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THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE
BY
WILLIAM STRUNK, Jr.
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH
IN
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK
HARCOURT, BRACE AND COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1918, 1919, BY
WILLIAM STRUNK, JR.
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
HARCOURT, BRACE AND HOWE, INC.
THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA
CONTENTS
Page
I. Introductory 5
II. Elementary Rules of Usage 7
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding _'s_ 7
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single
conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last 7
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas 8
4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a
co-ordinate clause 10
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma 11
6. Do not break sentences in two 12
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must
refer to the grammatical subject 13
III. Elementary Principles of Composition 15
8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph
to each topic 15
9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end
it in conformity with the beginning 17
10. Use the active voice 19
11. Put statements in positive form 21
12. Use definite, specific, concrete language 22
13. Omit needless words 24
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences 25
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form 26
16. Keep related words together 28
17. In summaries, keep to one tense 29
18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end 31
IV. A Few Matters of Form 33
V. Words and Expressions Commonly Misused 36
VI. Spelling 48
VII. Exercises on Chapters II and III 50
I. INTRODUCTORY
This book aims to give in brief space the principal requirements of
plain English style. It aims to lighten the task of instructor and
student by concentrating attention (in Chapters II and III) on a few
essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most
commonly violated. In accordance with this plan it lays down three rules
for the use of the comma, instead of a score or more, and one for the
use of the semicolon, in the belief that these four rules provide for
all the internal punctuation that is required by nineteen sentences out
of twenty. Similarly, it gives in Chapter III only those principles of
the paragraph and the sentence which are of the widest application. The
book thus covers only a small portion of the field of English style. The
experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials,
students profit most by individual instruction based on the problems of
their own work, and that each instructor has his own body of theory,
which he may prefer to that offered by any textbook.
The numbers of the sections may be used as references in correcting
manuscript.
The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell
University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript.
Mr. George McLane Wood has kindly consented to the inclusion under
Rule 10 of some material from his _Suggestions to Authors_.
The following books are recommended for reference or further study: in
connection with Chapters II and IV, F. Howard Collins, _Author and
Printer_ (Henry Frowde); Chicago University Press, _Manual of Style_;
T. L. De Vinne, _Correct Composition_ (The Century Company); Horace
Hart, _Rules for Compositors and Printers_ (Oxford University Press);
George McLane Wood, _Extracts from the Style-Book of the Government
Printing Office_ (United States Geological Survey); in connection with
Chapters III and V, _The King's English_ (Oxford University Press); Sir
Arthur Quiller-Couch, _The Art of Writing_ (Putnam), especially the
chapter, Interlude on Jargon; George McLane Wood, _Suggestions to
Authors_ (United States Geological Survey); John Lesslie Hall, _English
Usage_ (Scott, Foresman and Co.); James P. Kelley, _Workmanship in
Words_ (Little, Brown and Co.). In these will be found full discussions
of many points here briefly treated and an abundant store of
illustrations to supplement those given in this book.
It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the
rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will usually
find in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of
the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will probably
do best to follow the rules. After he has learned, by their guidance, to
write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him look, for the
secrets of style, to the study of the masters of literature.
II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.
Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,
Charles's friend
Burns's poems
the witch's malice
This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of
the Oxford University Press.
Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names in _-es_ and
_-is_, the possessive _Jesus'_, and such forms as _for conscience'
sake_, _for righteousness' sake_. But such forms as _Achilles' heel_,
_Moses' laws_, _Isis' temple_ are commonly replaced by
the heel of Achilles
the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
The pronominal possessives _hers_, _its_, _theirs_, _yours_, and
_oneself_ have no apostrophe.
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a
comma after each term except the last.
Thus write,
red, white, and blue
gold, silver, or copper
He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.
This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the
Oxford University Press.
In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as,
Brown, Shipley & Co.
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to
travel on foot.
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether
a single word, such as _however_, or a brief phrase, is or is not
parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but
slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the
interruption be slight or considerable, he must never insert one comma
and omit the other. Such punctuation as
Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,
or
My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,
is indefensible.
If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the
first comma before the conjunction, not after it.
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery,
greeted us with a smile.
Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between commas
(or, at the end of the sentence, between comma and period) are the
following:
(1) the year, when forming part of a date, and the day of the month,
when following the day of the week:
February to July, 1916.
April 6, 1917.
Monday, November 11, 1918.
(2) the abbreviations _etc._ and _jr._
(3) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which do not serve
to identify or define the antecedent noun, and similar clauses
introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and
more interested.
In this sentence the clause introduced by _which_ does not serve to tell
which of several possible audiences is meant; what audience is in
question is supposed to be already known. The clause adds,
parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause. The
sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which might have
been made independently:
The audience had at first been indifferent. It became more and more
interested.
Compare the restrictive relative clause, not set off by commas, in the
sentence,
The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.
Here the clause introduced by _who_ does serve to tell which of several
possible candidates is meant; the sentence cannot be split up into two
independent statements.
The difference in punctuation in the two sentences following is based on
the same principle:
Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote _The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner_, is a few miles from Bridgewater.
The day will come when you will admit your mistake.
Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the statement about
Coleridge is therefore supplementary and parenthetic. The _day_ spoken
of is identified only by the dependent clause, which is therefore
restrictive.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between
commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses
preceding or following the main clause of a sentence.
Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged
their dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank with the
possession of Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia.
Other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under Rules 4, 5,
6, 7, 16, and 18.
The writer should be careful not to set off independent clauses by
commas: see under Rule 5.
4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause.
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its
first years can no longer be reconstructed.
The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in
need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is
reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought.
Further, _and_ is the least specific of connectives. Used between
independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between
them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation
is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its
first years can no longer be reconstructed.
Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of
escape.
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story
of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and
periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from
becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently,
loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied
writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his
sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).
Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by _as_ (in
the sense of _because_), _for_, _or_, _nor_, and _while_ (in the sense
of _and at the same time_) likewise require a comma before the
conjunction.
If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not a
comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives _so_ and _yet_ may be
used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second
clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either
mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of _so_ (equivalent
to _accordingly_ or to _so that_) are somewhat colloquial and should, as
a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction, usually serviceable,
is to omit the word _so_ and begin the first clause with _as_ or
_since_:
I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding
my way about.
As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding
my way about.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off
by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed
after the conjunction.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly,
there is still one chance of escape.
When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only
once, a comma is required if the connective is _but_. If the connective
is _and_, the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two
statements is close or immediate.
I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced.
He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.
If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a
conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of
punctuation is a semicolon.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.
It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences
each, replacing the semicolons by periods.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.
If a conjunction is inserted the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).
Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.
A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the
advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better
than the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between
the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better
than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible. Indeed it
may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between
statements is one of the most useful devices of composition. The
relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or of consequence.
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as
_accordingly_, _besides_, _then_, _therefore_, or _thus_, and not by a
conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very
short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:
Man proposes, God disposes.
The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.
Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or
consequence. Also in the colloquial form of expression,
I hardly knew him, he was so changed,
a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of expression is
inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue of a story or play, or
perhaps in a familiar letter.
6. Do not break sentences in two.
In other words, do not use periods for commas.
I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from
Liverpool to New York.
He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the
world and lived in half a dozen countries.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma,
and the following word begun with a small letter.
It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the
purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:
Again and again he called out. No reply.
The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and
that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in syntax or in
punctuation.
Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the
punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered
that their application becomes second nature.
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the
grammatical subject.
Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two
children.
The word _walking_ refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the
woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must
recast the sentence:
He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the
road.
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns
in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same
rule if they begin the sentence.
On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.
When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him
at the station.
A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence of the
city.
A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the
city.
Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me.
Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.
Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible.
Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation
irresistible.
Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.
Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very
cheap.
Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.
III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each
topic.
If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you
intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it
into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary
work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining
an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best
written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written,
examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of
which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating
each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader.
The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in
the development of the subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition.
For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single
paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:
A. Account of the work.
B. Critical discussion.
A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of
seven paragraphs:
A. Facts of composition and publication.
B. Kind of poem; metrical form.
C. Subject.
D. Treatment of subject.
E. For what chiefly remarkable.
F. Wherein characteristic of the writer.
G. Relationship to other works.
The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually,
paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the
poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then
state the subject and outline its development. If the poem is a
narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no
more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate
the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would
indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.
A novel might be discussed under the heads:
A. Setting.
B. Plot.
C. Characters.
D. Purpose.
An historical event might be discussed under the heads:
A. What led up to the event.
B. Account of the event.
C. What the event led up to.
In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably
find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given.
As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as
paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition,
indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument.
Frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and
other works in which many topics are treated briefly.
In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by
itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The
application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is
best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction.
9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in
conformity with the beginning.
Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended
enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to
read it, and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it. For this
reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in
exposition and argument, is that in which
(a) the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
(b) the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the
statement made in the topic sentence; and
(c) the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic
sentence or states some important consequence.
Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly
to be avoided.
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to
what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be
expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (_again_;
_therefore_; _for the same reason_) in the topic sentence. Sometimes,
however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more
sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence
is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional
sentences as a separate paragraph.
According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate
the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of
several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence
clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by
denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he
may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its
implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out
several of these processes.
1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon
alone. 2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a
walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in
the nature of a picnic. 3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone,
because freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop
and go on, and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and
because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a
champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. 4 And you must be open
to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what you
see. 5 You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. 6 "I cannot
see the wit," says Hazlitt, "of walking and talking at the same time.
7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country,"
which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter. 8 There
should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the meditative
silence of the morning. 9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot
surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion
in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of
the brain, and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.--Stevenson,
_Walking Tours_.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning made clearer by denial of the
contrary. 3 The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and
supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third ("you must have
your own pace") made clearer by denying the contrary. 4 A fourth
reason, stated in two forms. 5 The same reason, stated in still
another form. 6-7 The same reason as stated by Hazlitt. 8 Repetition,
in paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt. 9 Final statement of the
fourth reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a strong
conclusion.
1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different
conception of history grew up. 2 Historians then came to believe that
their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem;
to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth,
prosperity, and adversity. 3 The history of morals, of industry, of
intellect, and of art; the changes that take place in manners or
beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the
rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions; in a word,
all the conditions of national well-being became the subject of their
works. 4 They sought rather to write a history of peoples than a
history of kings. 5 They looked especially in history for the chain of
causes and effects. 6 They undertook to study in the past the
physiology of nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method
on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the
conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend.--Lecky, _The
Political Value of History_.
1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer;
the new conception of history defined. 3 The definition expanded. 4
The definition explained by contrast. 5 The definition supplemented:
another element in the new conception of history. 6 Conclusion: an
important consequence of the new conception of history.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a
concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details
that follow.
The breeze served us admirably.
The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of
entries.
But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More
commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what
the paragraph is to be principally concerned.
At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.
He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.
Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without
even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves
the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail
of the action.
10. Use the active voice.
The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:
I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.
This is much better than
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the
writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me,"
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,
it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or
the world at large, that will always remember this visit?
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely
discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes
necessary.
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.
Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the
Restoration.
The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of
the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern
readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the
sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to
be used.
As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.
Gold was not allowed to be exported.
It was forbidden to export gold (The export of gold was prohibited).
He has been proved to have been seen entering the building.
It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building.
In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related
to the second passive is made the subject of the first.
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun
which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function
beyond that of completing the sentence.
A survey of this region was made in 1900.
This region was surveyed in 1900.
Mobilization of the army was rapidly effected.
The army was rapidly mobilized.
Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained.
These reports cannot be confirmed.
Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the
predicate "was prohibited" expresses something not implied in "export."
The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is
true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in
writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition
can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active
voice for some such perfunctory expression as _there is_, or _could be
heard_.
There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground.
Dead leaves covered the ground.
The sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard.
Somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily.
The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired.
Failing health compelled him to leave college.
It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had.
He soon repented his words.
11. Put statements in positive form.
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating,
non-committal language. Use the word _not_ as a means of denial or in
antithesis, never as a means of evasion.
He was not very often on time.
He usually came late.
He did not think that studying Latin was much use.
He thought the study of Latin useless.
_The Taming of the Shrew_ is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does
not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca
remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works.
The women in _The Taming of the Shrew_ are unattractive. Katharine
is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant.
The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative.
The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's
intention.
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word _not_.
Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told
only what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is
better to express even a negative in positive form.
not honest
dishonest
not important
trifling
did not remember
forgot
did not pay any attention to
ignored
did not have much confidence in
distrusted
The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:
Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.
Negative words other than _not_ are usually strong:
The sun never sets upon the British flag.
12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.
Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the
concrete to the abstract.
A period of unfavorable weather set in.
It rained every day for a week.
He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned
reward.
He grinned as he pocketed the coin.
There is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the
experience that surf-riding is productive of great exhilaration.
All who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating.
If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one
point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the
attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete.
Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest
writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant
definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author,
affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from _My
Last Duchess_,
Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,
The dropping of the daylight in the west,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace--all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech,
Or blush, at least,
and those which end the poem,
Notice Neptune, though,
Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.
These words call up pictures. Recall how in _The Bishop Orders his Tomb
in St. Praxed's Church_ "the Renaissance spirit--its worldliness,
inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of
luxury, of good Latin," to quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is made
manifest in specific details and in concrete terms.
Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by
the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour,
of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless
readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being
physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the
definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It
is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as
to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not
vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can
project himself into the scene.
In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his
hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general
principles, he must give particular instances of their application.
"This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort
required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in
generals, but in particulars--as whenever any class of things is
referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual
members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer
or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which
he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay
must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term
an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved,
and a more vivid impression produced."
Herbert Spencer, from whose _Philosophy of Style_ the preceding
paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:
In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are
cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be
severe.
In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of
gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack.
13. Omit needless words.
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary
words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a
drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary
parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short,
or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but
that he make every word tell.
Many expressions in common use violate this principle:
the question as to whether
whether (the question whether)
there is no doubt but that
no doubt (doubtless)
used for fuel purposes
used for fuel
he is a man who
he
in a hasty manner
hastily
this is a subject which
this subject
His story is a strange one.
His story is strange.
In especial the expression _the fact that_ should be revised out of
every sentence in which it occurs.
owing to the fact that
since (because)
in spite of the fact that
though (although)
call your attention to the fact that
remind you (notify you)
I was unaware of the fact that
I was unaware that (did not know)
the fact that he had not succeeded
his failure
the fact that I had arrived
my arrival
See also under _case_, _character_, _nature_, _system_ in Chapter V.
_Who is_, _which was_, and the like are often superfluous.
His brother, who is a member of the same firm
His brother, a member of the same firm
Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle
Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle
As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active
voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under
Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single
complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent
clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.
Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of
Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true.
The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife,
Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as
king. (51 words.)
Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized
the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king
of Scotland in his place. (26 words.)
There were several less important courses, but these were the most
important, and although they did not come every day, they came often
enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what
your next move would be. (43 words.)
These, the most important courses of all, came, if not daily, at
least often enough to keep one under constant strain. (21 words.)
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences:
This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type,
those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a
conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be
unexceptionable (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and
tedious.
An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of
sentences of this kind, using as connectives _and_, _but_, _so_, and
less frequently, _who_, _which_, _when_, _where_, and _while_, these
last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening,
and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the
soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental
music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank,
while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation.
The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the
Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually
hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when
an equally attractive programme will be presented.
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak
because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical
symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the
paragraphs quoted under Rule 9, or in any piece of good English prose,
as the preface (Before the Curtain) to _Vanity Fair_.
If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the
type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony,
replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined
by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences,
loose or periodic, of three clauses--whichever best represent the real
relations of the thought.
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions
of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The
likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the
likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are
the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's
Prayer.
The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken
belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is
true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have
need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from
Stevenson quoted under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow the
principle of parallel construction.
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the
laboratory method is employed.
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is
taught by the laboratory method.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided
or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and
hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least
made his choice and abided by it.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the
members of a series must either be used only before the first term or
else be repeated before each term.
The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese
The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese
In spring, summer, or in winter
In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter)
Correlative expressions (_both, and_; _not, but_; _not only, but also_;
_either, or_; _first, second, third_; and the like) should be followed
by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same
part of speech. (Such combinations as "both Henry and I," "not silk, but
a cheap substitute," are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of
this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement;
others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions.
It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.
The ceremony was both long and tedious.
A time not for words, but action.
A time not for words, but for action.
Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will.
You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.
My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that
it is unconstitutional.
My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that
it is unconstitutional.
See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13.
It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number
of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences
of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that
the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in
groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group.
Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the
form of a table.
16. Keep related words together.
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of
showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as
possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are
related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.
The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule,
be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the
beginning.
Wordsworth, in the fifth book of _The Excursion_, gives a
minute description of this church.
In the fifth book of _The Excursion_, Wordsworth gives a
minute description of this church.
Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into
steel.
By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into
steel.
The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly
interrupts the natural order of the main clause. Usually, however, this
objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative
clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic
sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of
creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).
The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its
antecedent.
There was a look in his eye that boded mischief.
In his eye was a look that boded mischief.
He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were
published in _Harper's Magazine_.
He published in _Harper's Magazine_ three articles about
his adventures in Spain.
This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry
Harrison, who became President in 1889.
This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry
Harrison. He became President in 1889.
If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at
the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.
The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who
A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged.
A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman
Act.
A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act.
The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who
William Henry Harrison's grandson, who
A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because
in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.
The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the
Whigs
Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If
several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged
that no wrong relation is suggested.
All the members were not present.
Not all the members were present.
He only found two mistakes.
He found only two mistakes.
Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey
Hall, to which the public is invited, on "My Experiences in
Mesopotamia" at eight P. M.
On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will
give in Bailey Hall a lecture on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia."
The public is invited.
17. In summaries, keep to one tense.
In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the
present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should
preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If
the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be
expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.
An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar
Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary
change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to
drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar
informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of
the non-delivery of the letter.
But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect
discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.
The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.
Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he
should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the
appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).
In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in
summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid
intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker
added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or
the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that
what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the
notification.
In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of
one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary
schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words.
But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should
be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to
devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening
situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to
illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly
discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment.
Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he
will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological
order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general
conclusions.
18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.
The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which
the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.
Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it
has advanced in many other ways.
Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it
has hardly advanced in fortitude.
This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its
hardness.
Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making
razors.
The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is
usually the logical predicate, that is, the _new_ element in the
sentence, as it is in the second example.
The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence
which it gives to the main statement.
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners
whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the
world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the
Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese
discoverers, lighted on America.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all
hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself
unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful
prosecution of this war.