* * * * *

That the action of the rudder, when forced over till it is at an angle

with the keel, is to act as a drag on that side and so deflect the

boat’s course, is plain enough. But it is not so obvious a fact that

this action of the rudder in turning the boat is not to turn her bow

round through the water, but to push the stern sideways while the bow is

almost at a standstill. For the centre of rotation of a boat, that is,

the imaginary pivot on which she turns, is always well forward.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.]

[Illustration: Fig. 21.]

In Fig. 22, A is the centre of rotation. So when the rudder is put over

to the right, the boat will revolve on the pivot A till she is in the

position indicated by the dotted lines. It will be observed that the

stern has moved about twice as far as the bow. The further forward the

centre of rotation the greater will this disproportion be.

It is very important to remember this effect when sailing very near any

object such as a buoy, for while steering so as to turn the boat’s head

away from the object and avoid it, the stern is made to approach the

object, and the very action that seems calculated to prevent a collision

may become the cause of one.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.]

* * * * *

Having shown what are the relations of the sails, hull, and rudder of a

boat to the wind and water, and explained how a vessel requires either

ballast or beam to prevent the wind from capsizing her, and needs

draught to increase her lateral resistance and prevent her from being

blown to leeward, it remains to add that the longitudinal resistance to

the water must be diminished as much as possible, so that the boat can

slip easily through the water and travel with speed.

For this reason a sharp stem is put on a vessel, so that she can open a

way for herself through the water like a wedge, and she is given what is

called a _fine run_ aft, so that her stern will not drag heavily.

[Illustration: Fig. 23.]

Again, the larger the area of the boat’s greatest cross-section (Fig.

23), the more resistance that results and the slower she will travel.

The area of the cross-section is diminished by making a boat of narrow

beam, while the necessary displacement is obtained by increased length

and depth.

Now, the difficulty arises that most of the qualities that ensure

_speed_ in a boat have a tendency to lessen her _stability_ and even her

_lateral resistance_. It follows that, while constructing a boat, a

compromise has to be made between these three; and the problem as to how

to produce the fittest craft becomes a very complicated one that has

never been solved yet, and probably never will be.

Thus a long narrow shallow boat will run the fastest before the wind,

but she will not turn to windward at all, and will capsize with great

ease.

As it is recognized that beam is opposed to speed, it has been long the

fashion in England to construct racing yachts extremely narrow and of

great draught. Such craft do attain speed, but at the expense of all

comfort, and when a heavy sea is running go through it instead of over

it.

To come to the opposite extreme, we have the flat-bottomed very shallow

and very beamy craft, with a deck plan not unlike a flat-iron--a

veritable skimming-dish. Provided with a centre-board, such a boat is

well adapted for shallow and sheltered waters. The centre-board can be

raised while crossing a shoal, and the boat will then draw only as many

inches as a deep-keel boat of her size would draw feet. She will be very

fast in smooth water, but in rough water she will pound heavily into the

seas, and, having no good hold of the water and little momentum, will

lose her headway and soon prove dangerous.

For real comfort and seaworthiness--and some now maintain for racing

purposes as well--a boat that is something between these two extremes

answers the best; that is, a boat that is moderately beamy and has a

moderate draught of water.

Some years ago we sailed to South America in a yacht that well

represented the class of vessel we are now speaking of. Her length was

forty-two feet, her beam thirteen feet, and her draught seven feet six

inches. Not being one of the narrow deep class, she was an excellent sea

boat; indeed, she once had the reputation of being the best sea boat of

her size in the Channel. Now the advocates of the narrow boats will

contend that speed must have been sacrificed to obtain this comfort in

heavy weather. We scarcely agree with these gentlemen; for this boat,

though furnished with exceptionally small sails, could do her nine knots

an hour, and on one occasion travelled two thousand sea miles in ten

days.

The author also once owned a centre-board yawl of five tons, which drew

between two and three feet without her centre-board. She thus combined

the advantages of the shallow boat with the seaworthiness of a boat that

is sufficiently immersed to have a good hold of the water.

This compromise between the deep-keel and the centre-board types of boat

has long been popular in America, and probably the recent victories of

the American yachts constructed on these principles, over our own crack

deep-keelers will gradually modify the English views on this subject.

Most of our yachting men maintain that a long hole through the bottom of

a boat must weaken her; that the great strain of the centre-board,

concentrated as it is on one small portion of the keel, must render a

large craft thus fitted ill-adapted to buffet with a really heavy sea.

On the other hand, the American builders emphatically deny that a

centre-board is a cause of weakness, and point to their noble pilot

vessels and trading schooners, which are all provided with

centre-boards, and which are exposed to every sort of weather.

It is unnecessary to dwell longer on this controversy; for though there

is much divergence of opinion as regards large craft, there can be no

question as to the advantages of fitting centre-boards into many kinds

of small craft, especially in those that are intended for river sailing.

CHAPTER IV.

ON SMALL BOATS.

Open and half-decked boats--Ballast--The centre-board--False

keels--Lee-boards--Counters, square and pointed sterns--Battened

sails.

The following observations apply chiefly to small boats, which can be

rowed as well as sailed, and be easily handled by one man--that is,

boats from the smallest size up to about eighteen feet in length.

OPEN AND HALF-DECKED BOATS.--A small boat is often half-decked, that is,

she is provided with a small deck in the bows and a narrow deck on

either side, low coamings being carried round the inside edge. Such a

boat must to a certain extent be safer than an entirely open boat; that

is, if she be struck by a squall and heel far over, or again, if she run

her nose into a sea, the water will flow off her decks instead of

pouring into her and possibly swamping her. But a small boat is not a

yacht, and she ought not to be sailed in so reckless a manner as to

drive her bows or gunwale under and ship large bodies of water in this

way. A quite open boat, if she be properly constructed, not

over-ballasted, not over-canvassed, and of course properly sailed, will

go through an extraordinary amount of sea without taking a bucketful of

water on board; and not only this, but she will sail as fast if not

faster than the half-decked craft of the same size staggering along

under excessive canvas, with the water under her lee coamings. The

slight additional safety, or rather inducement to recklessness afforded

by the half-deck and waterways, is more than counterbalanced by several

disadvantages. In the first place, this deck--too narrow to walk

along--will occupy much of the already limited space available on board

a small boat, and it will be in the way of and impede one working the

sails or rowing to an extent that it is difficult to appreciate until

one has tried the experiment. In the next place, this deck must be of

considerable weight--a serious disadvantage if the boat has often to be

beached. And not only is the deck heavy in itself, but, situated as it

is high above the water-line, it tends to make the boat top-heavy, and

this must be counteracted by putting more ballast into her than would be

required in an entirely open boat of the same dimensions. Now, if a

small boat is intended ever to venture into rough water, the less

ballast she carries and the more buoyant she is, the better.

We therefore do not recommend half-decks for the class of boat of which

we are now speaking. When a boat is big enough to be a small yacht, and

the half-deck forward covers a cuddy large enough to afford sleeping

accommodation to the crew, the case is different, and the half-deck

becomes a decided advantage.

BALLAST.--A small boat’s ballast, whatever form it may take, should be

readily movable. Thus, if lead is used, it should be cast in small

blocks of not more than half a hundredweight each, and in order that it

may be lifted with ease, each block should be provided with a handle.

Lead being very heavy, and therefore occupying little space in a boat,

is the most convenient form of ballast, but it is also by far the most

expensive. The iron half-hundredweights with handles at the top, which

can be purchased at any marine store dealer’s, are nearly as convenient

as lead weights, and are very cheap.

Battens should be nailed to the bottom of the boat to keep the ballast

in its place, otherwise it might slide to leeward in a squall and cause

a capsize.

Stones and bags of sand are often employed as ballast, but water

contained in small barrels, or, better still, in metal tanks, shaped so

as to fit closely into the bottom of the boat, is far the safest ballast

that can be used. For if a boat provided with water ballast capsize and

fill she will be no heavier than if she contained no ballast, and,

consequently, she will not sink.

Another advantage of water ballast is that it can be pumped out to

lighten the boat when a calm necessitates the use of oars, and be

quickly admitted again when a breeze springs up and the sail is hoisted.

Again, when the water-tanks are empty the boat is practically converted

into a lifeboat, and if a sea fill her she will still float.

The advantages of water over other forms of ballast are so numerous that

nothing else would be used in small boats were it not for the great

amount of space it occupies; and so serious is this objection that one

but rarely comes across a boat thus ballasted.

* * * * *

THE CENTRE-BOARD.--In England the centre-board of a small boat is

generally of galvanized iron; thus acting also, to some extent, as

ballast. In America wooden centre-boards are more often used. If a boat

has often to be beached or carried, lightness is an important object,

and therefore the wooden centre-board is to be preferred. One objection

to the centre-board is that its trunk or case occupies so much space in

the interior of the boat. A telescopic or fan centre-board has recently

been invented which folds up into itself when hauled up, and therefore

requires no trunk. We believe, however, that this is only adapted for

canoes and other very small boats.

* * * * *

FALSE KEELS.--If the tyro lives by the sea it is very likely that he

will commence his nautical career by becoming the proud possessor of

some old yacht’s dinghy or ship’s boat, which, when he puts sail on her,

runs before the wind to his complete satisfaction, but is too shallow to

turn to windward. Now, to put a centre-board into a boat that has not

been expressly built for one is an expensive and generally

unsatisfactory job, but any carpenter can nail a false keel on to the

old one, and so give the boat the necessary draught at a small expense.

A false keel should be rounded up towards the bow and stern, and have

its greatest depth some way abaft the middle of the boat.

* * * * *

LEE-BOARDS.--The tyro will find lee-boards even less expensive and

possibly more effective than a false keel, and when they are raised the

boat will row more easily than if she were provided with the latter.

There is some prejudice against lee-boards in England, and to eyes

unaccustomed to see them on pleasure craft they appear ugly, but in

Holland no boat or yacht is without them.

Large lee-boards are made in several sections, and are strengthened with

iron bands, while they require a good deal of gear to support and raise

them; but the author has found that with a small boat the following

simple method of fitting lee-boards proved very satisfactory.

The shape and position of this lee-board is shown in Fig. 24. It is cut

out of one plank and has no iron fittings, and

[Illustration: Fig. 24.]

it is between three and four feet in length. The inner side is flat. The

outer side, as represented in the diagram, maintains the thickness of

the plank at the head and down the middle, and is thence planed away to

a narrow edge. A rope is rove through a hole at the head of the

lee-board, and passing over the gunwale is secured to a cleat. Another

rope rove through a hole at the bottom of the lee-board is led aft and

serves to raise it, while the first rope serves as a pivot. When the

lee-boards are not required they can be brought on board and placed at

the bottom of the boat. If the boat is _wall-sided_, that is, has

perpendicular sides, the lee-boards can rest against these; but if, as

is the case with most boats, her sides fall in beneath, wooden pillows

must be fastened on the outside of the boat to support the lee-boards

and keep them at the right angle; or, and this is sometimes the better

plan, battens of the requisite breadth are nailed on the lee-boards

themselves. In working lee-boards the lee one is lowered and the

weather one hauled up, and when the boat is running both are raised. All

those who are accustomed to the use of lee-boards speak well of them,

and they certainly have some advantages over centre-boards, notably,

that if the boat runs aground, they will not bend, break off, or strain

the boat, as is often the case with a centre-board.

* * * * *

COUNTERS, SQUARE AND POINTED STERNS.--Whatever it may be on a yacht, a

counter or overhanging stern is not an ornament on a small boat, being,

as it is, the very reverse of useful; and to the educated eye the useful

and beautiful go together in boats, as they do in many other things. In

rough water, if a sea strike a boat under the counter a variety of

disagreeable results may ensue; for instance, the boat’s bows may be

driven under, or she may broach to, that is, be driven broadside on to

the sea, and be swamped by the next wave.

A square stern, as is usual in small boats, is far better than a

counter; but far better still, for a boat intended to be out in rough

water, is the pointed stern. Such a boat is undoubtedly safer,

especially when running before a sea, and we maintain that she will be

faster as well. All lifeboats are thus constructed. The author was

caught in a north-west gale in the Gulf of Heligoland last summer, and

had to sail sixty miles before a high and dangerous sea. He was in a

little yacht of three tons, which had a pointed stern. She showed no

tendency to broach to, but rushed straight ahead across the steep sea in

a fashion that gave us confidence and astonished us. Had she had the

ordinary yacht’s stern to present to those following masses of water

instead of a graceful wedge offering little resistance, we should have

had a very uncomfortable time of it. Many men dislike a pointed stern,

and consider it ugly. However that may be, it behaves handsomely, and we

should certainly recommend any amateur building a sailing-boat for

coasting purposes to give her the lifeboat stern.

* * * * *

BATTENED SAILS.--Battens of pine tapering at the ends, are sometimes

fastened to the reef bands of balance lugs and other sails in use on

small boats.

The object of battens is to make a sail stand very flat. Another

advantage gained by the use of these is that if one is sailing a boat

alone, a reef can be taken down in a moment with one hand while the

halyard is being slacked off a sufficient length with the other. This is

done by means of a line which, when hauled taut, draws the boom and

batten close together. It is not necessary to tie down reef points in a

sail reefed as above, but to do so makes a much neater reef.

Battens are of great service on the sails of canoes and very small

craft, but they make a larger sail somewhat heavy and clumsy to handle.

CHAPTER V.

THE RIGS OF SMALL BOATS.

Spritsails--Dipping lugs--Standing lugs--Leg-of-mutton sails--The

balance lug--The Una rig--Balance reefs--The sloop--Rules of open

boat sailing.

The Spritsail rig is much used on small boats all round the coast of

England. It is an exceedingly handy and safe rig, and the spritsail will

set flatter and is better adapted for turning to windward than almost

any other form of sail. It has no boom or gaff, but is extended by a

long diagonal spar called the _sprit_, which tapers away at the two

extremities, the upper end of it fitting into an eye on the peak, the

lower end fitting into a loop on the mast called the _snotter_. The

_snotter_ (see Fig. 25) is a grommet which is placed round the mast, and

then seized in the middle so as to form an eye for the sprit.

[Illustration: Fig. 25.]

[Illustration: Fig. 26.]

In using this rig, the sail is hoisted first; one end of the sprit is

inserted into the eye of the peak, and then the other end is inserted

into the snotter. Lastly, the snotter is pushed up the mast as far as it

will go, bringing the sail quite flat. It is well to have a tackle for

hoisting the snotter and preventing it from slipping down the mast. It

is important that the snotter should be quite sound. There is a great

strain on it, and should it break, the sprit end may drive a hole

through the bottom of a boat or work some other serious damage.

A spritsail can be brailed up along the mast in a moment by means of a

line leading through a block on the mast and passing round the sail. A

glance at any Thames sailing barge at anchor will show how this is done.

An old ship’s long-boat provided with a sprit mainsail, sprit mizzen,

and jib, as in Fig. 26, is a very convenient sort craft in which to take

one’s first lessons in sailing. When it blows hard the mainsail can be

stowed, and the boat will sail under jib and mizzen, or these last two

sails can be taken in and the mainsail alone be left standing.

The mizzen sheet, it will be observed, is rove through a sheave-hole at

the end of a _bumpkin_, a small fixed spar projecting from the stern of

the boat.

* * * * *

The DIPPING LUG is a powerful sail very well adapted for sea work, and a

favourite with fishermen and other professional sailors, but it cannot

be recommended to the amateur; for at every tack the sail has to be

lowered and passed round to the other side of the mast. This

necessitates plenty of sea room, and would be an awkward operation to

undertake while turning up a narrow and crowded channel. To handle a

dipping lug with safety in a stiff breeze requires considerable

experience both on the part of the steersman and of the hand or hands to

whom the dipping of the sail is entrusted.

Any one who wishes to rig a boat in this fashion should read W. H. S.’s

description, in the _Yacht Racing Calendar and Review_ for this year, of

a very useful invention of his, whereby the dipping of a lug is made

easy and the possibility of bungling in tacking reduced to a minimum.

THE STANDING LUG, though not so powerful a sail as the dipping lug, is

far more convenient; as the sail has not to be lowered in tacking. The

tack, instead of being carried forward, is brought down to the mast,

where it is hooked on to an iron hook if the sail be a small one, and if

the sail be a large one it is fitted with a tackle, so that the tack can

be bowsed down after the sail is hoisted. The yard is swung at about

one-third of its length, where it has a strop to pass over the hook on

the traveller--an iron ring on the mast to which the end of the halyard

is attached, and which prevents the sail blowing away from the mast.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.]

In order to ensure a lug sail that will stand well, the peak should be

cut high, as in the drawing. It is a common fault to cut the head of a

lug sail too square. Such a sail can never be made to set flatly. A

short beamy dinghy with one lug is a handy little craft for the amateur;

but if the boat is a long one she will be better with a jib and mizzen,

as in Fig. 27.

* * * * *

THE LEG-OF-MUTTON SAIL.--A very handy rig and one that requires no spars

but the masts is that represented in Fig. 28. The masts though long are

slight, as there is little strain on them. Each sail is hoisted to its

masthead by one halyard, and its luff is kept close to the mast by hoops

or more usually by a lacing. A boat thus rigged is possibly the safest

of any, and is not easily capsized.

[Illustration: Fig. 28.]

* * * * *

The rigs we have so far described are well adapted for a novice,

insomuch as they need no booms. As soon as a sail is provided with a

boom the danger of sailing is much increased. If you let go the sheet of

a sail that has no boom--a spritsail, for instance--it flaps away from

the mast innocently like a flag. Put a boom on it, and you at once have

a great surface of canvas extended rigidly and offering the greatest

possible resistance to the wind. When running before a strong wind a

jibe, and especially if it be an unpremeditated jibe, of a sail bent on

to a long boom becomes a source of danger.

Thus a green hand or a careless person cannot be safely trusted with a

boom sail on a squally day; but when the novice has acquired the

rudiments of sailing, and employs that constant caution and watchfulness

of his ever-open weather-eye which are indispensable qualities for a

sailor, he will most certainly, and very rightly too, prefer the boom

sail. For a sail that has no boom is most unsatisfactory if one wishes

to get any speed out of a boat. When running free it curves into a bag,

and only presents half its area to the wind. It never stands flat,

except when the boat is close-hauled, and not always then, unless the

sheet is led exactly to the right place; and though a sail without a

boom jibes with greater safety, it is much more liable to accidental

jibes than one with a boom.

* * * * *

THE BALANCE LUG.--The favourite sail for small centre-board craft in

England is undoubtedly the balance lug. Most of the racing boats on the

Upper Thames are fitted with this sail; some have jibs, others jibs and

mizzens, besides the mainsail; but we will confine ourselves to

describing the single-sail centre-board dinghy, which little craft is

perhaps unrivalled for the purpose of single-handed sailing on a river.

A handy boat is one fifteen feet long, with five feet beam. She should

have a flat floor, and therefore shallow draught. The mast is supported

with wire shrouds, and is fitted into what is called a tabernacle, that

is, a wooden case for the heel of the mast, having a pivot through it,

on which pivot the mast is easily lowered when the boat is passing under

a bridge.

The sail, as is shown in Fig. 29, is hoisted on a yard similar to that

of a standing lug, but the foot of the sail is laced to a boom, and

extends some distance in front of the mast. One end of the tack is

fastened to the boom, where it crosses the mast, and the other end of it

is secured to the mast.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.]

The tack is a most important rope in a balance-lug boat, for after the

sail has been hoisted with the halyard and it is required to give that

last haul on the sail which brings it to its proper tautness, a much

smaller amount of power will do this when applied to the tack than if

applied to the halyard. An efficient tack purchase is what is known as a

watch tackle, which is represented in Fig. 12. When after sailing awhile

the ropes have stretched, and the sail is no longer flat, it is with

this tackle, and not with the halyard, that one sets it up again. A

balance lug requires more frequent setting up to preserve its flatness

than any other sort of sail.

In a small dinghy, no purchase is needed for the halyards; the sail will

lower more easily and quicker without one. The tabernacle also is

unnecessary, as the mast can be easily unstepped.

The sail is kept close to the mast by an iron traveller; but if the sail

be cut with a high peak it will be found that the traveller has a

tendency to prevent the sail from lowering completely. A traveller is

also liable to jam if the mast is not kept well greased.

On this account the iron traveller is dispensed with on most of the

Upper Thames boats, and instead of it, a line is fastened to the yard,

which passes round the mast and is rove through an eye on the yard. When

the sail is up, this line is hauled taut, and prevents the yard from

blowing away from the mast. This method will be understood by referring

to Fig. 30.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.]

A well-cut balance lug properly hoisted should be nearly as flat as a

board. The fact of the tack being some way down the boom prevents the

pressure of the wind from lifting the after-end of the boom and so

forming a belly in the sail, as is the case with the ordinary

fore-and-aft sail. A balance-lug sail is always rigid; the boom and yard

can only move together, and this rigidity renders it somewhat unfit for

rough water, where it is apt to considerably strain mast and boat.

The balance lug is rather an awkward sail to lower, and as it is

impossible to brail it up, or lower the peak, or trice up the tack to

temporarily reduce the canvas in a squall, as can be done with other

rigs, the sail has to be lowered bodily if the boat is overpowered by

the wind. Thus, if one is overtaken by a violent squall while running

before the wind, the balance lug is perhaps the most dangerous sail one

can have on a boat.

So as to facilitate reefing, a grommet is sometimes placed on each reef

cringle at the luff of a balance-lug sail. In taking down a reef, the

fore end of the boom is thrust into this eye and an earing is thus

dispensed with.

The usual method of fitting the sheet of a balance-lug sail is to fasten

one end of it to one side of the stern, and then to lead it through a

single block strapped on to the boom, and through another block fastened

to the other side of the stern.

* * * * *

THE UNA RIG.--Whereas the balance lug is the favourite English rig for

small river craft, the Cat or Una rig is generally preferred by the

Americans, and it undoubtedly possesses some important advantages over

the other rig.

The cat boat (Fig. 31), being intended for very shallow waters, has the

least possible draught. This boat, consequently, has great beam, and is

often quite flat-bottomed. The centre-board is of wood or iron. The mast

is stepped much more forward than in a balance-lug boat, and carries one

large sail laced to a boom and gaff. The cat boat, in our opinion, will

turn to windward in smooth water even more smartly than a balance lug,

and as a rule will row more easily, for the displacement is very small,

and in consequence of the stability given by the great beam, little,

often no, ballast is used.

In England, it is usual for a Una boat to have but one halyard, which

serves to hoist both peak and throat. We prefer two halyards, one for

the throat, one for the peak, the latter leading aft, so that it can be

let go in a squall, and thus reduce the sail by one-half.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.]

The author had recently a good deal of experience in an eighteen-foot

cat boat among the quays of the Gulf of Mexico and on an extensive lake

in Florida, and he came to the conclusion that for such work the cat rig

was far handier than the balance lug, especially when, as was often the

case, there was a large party of ladies on board.

This was an entirely open boat, carrying no ballast, and having a wooden

centre-board. She was therefore very light for her size, and could be

rowed with singular ease.

The lake was subject to sudden and violent squalls, and it was very

convenient to be able to let go the peak halyards without leaving the

tiller, and have them up again in a moment as soon as the squall had

passed, without disturbing the passengers in the least. Had the sail

been the uncompromising balance lug, the whole sail would have had to be

lowered in a body on to the heads of the passengers.

A topping lift, always belayed so as to feel the weight of the boom, is

indispensable in a cat boat, else the end of the boom would drop into

the water when the peak was lowered.

Strong winds would spring up suddenly on this lake, so that the boat

would be quite overpowered even under close-reefed sail, and it became

impossible to tack home until the wind dropped. Neither was it possible

to row back, for the very lightness of a cat boat renders her a

troublesome boat to pull against the wind. She is blown over the surface

of the water before the wind, despite all the efforts of the oarsman.

Now, as the swamps which surround this lake also made it out of the

question to land and walk home, one was liable to find one’s self

weather-bound among the dismal cypress swamps at the further end of the

lake for three days at a stretch while a “norther” was blowing. The

author almost entirely did away with the chance of such an unpleasant

adventure by putting what is known as a balance reef into the sail, a

plan he strongly recommends to all those who would sail Una boats or

small sloops on broad waters liable to sudden storms.

* * * * *

The BALANCE REEF (Fig. 31) extends diagonally across the sail from the

throat to the clews. In taking in this reef, the jaws of the gaff are

lowered till they touch the boom, and are there tied. The fall of the

throat halyards will do for this purpose. When the reef has been taken

down and the peak is hoisted again, it will be found that the gaff is

nearly parallel to the mast, and a very snug little triangular sail is

formed, under which the boat will tack or run--with boom well topped

up--with safety; and the moment the peak halyard is let go, down the

sail will fall into the bottom of the boat without making any fuss.

The boat we are speaking of was remarkably cranky, but she would behave

well in a strong gale under her balance reef.

The balance reef is much employed by our fishermen and coasters, but

scarcely ever on board yachts. I believe that many amateurs consider

this, together with some other useful wrinkles, to be _unyachty_.

From what we have said, it will be seen that the Una rig offers many

advantages over its rival, the balance lug, but it likewise has some

serious disadvantages.

The Una boat is not easily capsized--the beam prevents that--but she

soon becomes altogether overpowered by sea and wind. Like all

flat-bottomed boats, she pounds heavily into a head sea and is very wet.

The weight of the mast, being so far forward, makes her somewhat liable

to run her nose under water and fill. She steers wildly too before a

sea, and will broach to more readily than other boats, while the length

of her boom renders an accidental jibe dangerous.

* * * * *

THE SLOOP.--Boats and small yachts are often sloop-rigged.

There is considerable discrepancy of opinion as to what constitutes the

difference between a sloop and a cutter. At any rate, the generally

understood distinction among boating men in England is, rightly or

wrongly, that whereas a sloop’s forestay is carried to the end of a

fixed bowsprit or an iron bumpkin, the forestay of a cutter is carried

to the stem of the vessel; and thus the sloop can only set one large

foresail, instead of a foresail and a jib as a cutter does.

We will adopt this definition of a sloop, which is represented in Fig.

32. As the rig is in every other respect the same as that of a cutter,

we will reserve an explanation of its different parts till the next

chapter, wherein the cutter rig will be discussed.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.]

The sloop rig is not one to be altogether recommended, except for racing

purposes on a river. For cruising purposes, if the boat be a small one,

one of the rigs above mentioned is preferable to the sloop rig. If the

boat be a good-sized one, it is better to make a cutter or yawl yacht of

her at once; for a sloop’s big foresail is an awkward sail to handle in

rough weather.

The following important rules apply to the sailing of open boats, such

as we have described in this chapter:--

Carefully coil your halyards after hoisting sail, so that they will not

get entangled and jam if you have to let go in a hurry.

See that your mainsheet is coiled out of every one’s way. Many a boat

has been capsized owing to a man’s leg getting entangled in a sheet.

Do not belay your mainsheet, but hold it in your hand; if the strain be

great, take one turn with the sheet round a cleat or pin.

Sit to windward while steering.

If struck by a squall, luff up to it, or ease the sheet, or do both.

Always luff up in the wind before hoisting or lowering sail.

Never climb the mast of a small boat. If anything is wrong aloft, lower

the mast to set it right.

Belay a halyard by taking a few turns round its cleat. Do not put a

half-hitch on the top of the turns.

Do not jibe in the middle of a squall, if you can avoid doing so. If a

jibe is unavoidable, lower your peak first; haul in your mainsheet, and

pay it out on the other side, so as to lessen the jerk as the boat

jibes.

If it is blowing hard, and all your crew are sitting to windward,

remember that a sudden drop in the wind may cause the boat to capsize to

windward. Unless your companions are experienced boatmen, do not carry

so much sail as to necessitate their all sitting to windward.

CHAPTER VI.

A CUTTER’S RIGGING.

The bowsprit--Backstays--Main halyards--Tack tricing line--Lacing

mainsail to boom--Maintack tackle--The

gaff--Foresheets--Forehorse--Jib

sheets--Mainsheet-horse--Topsail--Spinnaker--Strops for blocks,

etc.--The YAWL--The KETCH.

As this is a treatise on small craft, we will speak of the cutter, yawl,

and ketch-rigged yachts only, for the schooner rig is only adapted to a

larger style of vessel.

With the object of familiarizing the reader with the names of those

portions of her rigging common to nearly all boats, we have already, in

Chapter I., given a slight description of a cutter. We will now enter

upon a more detailed explanation of this rig as applied to craft of

under ten tons.

A cutter’s bowsprit is not a fixture, as it is on the small boats we

have so far described, but is made to slide in and out. It can be run in

altogether when no jib is set; and when the large jib--for a cutter

should be provided with two jibs at least--is shifted in a breeze for

the smaller jib, the bowsprit can be partly run in. It is a great relief

to a vessel plunging into a heavy sea thus to relieve her of this

overhanging weight.

The bowsprit passes between strong wooden bits on the deck and through

an iron ring covered with leather, bolted on the stem, called the

_gammon iron_. When the bowsprit has been run in to the required

distance it is kept in its place by the _fid_, an iron bolt which passes

through the bowsprit and the bits.

It is essential that a bowsprit run in easily without jamming, so the

gammon iron should be made large, and the fid should be a stout one,

else the pressure of the bowsprit will soon bend it, and it will be

impossible to draw it out.

When the bowsprit is reefed, the bobstay and the bowsprit shrouds have

also to be shortened and tautened up with the tackle attached to them.

The tack of the jib hooks on to an iron traveller on the bowsprit which

is hauled out to the required distance with the _jib outhaul_.

The backstays or runners (see Fig. 1), support the mast when the vessel

is running before the wind. The lee runner must be always slacked out,

so that the boom can run out sufficiently far.

Most of a cutter’s halyards consist of systems of pulleys giving more or

less mechanical advantage as the sail is large or small; but it must be

remembered that the more powerful the purchase employed, the longer the

time occupied in hoisting and lowering the sail and the greater the

friction and chance of the halyard jamming, so a purchase that will just

enable one hand to hoist a sail with moderate ease is all that is

necessary. Small yachts are often over blocked.

For example, a cutter’s throat halyards generally consist of a

luff-tackle purchase, the double block on the mast and a single one on

the throat; but in a very small cutter a gun-tackle purchase of two

single blocks (see Fig. 33) will suffice.

[Illustration: Fig. 33.]

A gun-tackle purchase is also generally used for the jib halyards and

fore halyards of a cutter under ten tons.

The _tack tricing line_ serves to trice up or draw up the tack of the

mainsail and so considerably reduce its size in a squall. It is

convenient also to be able to trice up the tack so as to see ahead

better while sailing into a crowded harbour. Where the sail is small,

the tack tricing line is fastened on to the tack of the sail, passes

through a single block on the gaff close to the jaws, and thence leads

to the deck. Where the sail is large, a gun-tackle purchase is used.

In large cutters, the clew of the mainsail is hauled out on the boom

with a traveller and tackle. In smaller boats, where the clew can be

hauled out by hand, it is generally permanently lashed to the end of the

boom. This plan is apt to pull the sail all out of shape, for if the

clew has been hauled out sufficiently taut when the sail is dry, it will

be stretched overmuch when the sail is shrunk with rain. Thus, even if

no traveller be used, it is well to have the clew lashing so arranged

that it can be easily cast off or slackened.

In America, the foot of a cutter’s mainsail is invariably laced to the

boom. There is some prejudice in this country against this method, so

far as sea-going boats are concerned. There can be no doubt that a sail

sets flatter when its foot is laced, and another great advantage gained

is that a much lighter boom can be employed; for the lacing divides the

strain throughout the whole length of the boom, instead of concentrating

it at the two extremities. The buckling or bending of a boom is also

much lessened by this method, and consequently the sail is flatter in a

strong wind.

In our opinion, the sole objection of any importance to lacing the foot

of the mainsail is that in doing so, that very handy rope the tack trice

must be dispensed with.

The tack of a mainsail is generally hauled down by means of a _maintack

tackle_, generally a luff tackle purchase, but in smaller cutters a

short rope spliced into the tack of the sail is sufficient, which can be

made fast to the boom or to a cleat on the mast.

The gaff travels up and down the mast on the _jaws_, which are generally

of wood in small cutters. But as the necessary strength is obtained by

iron jaws of much less thickness, these are the best: they look neater,

fit closer, and the halyards are not so liable to get jammed between

them and the mast.

The jaws are prevented from slipping from the mast by the _parrel_, a

line with beads of hard wood threaded on it, which passes round the mast

from one horn of the jaws to the other.

The _boom_ is sometimes fitted to the mast with wooden jaws like those

of the gaff; but an iron _gooseneck_, a joint that gives play in every

direction to the boom, is far preferable. We will remark here, once and

for all, that whenever we mention iron work of any description, we speak

of galvanized iron. No other should be allowed on board a yacht under

any pretence.

[Illustration: Fig. 34.]

The _hoops_ by which the luff of the sail is kept to the mast are

sometimes of iron covered with leather, but wooden hoops are perhaps

preferable for a small yacht, and are less liable to jam.

The simplest arrangement for the foresheets is as follows. Two single

blocks are fastened to the clews of the foresail (a double block may

answer as well). One end of each sheet is spliced into an eye on deck,

then the sheet is rove through one of the blocks, and back through a

lead to its cleat aft. Fig. 34 illustrates this method.

A _horse_ for the foresheet is a great convenience on any boat which has

decks large enough to work upon. The horse is an iron bar which crosses

the deck just before the mast, with a traveller running on it to which

the foresheet--only one sheet is necessary when a horse is used--is made

fast.

The foresail thus works itself when the vessel is tacked, and there is

no danger of its blowing away forward, as there is with the jib and also

with a foresail when no horse is employed.

In order to haul the foresail to windward and flatten it in, two

bowlines leading aft like fore or jib sheets are employed.

* * * * *

The sheets of the head sails of a small cutter should lead aft and belay

to cleats within reach of the helmsman.

The jib has two sheets, one on either side of the mast, one of which is

hauled in and the other slackened out, according to the tack the vessel

is on.

When the jibs are small the sheets require no purchase, but each should

lead either through a single block on the gunwale or a comb cleat (Fig.

35) on the deck. It is important that this fairlead be exactly in the

right spot, for on this depends whether the jib stands flatly or becomes

a loose bag. The right spot can only be determined by experiment.

[Illustration: Fig. 35.]

Where the bulwarks are high, it is sometimes found advantageous for the

jib sheets to pass through holes in them.

A knot should be tied at the end of each jib sheet, so that in case the

sheet gets loose by accident it cannot escape through the fairlead.

The foresheets require a purchase, more especially when no horse is

used.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.]

There are several methods of fitting a _mainsheet_. It usually travels

on a horse, and the advantage of a horse is, that in tacking, the boom

is hauled down directly into its right place, and cannot lift and so

give a belly to the sail, as is the case where there is no horse. Fig.

36 represents the usual fitting of a mainsheet with horse and two double

blocks. For a small cutter, one double and one single block--the single

block on the horse--would be sufficient, and in a small yawl even two

single blocks would do; for it must be remembered that though mechanical

advantage is gained by a number of pulleys, friction is increased and

time lost. Now it is very important at times that a mainsheet be rounded

in or paid out smartly.

The cleat to which the mainsheet is belayed should be as nearly as

possible in the middle of the deck or transom, else the boom will have

more sheet on one tack than on the other.

It is in our opinion a mistake to put a topmast with its complication of

gear into a small yacht, especially as a good-sized topsail can be set

without a topmast at all. An inspection of Fig. 37 will show how this is

done. In the first place the yard is laid on deck and the sail is laced

to it. Then the end of the halyard is bent on to A, a position which has

been ascertained by experiment, and which is marked, or better still,

has a cleat on it to prevent the halyard from slipping. (See Fig. 18 for

the topsail halyard bend.)

[Illustration: Fig. 37.]

Then the sheet, which passes through a sheave hole on the peak and a

block under the throat, is bent on to the clew of the sail. Next the

downhaul, B, is bent on to the heel of the spar.

The sail is hoisted with the halyard till A is close up to the sheave

hole on the mast, and while it is hoisting, a slight strain is kept on

the downhaul to keep the spar perpendicular. The downhaul is next hauled

down as taut as possible and belayed to a cleat on the mast. Lastly, the

sheet is hauled in till the sail is quite flat.

A _topmast_ slides through two iron caps on the foreside of the mast. It

is hauled up by the _heel rope_, which is fastened to the heel of the

spar and passes through a sheave hole at the masthead. The topmast, when

hoisted, is kept in position by an iron fid. The topmast _shrouds_ are

spread out by the crosstrees, of iron or hard wood, projecting at right

angles from the masthead. The _topmast stay_ is carried from the head of

the topmast to the end of the bowsprit. The topmast is also supported by

_preventer backstays_ leading aft. In jibing, the lee preventer stay

must be slacked out as well as the lee runners.

Two sorts of topsails can be set on a topmast--a yard topsail, by which

a large area of canvas is obtained, and a jib-headed topsail. In a

good-sized yacht it is well to have both. The jib-header can be used in

strong winds. When out at sea in really bad weather, it is often of

great advantage to set the jib-header over a reefed mainsail, for the

wind still fills it, and the steerage way is preserved while the reefed

mainsail is becalmed in the trough of the sea. By means of a jackyard,

which extends the foot of the sail beyond the end of the main gaff, the

area of either a jib-header or a yard topsail can be increased.

When a cutter is running before the wind, a jib-headed sail, called a

_spinnaker_, can be set on the opposite side to the mainsail. (See Fig.

38.)

The spinnaker boom is fitted to the fore-side of the mast by a

gooseneck, and if the sail is intended for cruising purposes only, the

boom should, when topped up along the mast with its topping-lift, be

able to pass under the forestay.

The spinnaker halyard passes through a block on the mast, and the clew

of the sail is hauled out to the end of the boom by an outhaul, while

the tack can be made fast to a cleat on deck.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.]

In order to prevent the spinnaker boom from swinging fore or aft, it is

stayed or guyed with a fore guy leading to the stem, and an after guy

leading to the stern. These guys also serve to trim the boom to the

required angle.

Most of the blocks now used on yachts have iron strops to them; but it

is still necessary that the amateur sailor should know how to strop a

block.

If it be a tail block for which the strop is required, this can be done

by making an eye splice in the piece of rope that is to serve as the

tail. The common form of strop is a rope grommet coated with canvas.

The above strops are liable to stretch considerably, and for blocks,

such as the mainsheet blocks, which have a tendency to slip out, the

author has found that grommets of wire rope make serviceable strops.

These, too, should be coated with canvas or leather and afterwards

painted.

_Selvagee strops_ are now much used for blocks, are very strong, look

neat, and are easily made.

To make a selvagee strop, drive two spikes or nails into a board, their

distance apart depending upon the size of the required strop. Then make

fast one end of a ball of rope yarn to one of the nails, and wind the

rope yarn round and round the two nails, hauling each turn very taut

until the strop thus formed is stout enough. Tie the yarns together at

intervals, and the strop will present the appearance shown in Fig. 39.

Leather should always be wet when it is sewn on a strop, for it will

shrink when dry and stretch tightly round the strop without showing any

wrinkles.

[Illustration: Fig. 39.]

The best form of block for yachting purposes is the patent iron-stropped

block; the _lignum vitæ_ shell being fastened over the strop.

Iron blocks should never be used in a small yacht. They are only

necessary on large craft, where chain halyards are employed.

Where a tackle is used, as in the backstay runners, it is advisable that

one of the blocks should have a swivel hook. In this way, all turns will

be taken out of the tackle, and jamming will be prevented.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.]

The difference between a cutter and a yawl is that the latter has not so

big a mainsail as the cutter; the main boom does not project over the

stern, but is all inboard, thus permitting of a small mizzen-mast being

stepped right aft. (Fig. 40.)

A yacht rigged as a cutter will, under most circumstances, be faster

than if she were yawl rigged; so, in racing, a yawl is granted a certain

time allowance when competing with “single-stick” craft. But for

cruising purposes, the yawl rig is undoubtedly the most comfortable,

the most handy, and requires fewer hands to work it.

A yawl’s mizzen is generally a standing lug, sometimes a leg of mutton

sail; in either case working on a boom with a sheet leading through the

end of a short wooden or iron outrigger or bumpkin projecting over the

stern.

For single-handed sailing, the yawl is much to be preferred to the

cutter, as the following examples will show.

Should it come on to blow, it is much easier to reef down on the short

boom than on the overhanging boom of a cutter.

It is not so often necessary to reef a yawl’s mainsail as a cutter’s;

for, instead of reefing, the mizzen can be stowed and smaller headsail

set, or she can be made to sail under mainsail and foresail alone, or

under mizzen and foresail alone.

If it is required to take a reef in the mainsail, the sail can be

lowered on deck and reefed at leisure by one hand; while the vessel,

hove to under foresail and mizzen, is allowed to take care of herself.

When one is alone on board a cutter, and it becomes necessary to reef,

the task is a difficult and often a dangerous one.

As the mizzen of a yawl is sometimes just before the rudder head, the

tiller must have a curve or loop in it, so as to allow of its being put

over to a sufficient angle. An iron tiller is therefore generally used.

(See Fig. 41.)

[Illustration: Fig. 41.]

A yawl’s mizzen is always a very small sail, and in a large majority of

yachts of this rig it appears ridiculously small, and can have only an

inappreciable effect on the vessel.

But in a _ketch_ (Fig. 42), which differs from a yawl in having a still

smaller mainsail and shorter boom, with a mizzen mast stepped further

inboard, the mizzen is a much larger and more serviceable sail.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.]

For real cruising on broad seas in all sorts of weather the ketch is the

best of all fore-and-aft rigs. It is the rig of many of our coasters,

and of nearly all of our deep sea fishing boats. A ninety-ton

ketch-rigged fishing smack, such as one may see hundreds of, any day,

tossing about on the steep seas of the Dogger Bank, is as fine a sea

boat as any sailor’s heart can desire.

No bumpkin is needed for a ketch’s mizzen sheet, as the mast is so far

inboard; the sheet works on a horse on the taffrail or merely through a

block bolted into the deck as far aft as possible.

In coasters and fishing smacks, a topsail is set over the mizzen.

All those advantages which the yawl possesses over the cutter are

magnified in the ketch, and in addition to this, the vessel can sail

well under head sails and mizzen, and can turn to windward under these,

a performance impossible for the average yawl, with its

pocket-handkerchief of a mizzen.

Old Peninsular and Oriental and other large steamers’ lifeboats can be

purchased for a few pounds in the London Docks; for it is the custom to

condemn them and sell them for what they will fetch after a certain

number of years’ service--or rather idle rest in their davits--whether

they be sound or otherwise.

These boats, generally built of double skins of teak, are marvellously

strong, and are perhaps the best sea boats of their size in the world.

The author once timbered and decked one of these boats--thirty feet long

by eight feet beam--and converted her into a ketch yacht, in which he

recently sailed to Copenhagen and back, encountering plenty of bad

weather on the way.

After his experience, he can strongly recommend those who desire a

cheap, strong cruising boat that will go through almost any sea, to do

the same.

As these lifeboats are of shallow draught, it will be necessary either

to fit a centre-board or false keel on the vessel. The author’s craft

has lee-boards; but he is aware that the amateur will seldom face the

prejudice of his yachting friends, professional or amateur, and adopt

this simple and very efficient method of stopping his vessel’s leeway.

But let us tell him that a little doubled-ended craft of polished teak,

with neat, polished oak lee-boards is anything but unsightly, and is the

very boat for the Zuyder Zee and shallow Dutch waterways, where no one

will ridicule his lee-boards, provided they be properly made.

CHAPTER VII.

HOW TO SAIL A YACHT.

To get under way from mooring or anchorage--Setting sail--Close

hauled--Tacking--Missing stays--Waring--Squalls--Shifting

jibs--Jibing--Scandalizing mainsail--Hove to--Reefing--Returning to

moorings--Running aground.

Each rig has its own little special tricks of sailing differing from

those of other rigs; but the main rules are the same for all, and one

who has thoroughly grasped the mechanical laws that govern the relation

of a boat’s sails, hull, and rudder to wind and water, and has learnt

how to sail one sort of craft, can discover for himself, by reasoning

and experiment, what methods must be employed on a boat of a different

rig.

Let us imagine ourselves on board a yawl yacht of five tons lying at

anchor at the mouth of a tidal river. We will now describe the principal

manœuvres that must be employed in getting her under way and sailing

her.

To get under way may appear a simple matter enough; yet to do so safely

often taxes the skill of the cleverest sailor.

If the wind is moderate, and we have plenty of sea room, and no vessels

are brought up near to us, the process is easy. We hoist all sail, haul

up the anchor, and by holding the foresheet to windward cant the vessel

off in the required direction, then trim the sheets, and away we go.

But supposing that a strong tide is running under us and a fresh breeze

is blowing in the same direction as the tide, it will not do to get

under way after this fashion, more especially if other vessels are

brought up not far astern of us; for the yacht will begin to drag her

anchor when sail is hoisted, or at any rate some time before the chain

is a-peak; the result being that before she can be canted and got under

control she will drag astern and get foul of some of the other craft.

And even if she does not do this and her sails fill, she will shoot

ahead over her anchor and make it impossible to get it up.

Our best method of getting under way under the above conditions would

probably be as follows. First the anchor is hove short, so that the

yacht is nearly over it. Then the mainsail or mizzen, according to the

strength of the wind, is hoisted. Then, while the anchor is being

smartly got off the ground and hauled on board, the foresail is hoisted.

The tide passing under a vessel while she is at anchor gives her

steerage way; so, just before the anchor leaves the ground, the tiller

is put over to cant the vessel on the desired tack, the foresheet is

trimmed, and thus we get way on our craft without any delay, and are

able to avoid the vessels that surround us.

If there is but little wind, a strong tide under one, and a crowd of

vessels brought up close astern, it sometimes happens that the following

method is the only one by which one can get away clear. Let one hand get

the anchor up till the chain is nearly straight up and down and the

yacht commences to drag slowly. Let him, by giving her chain or taking

it in, keep her going thus, never letting her drag fast. As the tide is

running by the vessel faster than she is dragging astern, she still has

steerage way; thus the helmsman is enabled to steer her, so as to avoid

the different craft. As soon as she is astern of them and the road is

clear, the anchor is got on board, the sails are hoisted, and away she

goes.

If the wind and tide are in opposite directions, and the tide has most

effect on a vessel at anchor so that she rides with her bows against the

tide, it is often advisable to heave the anchor short, and just as it

comes off the ground to set mainsail or foresail and run before the

wind.

Do not set too much sail and get speed on your vessel before your anchor

is on deck, or you will get it caught under your stem, and have to luff

up so that a hand can clear it.

If a yacht is not anchored, but made fast to a buoy or other moorings,

from which one can slip in a moment, the problem of getting under way is

much simplified; for one can carry the mooring line to either bow, or to

the quarter, or even astern, so as to direct the vessel’s head in the

desired direction. Then the mooring can be slipped, and sail hoisted

simultaneously, and the vessel will get way on at once and can be

steered clear of everything.

The amateur, if he puts his mind to it, will in time be able to reason

out the best method of getting his craft under way under every

contingency of tide, wind, and surrounding obstacles. The manœuvre is

often a difficult one; but luckily the novice has generally time to sit

down quietly on deck and reason out his method before commencing

operations, which is far from the case with most of the manœuvres which

have to be performed when one is under way.

While we are on the subject of getting under way we will describe how

the sails are to be set.

The mainsail, when furled, is tied up with small ends of rope, called

tyers. First cast off the tyers. Then top the boom a little with the

topping-lift and slack out the main sheet. Seize both main halyards

together and hoist till the throat is nearly up. Then belay the peak

halyards while you swing away at the throat till it is taut, and belay

the throat halyards. Then hoist the peak and belay the peak halyards.

Then coil the halyards neatly close under their cleats.

After coiling halyards, always capsize them, that is, turn them over so

that the end of the halyards is under the coil. If this precaution is

not taken, and a sail is lowered in a hurry, the coil will probably be

dragged up to the masthead, possibly jam somewhere in a block, and

prevent the sail from lowering further until some one has gone aloft to

undo the mischief.

Having now got our boat under way--say under mainsail and foresail--we

proceed to hoist our other sails as we sail close-hauled down the river.

It is blowing fresh, and there is a look of more wind in the sky, so we

will dispense with the topsail (the method of setting this sail has been

already described), and get the mizzen and second jib on her. We are

supposing that there are three jibs on board, so the one we have decided

to use is the medium one.

The method of setting the jib requires some explanation. In the first

place, we take it for granted that the bobstay and bowsprit shrouds have

been hove taut before we got under way.

Lay the jib on the deck forward with its tack ahead. Hook the tack on

the traveller, and the jib halyard on to the head, and then fasten the

jib sheets on to the clew. The jib sheets are often attached to the sail

on a small yacht by spring hanks; but these are somewhat liable to

become unhooked when the sail is shaking in stays. Sister hooks, which

must be seized together with yarn--_moused_, as the operation is

called--or have a stout indiarubber ring round them are preferable.

Toggles and shackles are also sometimes employed for this purpose.

The jib is now all ready for hoisting. First haul out the tack on the

traveller to its proper position, and belay the outhaul. If the jib is

a biggish one and may touch the water while it is being hauled out,

hoist on the halyard at the same time just sufficiently to keep the jib

clear of the water. When the outhaul is belayed, hoist the halyards taut

and belay them. Then trim in the lee sheet.

We are now close-hauled, sailing full and bye, as it is called, that is,

the sails are full while the vessel is sailing as near to the wind as

she can. The steersman should stand on the weather side of the vessel.

To sail a yacht to windward with the greatest advantage requires

considerable practice, and the novice is sure at first to yaw her about

a good deal, now keeping her off the wind too much and now luffing till

all the sails are shaking and she loses her way.

The burgee or vane at the masthead will tell him when he is bearing away

too much, and the luff of the mainsail will shake when he is sailing as

close as he should.

The luff of the mainsail is generally lifting slightly when a yacht is

sailing close hauled; but the best way of steering full and bye is by

the feel of the wind on one’s face; and this is of course the only

method of doing so on a dark night.

We have now come to a bend in the river where the wind heads us, so it

becomes necessary to tack. The helmsman sings out “Ready about!” and the

crew stand by ready to tend the jib and foresheets. The helmsman keeps

the vessel a point or so off for a few moments, so as to give her plenty

of way; then singing out “Helm’s a-lee!” puts the tiller slowly

down--_slowly_, be it remembered, and not _too far_ down.

The vessel now shoots up into the wind, the jib sheet is let fly, the

foresail still kept to windward helps to pay the vessel off on the other

tack. The jib sheet on the other side, which now becomes the lee jib

sheet, is trimmed in as soon as the vessel is turned sufficiently round.

If the jib sheet be hauled in too soon, the jib becomes a back sail, and

will cause the vessel to miss stays. Next the foresheet is passed over,

and the yacht is rushing away on the other tack. The mainsail and mizzen

have been taking care of themselves during this operation; but, if it is

blowing hard, it is well to haul in the mainsheet and ease it over

gently. If the yacht be a smart one in stays, it is not necessary to

keep the foresheet to windward while tacking; jib and foresheet can be

let go together.

A small amount of clumsiness in tacking a vessel will cause her to miss

stays and get in irons, that is, she will lie up in the wind, all her

sails shaking, and refuse to fill on either tack. She has now lost all

headway, and commences to go astern. In order to get way on again, haul

the head sheets to windward, which we will suppose is the port side. Put

the tiller to starboard. As the vessel is going astern, the rudder will

now produce the reverse effect of what it would were the vessel going

ahead; so putting the tiller to starboard turns the vessel’s head to

starboard.

To assist her still further in paying off, slack out main and mizzen

sheets; for these sails have a tendency to keep her up in the wind. When

she has paid off sufficiently, trim the sheets, and she will soon gather

way on the port tack.

Sometimes, in a choppy sea, a boat will refuse to stay, and it becomes

necessary to ware her. To do this, slack out the mainsheet and bear away

till the wind is brought on the other side and the sail jibes. Then luff

till the vessel is close hauled.

Whilst tacking in a river, with the tide under one, it must not be

forgotten that close under either shore there is generally much less

current than in the middle of the river, sometimes no current at all or

even a back eddy. The yacht must therefore not be taken in too near the

bank before going about, for then her bows will be out of the tide while

her stern will be in it; the pressure on her stern will prevent her

coming up in the wind when the helm is put down, and she will

consequently miss stays.

While we are tacking down this reach, the wind freshens a lot, and we

are struck by several squalls, to which the helmsman luffs up, thereby

lessening the force of their impact; but he must be careful not to luff

too much or too long, else the yacht will lose all her way and get in

irons.

It blows still harder, and our vessel is running her nose into the short

choppy sea, so it is decided that we shift the second jib for the third

or smallest.

To do this properly while one is under way requires an experienced hand.

To take in the jib, let go the outhaul, and as the sail on its traveller

comes inboard along the bowsprit, muzzle it, that is, clasp it in your

arms; then letting go the halyards, pull the sail down on deck to

leeward of the foresail. Untoggle the sheets, unhook the tack and head

from the outhaul and halyards; secure these last to their respective

cleats, so that they cannot blow adrift, and then carry the sail below.

Get the third jib on deck, and set it in the way before described.

If we had been out at sea instead of taking a short sail on a river, we

should have reefed the bowsprit when we shifted jibs, and thus have

relieved the vessel of the unnecessary leverage of this weight over her

bows.

In the next reach, the river bends round so that we have to put the helm

up and run before the wind. The lee-runner is slacked off and all the

sheets are eased off.

Further on, the river bends round still more, so that we have to jibe.

As the wind is strong, this must be done with certain precautions. First

the peak is lowered. Then the runner is slacked off and the helm is put

up. The mainsheet must be rounded in quickly till the boom is amidships,

and then, as the wind strikes the sail on the other side, the sheet is

paid out again. If the boom were allowed to jibe over by itself, and the

mainsheet was not thus made to break the violence of the jerk, the boom

would be sprung or some other serious accident would probably occur.

When the boom has jibed over, the runner which is now the weather one is

set up taut and the head sheets are slacked out on the weather side and

belayed on the lee side.

In the next reach, the wind is a little before the beam, so the sheets

are trimmed in a bit.

So stiff a squall now strikes us that our lee gunwale and several planks

of our deck are under water; so, until it is over, the mainsail is

scandalized. Scandalizing a mainsail consists of tricing up the tack and

lowering the peak, thus much reducing the area of canvas.

The squall over, we hoist the peak and lower the tack again. The man at

the tiller now complains that in this strong wind “the vessel is

carrying enough weather helm to pull his arms off.” The cause of this

_griping_, as it is called, is plain enough. When we got under way our

sails were nicely balanced, and the yacht steered easily with just a

slight weather helm. But we have shifted the second jib for the third,

thus reducing the head sail so much that the after sails are producing

the most effect, and a lot of helm is necessary to counteract the

vessel’s tendency to run up into the wind. (See Chapter III., on the

balancing of sails.) We must now restore the proper balance of the sails

by reducing the after sail. We can do this either by taking in the

mizzen or by reefing the mainsail, and as the wind looks more like

freshening than moderating, we decide to take down one reef in the

mainsail.

In the first place we heave our vessel to. To do this we slack away our

lee foresheet and haul in the weather one, while we flatten in the main

and mizzen sheets.

The wind striking the after sails drives the vessel up in the wind; but

the foresail being hauled to windward and becoming a back sail makes her

pay off. By trimming the sheets properly the head and after sails can

thus be made to balance each other, and the yacht will float on the

water practically motionless, with her head to the wind, and remain so

for as long as we please without any hand being required at the tiller.

We next lower the mainsail on deck, and remain hove to under foresail

and mizzen. Having now much less after sail set, we must let the jib

sheet flow and perhaps give the foresail a trifle more sheet to prevent

our vessel from paying off too much.

And now to take down our reef. If the reef-pendant is not already rove,

as it always should be on a short-handed craft, we proceed to reeve it.

Fig. 43 will demonstrate how this is done. The boom has a comb cleat on

either side of it. As we wish to take down only one reef, we reeve the

pendant through the first hole of one of these cleats, a knot at the

pendant end preventing it from slipping through. Then we pass it through

the first reef cringle and down through the first hole of the other comb

cleat.

Now we haul on the pendant till we have boused down the cringle to the

boom, and then lash it securely.

Next the tack is secured to the first reef cringle on the luff of the

sail, the foot of the sail is rolled up, and the first row of reef

points are tied.

Having got our reef down, we hoist up our reduced mainsail, slack out

the main and mizzen sheets to let the vessel pay off a bit, then let go

the weather foresheet and haul in the lee one and proceed on our voyage.

The sails are now nicely balanced again, and the man at the tiller no

longer grumbles at the arm pulling weather helm.

[Illustration: Fig. 43.]

In the next reach the wind is ahead, and we have to tack again; but the

tide has turned and is running strongly against us so that we find we

are making no progress. We therefore decide to return home. The helm is

put up, the mainsheet is eased off, and we bear away to run up the

river.

By-and-by we are close hauled, and we observe that our sails are

standing very badly, the jib especially so, for its luff is bending

round in a great bow.

The cause of this is that our ropes have stretched, and a pull on the

halyards all round becomes necessary. While the steersman luffs up for a

moment so that the sails shake, a hand swigs down the jib halyards and

belays them. So again while a pull is being taken on each halyard in its

turn, the steersman luffs up, thereby relieving the sail of the pressure

of the wind, but without stopping the vessel’s way.

And now we approach our moorings; the tide and wind are both with us. We

lower our head sails, steer the yacht so that she takes a sweep round

into the wind, and we haul in the mainsheet as she comes up. We bring

her up head to wind, and she loses her way just as we are alongside the

mooring buoy. A hand forward picks up the buoy rope with a boat hook and

secures it. Then the mainsail and mizzen are quickly lowered, and we

stow the sails at our leisure.

The method here described is the most usual one of coming up to

moorings.

To perform this manœuvre with confidence requires considerable

experience. The moment at which the vessel should be luffed up into the

wind and the nature of the curve she should be made to describe depend

on a variety of circumstances. The strength of the tide must be taken

into consideration, and also the tendency of the boat either to shoot

far ahead or lose her way quickly after she has been luffed up into the

wind.

A very slight mistake will bring the vessel up short of her moorings.

Then, having lost her way, she will drop astern with the tide and

possibly get foul of some other craft before head sail can be set and

way can be got on her.

We would therefore recommend the novice to always have his anchor ready

to let go when approaching his moorings.

When the wind and tide are in opposite directions the manœuvre is

sometimes rendered easier; for then the vessel can be made to run before

the wind up to her buoy under her mainsail, and then, the sail being

scandalized, she will no longer be able to stem the tide, but will come

to a standstill close to the buoy.

If the wind is strong, she can run up under her foresail only, which can

be lowered as soon as the buoy is reached.

To come to an anchor, the usual method is to lower the head sails, haul

in the mainsheet, and luff the vessel up into the wind till she stops

her way; then let go.