Great Britain in 1812. The British army in Canada was willing to pay
high prices for cattle and other provisions at that time. The Customs
officers were almost helpless in trying to halt the traffic across the
border. Huge herds of fat oxen and cattle were driven through the woods
to the border and turned over to Canadians. The militia were called out
to halt the traffic in cattle, but even the militia were unable to man
all the crossing points along the border.
Customs officers seized cattle, horses, provisions of all kinds,
merchandise, furs, and other articles from the smugglers. It also was
found that some Vermonters were making contracts with the British to
supply them with masts and spars for their naval vessels. And it was
whispered that a prominent Vermont businessman was the backer of a
smuggling gang which was selling materials to the British navy. There
were gun battles between Customs men and the smugglers.
The War of 1812 had been underway for two years when Sir George
Prevost, Governor General of Canada, wrote to Lord Bathurst in the
British Foreign Office reporting that “two-thirds of the army in Canada
are at this moment eating beef provided by American contractors, drawn
principally from the States of Vermont and New York.”
Secretary of War Armstrong was informed by one of his generals that the
only way that intercourse with the enemy could be halted was to line
the border with troops--which obviously was impossible. The General
reported: “Like herds of buffaloes they pressed through the forest,
making paths for themselves. Were it not for these supplies, the
British forces in Canada would soon be suffering from famine, or their
government be subjected to enormous expense for their maintenance.”
The young Customs Service now had fought gun battles on land and “at
sea” in an effort to enforce the law. This was a fight that still would
be going on a century and a half later.
4
THE PIRATES OF NEW ORLEANS
On November 24, 1813, most citizens of New Orleans were chuckling over
a new proclamation, bearing the signature of Gov. W. C. C. Claiborne,
which had been posted on bulletin boards throughout the city. They
were not so much amused because the Governor had accused a pirate of
attacking a U.S. Customs officer (although this was amusing enough
to many), but because Claiborne actually expected someone to take
seriously his offer of a $500 reward for the capture of the pirate Jean
Laffite.
Invade the pirate hideout in the swamps and capture Jean Laffite--or
even his brother Pierre--for a mere $500? And Claiborne was naive if
he thought that most of Louisiana’s politicians and merchants had any
desire to halt the smuggling of pirated merchandise while a war was
being fought against Great Britain. Any kind of merchandise was hard to
obtain.
Two days after the posting of the proclamation, a wave of raucous
laughter sounded in the coffee houses, taverns and drawing rooms of New
Orleans. The laughter exploded over a proclamation posted throughout
the city which was a parody of the Claiborne document. It offered a
reward of $1,500 for the arrest of Governor Claiborne and his delivery
to the pirate hideout at Grande Terre in the bayou country south of New
Orleans. The proclamation was signed by Jean Laffite.
Laffite’s arrogance was no laughing matter to government officials in
Louisiana and Washington. Not only were the pirates openly defying
Federal and state authority, but a legitimate merchant had little
chance to compete against those who purchased their goods at the
pirates’ auctions. The auctions were held regularly on islands in the
swamps near New Orleans. Hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth of
merchandise--captured on the high seas--could be bought cheaply and
with no payment of Customs duties.
The enemies of the Laffites and their cutthroat crew were in the
minority. Everyone knew--including Claiborne--that a majority of the
people were sympathetic to the Laffites. The general view was that the
pirates actually were performing a patriotic service when they attacked
ships of the enemy countries, England and Spain, and then made their
booty available to Louisiana citizens at ridiculously reduced prices.
Before Claiborne issued his proclamation, the general attitude of the
citizenry was fairly summed up in a letter received by the _Louisiana
Gazette_ and signed “The Agent of the Freebooters.” There had been
a complaint against piracy and smuggling in the newspaper, and the
freebooter (perhaps it was Jean Laffite) wrote a reply saying:
Gentlemen:
Your paper of Wednesday contained a letter written by some idiot
... (who) makes a great outcry against a few honest fellows of us,
who are using extraordinary exertions to punish the common enemy,
the British and their allies, the Spaniards.... Does he wish to
discourage our profession and put an end to trade altogether?...
Cannot the booby perceive that without us there would not be a
bale of goods at market; and does he not see, by the open manner
in which our business is done, that the government of the United
States has no objection either to the fitting out of our prizes
and the sale of their cargoes, without troubling ourselves about
the payment of duties; which I assure you we would find extremely
inconvenient when we sell so low for real cash in these hard
times....
The legislature paid little attention to Governor Claiborne’s appeals
for help in suppressing piracy and smuggling because too many of its
members were profiting from the operations of the smugglers or were
close friends of Jean and Pierre Laffite.
Honest merchants, competing at great disadvantage against those who
bought their goods from the pirates’ stores, were the first to raise a
clamor for Claiborne to do something to halt the smuggling. As a result
of these demands, Customs Officer Walker Gilbert invaded the pirate
country with a company of armed men. As they moved through the marshes
south of New Orleans, they encountered Laffite convoying a shipload
of contraband goods toward New Orleans. Gilbert and his men attacked
the pirates and there was a brief, savage skirmish. Laffite and his
group fled from the ship, leaving Gilbert in possession. But before
Gilbert could reorganize his forces the pirates counterattacked. One of
Gilbert’s men was badly wounded. The Federal officers were driven off.
The pirates took over the ship and resumed their journey to New Orleans
to sell their booty. It was this episode which caused Claiborne to
issue his proclamation that stirred so much amusement.
Piracy and smuggling, after the turn of the century, had become
profitable for two prime reasons. The first of these was the worsening
relations between the United States and Great Britain, which brought
about the embargo on shipping in 1807 and later the War of 1812.
Any kind of merchandise was hard to come by and could be sold for a
handsome profit. The second reason was the U.S. government’s efforts to
outlaw the traffic in slaves.
With the passage of the embargo on slave trade in 1808, the price
of Negro slaves in the United States skyrocketed. Slaves could be
bought in Cuba for about $300 each and sold for three or four times
that amount on the illegal markets in the United States. But then the
pirates found it more profitable simply to bypass Cuba and waylay the
slave ships at sea. They found a ready market for the slaves in the
lower Mississippi Valley, where huge cotton and sugar plantations were
being developed and where plantation owners were willing to bid against
each other for this cheap labor.
The pirates found Barataria Bay near New Orleans an ideal place
from which to operate. In this maze of canals, marshes, bayous and
meandering waterways at the mouth of the Mississippi were many hiding
places. In addition, the location furnished easy access to the markets
of New Orleans.
The Baratarians had a loose organization headed by an Italian named
Gamby. The outlaws were forever quarrelling among themselves and Gamby
was not strong enough to control them, an internal weakness which was
more serious for the pirates than the opposition of Governor Claiborne.
At this time (1810) Jean and Pierre Laffite were living in New Orleans
with their younger brother, Antoine, whose name was never to figure in
any of their piratical exploits of later years. The elder brothers, all
reports agree, were striking-looking men with great personal charm and
wit.
Pierre was of medium height, well-built, and handsome, although an
illness had affected the muscles in the left side of his face and one
of his eyes was slightly crossed. Jean stood 6 feet 2 inches tall, had
blue eyes, and black hair. Like his brother, he was shrewd and fearless.
The brothers operated a blacksmith shop in the very heart of the
city on St. Philips Street, not far from Bourbon Street. Even on the
sultriest, hottest days of summer they kept the bellows blowing on the
red-hot coals of the smithy fire. The anvil rang with the blows of
their hammers beating lengths of iron into light, strong chains--chains
to which slaves would be manacled before being brought to the auctions
in the city.
Almost always there were groups of Baratarians lounging in the smithy,
rough men with cutlasses at their waists and pistols stuck into their
belts. They advised the Laffites on how they wished the chains to be
made. And they also talked of their raids on English and Spanish ships,
the booty they had brought to their hiding places in the swamps, and
the wild parties they had after seizing a ship’s stores of rum, wines
and liquors.
For years, the Laffites acted as the “fences” for the pirates, handling
slaves as well as other merchandise. It can only be assumed they
listened to the tales of adventure, excitement and stolen riches--and
became envious of the wealth acquired with such ease by men who were
not as intelligent as they. At any rate, Jean Laffite left the smithy
regularly to make trips to the pirates’ hideout at Barataria, where he
studied their operation.
After a time, Jean won the confidence of the ruffians to such a degree
that he was invited to become their leader--despite the mumbling
of Gamby. But this gentleman proved to be no problem whatever. He
abdicated without a fight after he saw Laffite coldly shoot down one
man who questioned his authority.
Laffite had exceptional executive abilities, along with a bold courage.
Under his command the pirates of Barataria reached new heights in
prosperity and arrogance. Men flocked from New Orleans to his pirate
hideout to enlist their services. The stores of stolen goods sometimes
were worth hundreds of thousands of dollars. Regular auctions were held
on islands near New Orleans.
While he brought piracy to a new height in the Gulf, Laffite perhaps
organized it too well. He made it so efficient that some historians
believe he was responsible for its downfall sooner than otherwise might
have been. This may well be true, because the pirates achieved such
great power under Laffite that the government of the United States
could not forever condone their brazen disregard of revenue laws, the
slave trade embargo, and the authority of government.
At one period, Laffite had from 800 to 1,000 men under his command--an
outlaw army which was equipped with the best artillery and huge stores
of powder and ammunition. His artillerymen had no peers in any army
in the world. His storehouses were filled with stolen merchandise. On
one day 400 Negroes were sold during an auction--which meant a gross
business of approximately $500,000 in slaves alone.
Laffite had his choice of the best wines of the Old World. He dined on
silverplate. In New Orleans, he and Pierre were seen on the streets,
in the coffee houses, and in the taverns in the company of many of the
city’s leading businessmen, merchants and lawyers.
Jean Laffite did not like the name of pirate. He called himself a
privateer. But in the New Orleans of that day his occupation did not
bar him from the society of the leading citizens of the city.
In the summer of 1812, Capt. Andrew Hunter Holmes was sworn in as a
Customs officer and led an expedition against Laffite and his men.
Captain Holmes took a group of thirty or forty men in small boats and
proceeded toward Barataria. But Jean Laffite was forewarned of the
expedition by his brother Pierre. According to the records of the times
Jean Laffite laughed uproariously when he learned that Holmes was
heading for Barataria with such a small company. Laffite took his boats
loaded with merchandise through devious waterways and avoided Holmes
and his men rather than get involved in a skirmish which could end only
in disaster for Holmes.
But Holmes was not to be outwitted so easily. In the fall, Holmes
returned with a larger force, surprised Jean and Pierre Laffite with
contraband merchandise and took them to New Orleans as prisoners. The
brothers were released on bail and neither showed up for trial. Six
writs of arrest were issued for Jean and Pierre but all were returned
with the notation “Not found in New Orleans.” It seemed reasonable to
assume that no one seriously wanted to find them.
The acceptance of piracy and smuggling as elements of legitimate
trade in New Orleans was not so astonishing as it might seem because
Louisiana commerce for many years prior to this time had been built
on such a foundation. Smuggling to avoid tariffs and then selling at
cheap prices, as one historian said, “had become a part of the habits
of life there.” The people were satisfied for the most part because the
smuggled goods were cheaper than they would have been had duties been
paid. Merchants were satisfied because they were able to obtain scarce
merchandise and make a good profit. Men such as Laffite were regarded
as performing a necessary function for the community at no little
personal risk--and only a minority attached any moral stigma to the
trade.
The confidential and intimate relationship between the pirates and
their customers reached its peak on New Year’s Day, 1814. Handbills
were boldly scattered in public places and prominently displayed
throughout New Orleans announcing that the brothers Laffite, on January
20, would offer at auction at “The Temple” a quantity of slaves and
merchandise.
The Temple was a favorite market place for the Laffites. It was an
ancient Indian mound of white shells where, legend had it, Indians of
the area had gathered to give human sacrifices to appease their gods.
The pirates had built a platform at the edge of the water, onto which
they could unload their boats. There they spread their merchandise for
all to see who came from New Orleans. Since it was easily accessible,
there was never any lack of buyers when the auctioneer went to work.
Claiborne was infuriated by the distribution of handbills announcing
the auction. The pirates were offering for sale 415 slaves in addition
to a supply of “fine foreign merchandise.” Claiborne called in the
U.S. Collector of Customs to discuss what could be done about this
outrageous disregard of the laws of the United States. Both must have
known that there was not much that could be done. Nevertheless the
Collector ordered a small force to proceed to The Temple to “defeat the
purpose of the law infractors.”
Jean Laffite and his companions attacked the Customs men, killing one
man and wounding two others fatally. Nine of the officers were held as
prisoners by the pirates while they proceeded with their auction as
planned. It was reported that buyers came from many parts of Louisiana.
They bought all the slaves that were put on the block. And the Laffites
considered the auction a great success.
The Collector wrote to Governor Claiborne: “It is high time that the
contrabandists, dispersed throughout the State, should be taught to
respect our laws, and I hold it my duty to call on your excellency for
a force adequate to the exigency of the case.”
Claiborne could have dispatched a state militia against the pirate
gang, but he hesitated to do this because he already had had one
embarrassing experience with the militia. He had ordered a company of
troops to move against the Baratarians, but Jean Laffite had met this
problem by the simple expedient of bribing the entire expeditionary
force. It has been recorded that “the brave leaders of the Baratarians
had spared their lives, loaded them with costly presents and had
allowed them to return safely to New Orleans.”
Again Claiborne pleaded in a letter to the legislature for action,
saying: “The evil requires a strong corrective. Force must be resorted
to. These lawless men can alone be operated upon by their fears and
the certainty of punishment. I have not been able to ascertain their
numbers ... but they are represented to be from 300 to 500, perhaps
more.... So numerous and bold are the followers of Laffite, and,
I grieve to say it, such is the countenance afforded him by some
of our citizens, to me unknown, that all efforts to apprehend this
high offender have hitherto been baffled.” As is the history of many
complaints to legislatures, the matter was referred to a committee,
where it died quietly.
Failing again to get any action from the legislature, Claiborne
resorted to another course. He arranged to have a grand jury, friendly
to his views, chosen from the city’s merchants and bankers. Witnesses
were called who, in the strictest secrecy, swore to knowledge of
piratical acts by the Laffites and their men. Before the news of this
grand jury’s meeting spread through the city, Pierre Laffite was
arrested. He was taken to jail and bail was denied. Jean Laffite, when
he heard of Pierre’s arrest, hurried secretly to the city to talk with
friends about releasing his brother. But this time nothing could be
done.
It was while Pierre was in jail, on September 3, 1814, that His
Britannic Majesty’s brig _Sophie_ sailed into the narrow strait off the
island of Grande Terre and dropped anchor. A small boat was lowered
and two officers were rowed ashore by sailors. The British were met
on the beach by a tall, dark-haired man whom they asked to lead them
to Monsieur Laffite. Their guide led them across the beach onto the
porch of a breeze-swept house. And then the guide turned and said,
“Messieurs, I myself am Laffite.” The visitors were Captain Lockyer
from the _Sophie_ and Captain McWilliams of the Royal Colonial Marines.
They had brought a most unusual offer.
Laffite refused to discuss business until lunch had been served.
They ate their lunch from silverplate. It was an excellent meal, the
officers recalled, with fine wines and good conversation. When the
meal was finished, the men lit cigars and then Laffite was ready to
hear what they had to say. Captain Lockyer disclosed that he brought
an offer from Admiral Sir William H. Percy, commanding the British
squadron at Pensacola. In brief, the British were offering Laffite
$30,000 if he would bring his ships, guns and men to the side of
Britain in the war against the United States. Laffite asked them to
leave the Admiral’s letters with him and to give him fifteen days in
which to study the proposition. Then, he said, “I will be entirely at
your disposal.”
But Jean Laffite, pirate and cutthroat though he was, had no intention
of betraying the United States. He hastily wrote a letter to his
friend Jean Blanque, in New Orleans. He enclosed the letters handed
to him by the British, together with a personal message for Governor
Claiborne. Laffite said in his letter to Blanque: “Our enemies exerted
on my integrity a motive which few men would have resisted. They have
represented to me a brother in irons, a brother who to me is very dear!
of whom I can become the deliverer ... from your enlightenment will you
aid me in a circumstance so grave.”
And then he enclosed this letter to be delivered to the Governor:
MonSieur:
... I offer to return to this State many citizens who perhaps have
lost to your eyes that sacred title. I offer ... their efforts for
the defense of the country.
This point of Louisiana that occupies great importance in the
present situation, I offer myself to defend it ... I am the lost
sheep who desires to return to the flock ... for you to see through
my faults such as they are....
In case, MonSieur Le Gouverneur, your reply should not be favorable
in my ardent wishes I declare to you that I leave immediately so
not to be held to have cooperated with an invasion.... This cannot
fail to take place, and puts me entirely on the judgment of my
conscience.
I have the honor to be, MonSieur Le Gouverneur,
_Laffite_.
Jean Laffite had put loyalty to the United States before profit in this
time of peril. But even as Captain Lockyer conferred with Laffite,
Claiborne was going forward with plans for a land-sea operation against
the pirate stronghold.
After receiving Laffite’s letter, Claiborne called his military
advisers into conference. These were Major General Jaques Villere,
Commodore Patterson of the U.S. Navy, and Colonel Ross of the regular
U.S. Army. The questions they discussed were whether the documents
sent by Laffite were genuine and whether the governor should enter into
correspondence with Laffite. Villere thought the documents genuine
and that the Governor should reply immediately to the Laffite letter.
However, Ross and Patterson voted against Villere. The majority favored
an attack on the pirate stronghold.
Peculiarly enough, the morning after this meeting at the Governor’s
mansion, newspapers carried notices that Pierre Laffite had
mysteriously escaped from jail. A notice was posted offering $1,000
reward for his capture.
Eight days after Laffite wrote to Claiborne, the Ross-Patterson
expedition set out for Barataria. Three barges were loaded with men and
ammunition. It left the levee at New Orleans before dawn and drifted
silently downstream with the current. Near the mouth of the river, the
barges joined forces with Colonel Ross’ fleet of six gunboats and the
schooner _Carolina_. The pirate hideout on the islands of Grande Terre
and Grande Isle was sighted on the early morning of September 16.
There were indications at first that the Baratarians were going
to resist. They began placing cannon into position and arming
themselves. But then apparently they saw the American flag on the
approaching ships. They broke ranks and ran. Without firing a shot,
the expeditionary force captured the pirate fleet, guns, and stores of
merchandise valued at more than $500,000.
When news of the attack on Barataria was received in New Orleans,
there was much criticism of the expedition. And there was even more
indignation when it was learned that the expedition was launched after
Laffite had offered his services and those of his companions to the
government in the defense of New Orleans against the expected attack by
the British.
The British bribe offer to Laffite came as General Andrew Jackson
arrived in New Orleans to arrange for the defense of the city.
Claiborne sent copies of Laffite’s documents to Jackson on the chance
that they were genuine and contained military information which would
be important. Jackson made it quite clear he wanted no traffic with
“this hellish banditti” and he rebuked Claiborne for having permitted
Laffite and his men in the past to visit the city.
At last Jean Laffite made a secret trip to see Jackson himself. There
is no record of what went on between the two men and what was said
in that conference. It became known that Laffite offered to put in
Jackson’s hands a supply of 750,000 pistol flints and some of the most
skilled artillerymen in the world, including Laffite’s lieutenants,
Dominique You and Beluche.
Jackson relented and accepted Laffite’s offer of help. The General made
You and Beluche captains and they were given command of batteries on
the right side of the American line.
On January 8, 1815, the decisive battle of New Orleans was fought. As
dawn was breaking, Jackson visited the troops along the front lines and
stopped at a battery where the Baratarians were making coffee in an old
iron pot.
“That smells good,” Jackson said. “It’s better coffee than we get.
Where did it come from? Did you smuggle it in?”
Dominique You grinned. “That may be,” he said, and he ordered a cup
filled for the General. As Jackson sat on his horse sipping the strong,
black coffee, he remarked to an aide, “I wish I had fifty such guns on
this line, with five hundred devils such as those fellows behind them.”