action and leave the formation of the sound to the vocal ligaments
alone, I found in the thick register of the female voice at C, C[#]
[Illustration: musical notation], more rarely at B [Illustration:
musical notation]. In the thick register of the male voice this change
occurs at A, B[b] [Illustration: musical notation]. With some effort the
above-mentioned action of the pyramids may be continued several tones
higher. But such tones, especially in the female voice, have that rough
and common timbre which we are too often compelled to hear in our female
singers. The glottis also, in this case, as well as the parts of the
voicebox near the glottis, betrays the effort very plainly; as the tones
ascend, the glottis and the surrounding parts grow more and more red.
_As at this place in the thick register there occurs a visible and
sensible straining of the organs, so also is it in all the remaining
transitions, as soon as the attempt is made to extend the action by
which the lower tones are formed beyond the given limits of the same._
These transitions, which cannot be extended without effort, coincide
perfectly with the places where J. Mueller had to _stretch_ the ligaments
of his exsected voicebox so powerfully in order to reach the succeeding
half-tone. Garcia likewise finds tones thus formed disagreeable and
imperfect in sound.
"Usually, therefore, at the note C[#] [Illustration: musical notation]
in the female voice, and A, B[b] [Illustration: musical notation] in the
male voice, the vocal ligaments alone act in forming the sound, and are
throughout the register moved by large, loose, full vibrations. But the
instant the vocal ligaments are deprived of the assistance of the
pyramids they relax, and appear longer than at the last tone produced by
that aid. But with every higher tone they appear again to be stretched
shorter and more powerfully up to F, F[#] [Illustration: musical
notation] the natural transition from the thick to the thin register, as
well in the _male_ as in the _female_. The voicebox is perceptibly lower
in all the tones of the thick register than in quiet breathing."
I confess my inability to understand how the vocal ligaments can get
_longer_ by relaxing and _shorter_ by stretching. But apart from this I
assert that there is no relaxing of the vocal ligaments at the break
between the Lower Thick and the Upper Thick at all. This is clearly
proved by the ring-shield aperture, which would open immediately if such
were the case. I also doubt whether the action or inaction of the
pyramids determines the break between the Lower Thick and the Upper
Thick, as they are cartilages--_i.e._, pieces of gristle--and cannot,
therefore, by any vibrations of their own assist in the production of
tone. The tension of the vocal ligaments increases as we sing up the
scale until the ring-shield aperture has quite disappeared. But while it
remains so closed, and without the vocal ligaments being any further
stretched, we can yet sing higher still. The gradations of tone are now
no longer formed by the action of the ring-shield muscles (see p. 34),
but by the shield-pyramid muscles which press the vocal ligaments more
and more closely together, until at last scarcely any trace of a slit
remains between them. Another result of this action of the
shield-pyramid muscles must also be to narrow the space _below_ the
vocal chink, which, as we know from the experiments of J. Mueller, has
the effect of raising the pitch of tones. I think it very likely,
therefore, that the change from the lower to the upper thick is really
brought about by the shield-pyramid muscles coming into play after the
ring-shield muscles have done their share.
THE THIN REGISTER.
"All the tones of the thin register are produced by vibrations only of
the fine, inner, slender edges of the vocal ligaments. In this action
the vocal ligaments are not so near together, but allow of a fine linear
space between them, and the pocket ligaments are pressed further back
than in the production of the tones of the thick register. The rest of
the action of the glottis is, however, entirely the same. With the
beginning of the thin register at F[#] [Illustration: musical notation]
the whole vocal chink appears again longer, and the vocal ligaments are
much looser than in the highest tones of the thick register. The united
action, already described, of the pyramids and the vocal ligaments in
forming the deeper tones of the thin register, extends to C, C[#]
[Illustration: musical notation] in the female voice, and in the male
voice to E[b], E [Illustration: musical notation] commonly written thus,
E[b], E [Illustration: musical notation] but which only rarely occurs in
composition, and then is sung by tenors as I have given it; that is, one
octave lower.
"With the C[#] [Illustration: musical notation] in the female voice, and
the E[b], E [Illustration: musical notation] in the male voice, the
pyramids cease again to act, and, as before, in the Upper Thick, leave
the formation of the sounds to the vocal ligaments alone, which at this
change appear again longer and looser, but with every higher tone
tighten up to F, F[#] [Illustration: musical notation] in the female
voice, and in the male voice to G [Illustration: musical notation] or as
it is commonly written, [Illustration: musical notation]. In the thin
register the voicebox preserves its natural position as in quiet
breathing."
I must say here that I have never had any very clear conception of
Madame Seiler's meaning when she speaks of the action or inaction of the
pyramids in the formation of the registers. In the lower thick register
there is, as a rule, a small triangular space between them which gets
gradually smaller as the tones ascend, until it is quite closed in the
upper thick. Dr. Merkel, also, has made the same observation. So far,
therefore, we are agreed. But even of this I can find no trace in the
thin register, where I have always noticed that the pyramids are quite
close together. On this point, my assertion is borne out by Dr. Merkel,
who insists upon the same thing. I also demur to Madame Seiler's
statement that in this register again the vocal ligaments relax at the
beginning of the upper division, and I invite the reader to test the
matter by reference to the ring-shield aperture. The evidence furnished
by this experiment is conclusive, because the vocal ligaments cannot
possibly relax without a corresponding enlargement of the ring-shield
aperture. A very striking illustration of this occurs during the
transition from the Upper Thick to the Lower Thin. During the highest
tones of the Upper Thick, when the tension of the vocal ligaments is
greatest, the ring-shield aperture, as we have seen before, completely
closes, while immediately opening very widely during the lowest tones of
the Lower Thin, when the vocal ligaments are quite relaxed. Nothing of
the kind takes place during the change either from the Lower Thin to the
Upper Thin, or from the Lower Thick to the Upper Thick. It appears to me
that Madame Seiler has rather exaggerated the importance of these minor
breaks, while she does not make enough of the great break between the
Upper Thick and the Lower Thin. If there is straining anywhere, it is
during the attempt to carry the mechanism of the Upper Thick beyond its
natural limit. In this case the tension of the vocal ligaments, as
indeed of all surrounding parts, becomes so tremendous that at last the
whole thing looks as though it were literally going to fly to pieces in
every direction. Now change into the Lower Thin, and the relief is
wonderful. Let tenors make a note of this. If they _will_ violate
Nature, they must pay the penalty!
As regards the transition from the Lower Thin to the Upper Thin, I would
suggest the following explanation:--The vocal chink is at first, as
Madame Seiler says, linear, and the gradations of tone are caused by
simple tension of the vocal ligaments, which is proved by the diminution
of the ring-shield aperture. While this goes on we are in the Lower
Thin. Now the laryngoscope reveals another method of still further
raising the pitch, which consists in a gradual shortening of the vocal
chink. This is caused by the shield-pyramid muscles pressing together
the ends of the vocal ligaments, thereby giving the vocal chink a
slightly elliptic shape. When this mechanism comes into play we are in
the Upper Thin.
THE SMALL REGISTER.
"When in the observation of the thin register I had sung upwards to its
highest tones, and then sang still higher, I became aware, with the F[#]
[Illustration: musical notation] of a change in the motions of the
organ of singing, and the tones thus produced had a different _timbre_
from those of the Thin. It required long and patient practice before I
finally succeeded in drawing forward the lid so that I could see the
glottis in its whole length. Not until then was I able to observe the
following: With the F[#] [Illustration: musical notation] the vocal
ligaments suddenly closed firmly together to their middle, with their
fine edges one over the other. This closing appeared as a fine red line
extending, from the pyramids at the back, forward to the middle of the
vocal ligaments, and leaving free only a third part of the whole
glottis, immediately under the lid, to the front wall of the voicebox.
* * * * *
"The foremost part of the glottis formed an oval orifice, which, with
every higher tone, seemed to contract more and more, and so became
smaller and rounder. The fine edges of the vocal ligaments which formed
this orifice were alone vibrating, and the vibrations seemed at first
looser, but, with every higher tone, the ligaments were more stretched."
* * * * *
I have repeatedly had the opportunity of observing the mechanism of the
small register, and I only differ from Madame Seiler in this, that I did
not notice that "with every higher tone the ligaments were more
stretched." It appeared to me, on the contrary, as though the raising of
the pitch was produced by a contraction of the vocal ligaments. In all
other respects I entirely agree with the above description. According to
Madame Seiler the small register is formed by the action of the wedges,
as described on p. 54.
We have thus become acquainted with the mechanism of the registers of
the human voice. We have also seen that it is possible to carry these up
beyond their natural limits, though the process is accompanied by
visible signs of straining. The practice of teachers, therefore, whose
aim it is to "extend" voices upwards, and who are very proud, especially
in tenors, of their "made tones," is strongly to be condemned, and is
sure to have disastrous results. It is, on the other hand, equally
possible to carry the registers down several tones below the places
called the breaks, so that at the limits of each register there are a
number of tones which may be produced by two different mechanisms. The
carrying down of a register causes no fatigue, and though its volume is
weak as compared with the corresponding lower register, it is surprising
how soon it can, by judicious practice, be made to acquire fulness and
power.
In order to prevent misunderstandings, it may be well to add that the
breaks as indicated in the preceding pages are intended only to show
the average compass in the great majority of voices. As, for instance,
there are basses who have an exceptional extension of the Lower Thick
downwards, so there are, undoubtedly, tenors who have an exceptional
extension of the Upper Thick upwards. It must, therefore, be the voice
trainer's business very carefully to ascertain the exact limits of the
registers in every single case. In choral singing, however, where
individual attention is impossible, the breaks as given above may be
implicitly relied upon. Not only should the registers never be carried
above these points, but if the teacher is wise he will insist upon his
pupils forming the habit of changing the mechanism a tone or two below.
NEVER "EXTEND" LOWER REGISTERS UPWARDS, BUT STRENGTHEN THE UPPER
REGISTERS, AND CARRY THEM DOWNWARDS, THUS EQUALIZING THE VOICES FROM TOP
TO BOTTOM, AND ENABLING YOUR PUPILS TO SING WITHOUT STRAINING. That is
the great lesson taught by the investigations described in these pages.
I have seen a singer pull himself together, and with a tremendous effort
shout a high A in the thick register. His neck swelled out, his face
became blood-red, and altogether the "performance" was of an acrobatic
rather than of an artistic nature. The general public, of course, loudly
applauded, but people of taste and refinement shuddered. Such
exhibitions are, unfortunately, not rare. If this little book should
contribute, however remotely, to discourage them, it will not have been
written in vain.
APPENDIX TO THE THIRD EDITION
It has been suggested to me that the usefulness of my little book would
be enlarged if I were to add an appendix containing some application to
practical work of the physiological laws already explained. This I have
endeavoured to do in the following chapter, and I trust the simplicity
of the directions will enable the reader to carry out my instructions,
to vary them, and to enlarge upon them according to circumstances.
HINTS ON TEACHING.
One of the most important lessons taught us by the study of Vocal
Physiology is the correct method of breathing and of obtaining control
over the respiratory muscles. I will now give a few exercises for this
purpose.
Divest yourself of any article of clothing which at all interferes with
the freedom of the waist. Lie down flat on your back. Place one hand
lightly on the abdomen and the other upon the lower ribs. Inhale,
through the nostrils, slowly, deeply, and evenly, without interruption
or jerking. If this is done properly the abdomen will, gradually and
without any trembling movement, increase in size, and the lower ribs
will expand sideways, while the upper part of the chest and the
collar-bones remain undisturbed. Now hold the breath, _not_ by shutting
the glottis, but by keeping the midriff down and the chest walls
extended, and count four mentally, at the rate of sixty per minute. Then
let the breath go _suddenly_. The result of this will be a flying up of
the midriff, and a falling down of the ribs; in other words, there will
be a collapse of the lower part of the body. This collapse may not at
first be very distinct, as the extension has probably been insufficient;
but both will become more and more perfect as the result of continued
practice.
Let it be clearly understood: The _in_spiration is to be slow and deep,
the _ex_piration sudden and complete. In _in_spiration the abdomen and
the lower part of the chest expand, and in _ex_piration they collapse.
The time of holding the breath is not, at the outset, to exceed four
seconds, and the student must never, on any account, fatigue himself
with these exercises; they may, however, be frequently repeated at
intervals. It will be found by occasional trials upon the spirometer
that the breathing capacity increases with these exercises. The process
of abdominal respiration becomes easy and no longer requires constant
watchfulness, and the student will soon be able to carry it on, not only
lying down, but while he is standing or walking, though not at once with
the same ease. He must now, for a time, be careful to see that he has
the same physical sensations in breathing which he noticed while making
his first experiment when lying down; and he must exercise special care
when running, going upstairs, &c., and, of course, in speaking or
singing.
The criterion of correct inspiration is, as I have said before, an
increase of size of the abdomen and of the lower part of the chest.
Whoever draws in the abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest in
the act of filling his lungs does wrong.
Meanwhile, in continuing the breathing exercises, the time of holding
the breath may be increased at the rate of two seconds per week; so that
the student who, during the first fortnight, limited himself to four
seconds will, at the end of six weeks, hold his breath during twelve
seconds. I have, in some instances, with students of mine, gone as far
as twenty seconds; but I desire very earnestly to warn my readers to be
cautious and not to go to extremes. Nothing will be gained, but infinite
harm may ensue by over-doing these lung gymnastics, and persons at all
inclined to bleeding from the lungs should not undertake the exercises
at all, except with the sanction of their medical adviser, who will
limit the practice according to circumstances.
The second breathing exercise is the exact opposite of the first, and
consists in taking a rapid _in_spiration and making the _ex_piration
slow, even, uninterrupted and without jerking or trembling. My musical
readers will at once see the importance of this exercise for the purpose
of singing sustained tones and florid passages; but it would be quite
useless to attempt it before No. 1 has been sufficiently practised.
The third and last breathing exercise consists in taking the
_in_spiration as in No. 1, and the _ex_piration as in No. 2. After the
two preceding ones have been fully mastered this last is easy enough;
and the student who has persevered so far will now have overcome one of
the greatest difficulties of a vocalist, namely, the proper management
of the breath, an accomplishment which seems to become more and more
rare in our go-ahead times of electricity.
I feel that my description of these breathing exercises is far from
complete, and what is worse, that it may lead to misunderstandings, the
results of which will hereafter be laid to my charge. But writing,
however lucid and careful, can never take the place of _viva voce_
instruction; and I wish it to be distinctly understood that the
explanations here given are not by any means intended to supersede the
aid of a competent and painstaking teacher.
I will take leave of this part of my subject by warning my readers
against the mistake, which may be caused by a superficial perusal of
these pages, that it is the chief aim of the above breathing exercises
to enable the singer or speaker to cram as much air as possible into
the lungs. I have pointed out some of the evils which are likely to
arise from exaggerated breathing efforts; yet I wish to say again, most
emphatically, that it is quite possible to _overcrowd_ the lungs with
air. This is a matter of every-day occurrence, which is not, however, on
that account any the less reprehensible; for, as I have already
mentioned, it is sure to lead, sooner or later, to forcing and
inequality of voice, and to congestion of the vessels and tissues of the
throat and of the lungs.
Now we come to the question of the production and cultivation of the
voice, including the nature and the proper treatment of the registers.
In this connection I shall endeavour to explain a series of exercises
based upon physiological facts, which will enable the reader to strike
out a safe and direct path, avoiding much useless drudgery, and leading
to eminently satisfactory results. As it is not my object to supply a
singing manual, but simply to point out the way of treating the voice
upon scientific principles, I shall not attempt to deal separately with
the different classes of voices, or to go into minute details; but it
will rather be my aim to lay down general principles, leaving my readers
to carry them into practice, and to elaborate them according to
individual circumstances. It must also be borne in mind that the
exercises I am going to recommend will here be taken as they suggest
themselves, while passing in review the various parts which unitedly
form the mechanism of the human voice. Therefore, in the actual process
of training a voice, they will have to be taken in a different order
from that in which they are discussed here, in accordance with the
general plan of this book.
The movements of the pyramids with the vocal ligaments attached to them
are governed by two sets of muscles pulling them either together or away
from each other. These have been fully described under the names of the
"Closing Muscles" and the "Opening Muscles;" and the reader will at once
see the importance of devising a set of exercises which shall call these
opening and closing muscles into play, thereby making them powerful, and
bringing them under the control of the will.
This is, fortunately, a very simple matter; for all we have to do is to
sing a series of short tones, each tone to be followed by a short
inspiration. We have learnt that every time we strike a tone the vocal
ligaments are made to approximate; by so doing we therefore exercise the
closing muscles. Every time we take an inspiration the vocal ligaments
are separated; by so doing therefore we exercise the opening muscles. It
is plain from these explanations that, by practising in the manner just
indicated, we shall gain the same results in five minutes which it
would take us half an hour to obtain by singing sustained tones after
the usual method of teaching.
Let me now give as clear a description of the exercise as possible. Find
the pitch of your speaking voice, which we will say is _F_. Then sing
the following:--
[Illustration: musical notation
_o_ _o_ _o_ _o_
_ah_ _ah_ _ah_ _ah_
_ai_ _ai_ _ai_ _ai_
Strike the tone firmly and clearly, avoiding alike the _check_ of the
glottis and the _glide_ of the glottis. This is often a matter of great
difficulty, requiring much patience and perseverance on the part of the
teacher as well as on that of the student. The _glide_ of the glottis is
particularly hard to eradicate, and in many instances the case seems to
be hopeless. Do not, however, despair, but try this: Pronounce
vigorously the word "Up." Then _whisper_, but still very vigorously and
distinctly, three times the vowel _u_, as you just had it in the word
"up." Immediately afterwards _sing_ "Ah." Thus--
UP! _u_, _u_, _u_, Ah.
(_spoken_) (_whispered_) (_sung_)
I recommend this device from extended personal experience, and hope my
fellow-teachers may find it as useful as I have found it myself. Another
point of importance in practising the exercise for strengthening the
opening and the closing muscles is the breathing after every tone; and
this must be done gently and without effort, the only perception which
the singer should have of it being a slight movement of the midriff.
When you can sing the exercise in this manner on _F_, your supposed
speaking tone, then go up the scale, semitone by semitone, to _B_ or _C_
above, and down again, semitone by semitone, to _B_ or _C_ below. Of the
quality of tone I will say nothing here, because that part of the
subject will be discussed later on in connection with the tongue and the
soft palate.
The next thing in connection with the physiology of the vocal organ from
which we can deduct a practical lesson is the action of the muscles
governing the pitch of the voice. This process is a very complex one,
and can be made clear only by _viva voce_ explanations, with the help of
good models and moving diagrams, by demonstrations with the
laryngoscope, and by carefully watching external signs. There is no
doubt, however, that a set of muscles, described as the "Stretching and
Slackening Muscles," play the most important part in this matter, and I
advise the reader to study carefully the chapter on "The Movements of
the Voicebox," and try the experiments mentioned in it. It will thus be
seen that the flexibility of the voice depends in a great measure upon
the control we have over the muscles governing the pitch; that is to
say, upon the readiness and exactness with which we are able to allow
them to contract or to relax.