element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic
when placed first.
Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.
So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand
years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first
sight, like works of nature.
A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by
its position alone. In the sentence,
Great kings worshipped at his shrine,
the emphasis upon _kings_ arises largely from its meaning and from the
context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must
take the position of the predicate.
Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.
The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most
prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the
sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.
IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM
=Headings.= Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the
title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled
paper, begin on the first line.
=Numerals.= Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them
in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.
August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)
Rule 3
Chapter XII
352nd Infantry
=Parentheses.= A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is
punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the
expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is
punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is
omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.
I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he
had left town.
He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now
certain of success.
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the
final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)
=Quotations.= Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are
introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.
The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on
articles exported from any state."
Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs
are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.
I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense
of benefits to come."
Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature."
Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh
line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks.
Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:
Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven!
Quotations introduced by _that_ are regarded as in indirect discourse
and not enclosed in quotation marks.
Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.
Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require
no quotation marks.
These are the times that try men's souls.
He lives far from the madding crowd.
The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.
=References.= In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate
titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical
list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in
parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the
words _act_, _scene_, _line_, _book_, _volume_, _page_, except when
referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.
In the second scene of the third act
In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in
parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence)
After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii.
14).
_2 Samuel_ i:17-27
_Othello_ II.iii. 264-267, III.iii. 155-161.
=Syllabication.= If there is room at the end of a line for one or more
syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless
this involves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two
letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid
down. The principles most frequently applicable are:
(a) Divide the word according to its formation:
know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare);
de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);
(b) Divide "on the vowel:"
edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious;
oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable);
deco-rative; presi-dent;
(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the
simple form of the word:
Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.
(d) Do not divide before final _-ed_ if the _e_ is silent:
treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).
The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:
for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration;
sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion;
sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.
The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of
pages of any carefully printed book.
=Titles.= For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers
italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers
varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman
with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use
italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for
a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial _A_ or
_The_ from titles when you place the possessive before them.
The _Iliad_; the _Odyssey_; _As You Like It_; _To a Skylark_; _The
Newcomes_; _A Tale of Two Cities_; Dickens's _Tale of Two Cities_.
V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED
(Some of the forms here listed, as _like I did_, are downright bad
English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are
in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them;
still others, as _case_, _factor_, _feature_, _interesting_, _one of the
most_, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves
into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it
his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual
thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that
saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will
cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of
inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be
not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words
for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of
examples below and in others under Rules 12 and 13.)
=All right.= Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the
sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other uses better avoided. Always
written as two words.
=As good or better than.= Expressions of this type should be corrected
by rearranging the sentence.
My opinion is as good or better than his.
My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better).
=As to whether.= _Whether_ is sufficient; see under Rule 13.
=Bid.= Takes the infinitive without _to_. The past tense in the sense,
"ordered," is _bade_.
=But.= Unnecessary after _doubt_ and _help_.
I have no doubt but that
I have no doubt that
He could not help see but that
He could not help seeing that
The too frequent use of _but_ as a conjunction leads to the fault
discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with _but_ can always
be converted into a periodic sentence formed with _although_, as
illustrated under Rule 4.
Particularly awkward is the following of one _but_ by another, making a
contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily
corrected by re-arrangement.
America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared
for war. But within a year she had created an army of four million
men.
America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast
resources. Within a year she had created an army of four million
men.
=Can.= Means _am (is, are) able_. Not to be used as a substitute for
_may_.
=Case.= The _Concise Oxford Dictionary_ begins its definition of this
word: "instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs." In
these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.
In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated.
Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated.
It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made.
Few mistakes have been made.
See Wood, _Suggestions to Authors_, pp. 68-71, and Quiller-Couch, _The
Art of Writing_, pp. 103-106.
=Certainly.= Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use
_very_, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind,
bad in speech, is even worse in writing.
=Character.= Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of
wordiness.
Acts of a hostile character
Hostile acts
=Claim, vb.= With object-noun, means _lay claim to_. May be used with a
dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: "He claimed that he
was the sole surviving heir." (But even here, "claimed to be" would be
better.) Not to be used as a substitute for _declare_, _maintain_, or
_charge_.
=Clever.= This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to
ingenuity displayed in small matters.
=Compare.= To _compare to_ is to point out or imply resemblances,
between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to _compare
with_ is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as
essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a
pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the
British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be
compared with modern London.
=Consider.= Not followed by _as_ when it means "believe to be." "I
consider him thoroughly competent." Compare, "The lecturer considered
Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator," where
"considered" means "examined" or "discussed."
=Data.= A plural, like _phenomena_ and _strata_.
These data were tabulated.
=Dependable.= A needless substitute for _reliable_, _trustworthy_.
=Different than.= Not permissible. Substitute _different from_, _other
than_, or _unlike_.
=Divided into.= Not to be misused for _composed of_. The line is
sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but
poems are composed of stanzas.
=Don't.= Contraction of _do not_. The contraction of _does not_ is
_doesn't_.
=Due to.= Incorrectly used for _through_, _because of_, or _owing to_,
in adverbial phrases: "He lost the first game, due to carelessness." In
correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun:
"This invention is due to Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires."
=Folk.= A collective noun, equivalent to _people_. Use the singular form
only.
=Effect.= As noun, means _result_; as verb, means _to bring about_,
_accomplish_ (not to be confused with _affect_, which means "to
influence").
As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions,
music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale
green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a
charming effect was produced by." The writer who has a definite meaning
to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.
=Etc.= Equivalent to _and the rest_, _and so forth_, and hence not to be
used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would
be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to
objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in
full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.
At the end of a list introduced by _such as_, _for example_, or any
similar expression, _etc._ is incorrect.
=Fact.= Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct
verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event
happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are
facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern
generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however
incontestable they may be, are not properly facts.
On the formula _the fact that_, see under Rule 13.
=Factor.= A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can
usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.
His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match.
He won the match by being better trained.
Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in
deciding battles.
Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding
battles.
=Feature.= Another hackneyed word; like _factor_ it usually adds nothing
to the sentence in which it occurs.
A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the
singing of Miss A.
(Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or
if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.)
As a verb, in the advertising sense of _offer as a special attraction_,
to be avoided.
=Fix.= Colloquial in America for _arrange_, _prepare_, _mend_. In
writing restrict it to its literary senses, _fasten_, _make firm or
immovable_, etc.
=Get.= The colloquial _have got_ for _have_ should not be used in
writing. The preferable form of the participle is _got_.
=He is a man who.= A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.
He is a man who is very ambitious.
He is very ambitious.
Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit.
I have always wanted to visit Spain.
=Help.= See under =But=.
=However.= In the meaning _nevertheless_, not to come first in its
sentence or clause.
The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in
reaching camp.
The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in
reaching camp.
When _however_ comes first, it means _in whatever way_ or _to whatever
extent_.
However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.
However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.
=Interesting.= Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction.
Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting,
make it so.
An interesting story is told of
(Tell the story without preamble.)
In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is
interesting to recall that he
Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America
=Kind of.= Not to be used as a substitute for _rather_ (before
adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for _something like_
(before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of
fossil resin;" "I dislike that kind of notoriety." The same holds true
of _sort of_.
=Less.= Should not be misused for _fewer_.
He had less men than in the previous campaign
He had fewer men than in the previous campaign
_Less_ refers to quantity, _fewer_ to number. "His troubles are less
than mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine." "His troubles
are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine."
It is, however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less
than a hundred," where the round number _a hundred_ is something like a
collective noun, and _less_ is thought of as meaning a less quantity or
amount.
=Like.= Not to be misused for _as_. _Like_ governs nouns and pronouns;
before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is _as_.
We spent the evening like in the old days.
We spent the evening as in the old days.
He thought like I did.
He thought as I did (like me).
=Line, along these lines.= _Line_ in the sense of _course of procedure_,
_conduct_, _thought_, is allowable, but has been so much overworked,
particularly in the phrase _along these lines_, that a writer who aims
at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.
Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines.
Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect.
He is studying along the line of French literature.
He is studying French literature.
=Literal, literally.= Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration
or violent metaphor.
A literal flood of abuse.
A flood of abuse.
Literally dead with fatigue
Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired)
=Lose out.= Meant to be more emphatic than _lose_, but actually less so,
because of its commonness. The same holds true of _try out_, _win out_,
_sign up_, _register up_. With a number of verbs, _out_ and _up_ form
idiomatic combinations: _find out_, _run out_, _turn out_, _cheer up_,
_dry up_, _make up_, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from
the simple verb. _Lose out_ is not.
=Most.= Not to be used for _almost_.
Most everybody
Almost everybody
Most all the time
Almost all the time
=Nature.= Often simply redundant, used like _character_.
Acts of a hostile nature
Hostile acts
Often vaguely used in such expressions as a "lover of nature;" "poems
about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot
tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the
sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.
=Near by.= Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English,
though the analogy of _close by_ and _hard by_ seems to justify it.
_Near_, or _near at hand_, is as good, if not better.
Not to be used as an adjective; use _neighboring_.
=Oftentimes, ofttimes.= Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern
word is _often_.
=One hundred and one.= Retain the _and_ in this and similar expressions,
in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English
times.
=One of the most.= Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this
formula, as, "One of the most interesting developments of modern science
is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of
Europe." There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and
forcible-feeble.
A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause
following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the
subject.
One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem.
One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem.
=Participle for verbal noun.=
Do you mind me asking a question?
Do you mind my asking a question?
There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this
compromise.
There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this
compromise.
In the left-hand column, _asking_ and _accepting_ are present
participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns (gerunds).
The construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found,
and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the second sentence
has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of
accepting. In this example, at least, the construction is plainly
illogical.
As the authors of _The King's English_ point out, there are sentences
apparently, but not really, of this type, in which the possessive is not
called for.
I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure.
In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln himself, in
the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning would be virtually the
same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had written,
I cannot imagine Lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure.
By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the safe side.
In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single, unmodified
term, immediately preceding the verbal noun, and the construction is as
good as any that could be used. But in any sentence in which it is a
mere clumsy substitute for something simpler, or in which the use of the
possessive is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast.
In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming
necessary
If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter
There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators
being favorable to the company.
There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have
decided in favor of the company.
=People.= _The people_ is a political term, not to be confused with _the
public_. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the
public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.
=Phase.= Means a stage of transition or development: "the phases of the
moon;" "the last phase." Not to be used for _aspect_ or _topic_.
Another phase of the subject
Another point (another question)
=Possess.= Not to be used as a mere substitute for _have_ or _own_.
He possessed great courage.
He had great courage (was very brave).
He was the fortunate possessor of
He owned
=Prove.= The past participle is _proved_.
=Respective, respectively.= These words may usually be omitted with
advantage.
Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective
authors.
Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors.
The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings
respectively.
The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings.
In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs, it may be
necessary to use _respectively_, but it should not appear in writing on
ordinary subjects.
=Shall, Will.= The future tense requires _shall_ for the first person,
_will_ for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's
belief regarding his future action or state is _I shall_; _I will_
expresses his determination or his consent.
=Should.= See under =Would=.
=So.= Avoid, in writing, the use of _so_ as an intensifier: "so good;"
"so warm;" "so delightful."
On the use of _so_ to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.
=Sort of.= See under =Kind of=.
=Split Infinitive.= There is precedent from the fourteenth century
downward for interposing an adverb between _to_ and the infinitive which
it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly
all careful writers.
To diligently inquire
To inquire diligently
=State.= Not to be used as a mere substitute for _say_, _remark_.
Restrict it to the sense of _express fully or clearly_, as, "He refused
to state his objections."
=Student Body.= A needless and awkward expression meaning no more than
the simple word _students_.
A member of the student body
A student
Popular with the student body
Liked by the students
The student body passed resolutions.
The students passed resolutions.
=System.= Frequently used without need.
Dayton has adopted the commission system of government.
Dayton has adopted government by commission.
The dormitory system
Dormitories
=Thanking You in Advance.= This sounds as if the writer meant, "It will
not be worth my while to write to you again." In making your request,
write, "Will you please," or "I shall be obliged," and if anything
further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later.
=They.= A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the
antecedent is a distributive expression such as _each_, _each one_,
_everybody_, _every one_, _many a man_, which, though implying more than
one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this,
but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with
the antecedent _anybody_, _any one_, _somebody_, _some one_, the
intention being either to avoid the awkward "he or she," or to avoid
committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, "A friend
of mine told me that they, etc."
Use _he_ with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be
feminine.
=Very.= Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words
strong in themselves.
=Viewpoint.= Write _point of view_, but do not misuse this, as many do,
for _view_ or _opinion_.
=While.= Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for _and_, _but_, and
_although_. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for _and_ or
_but_, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from
uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In
this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.
The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of
the building is devoted to manufacturing.
The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the
building is devoted to manufacturing.