To these dangers arising from the general conduct of life, w_Ethics and Modern Thought: A Theory of Their Relations

others, which originate in the modern development of work in the

community. In former times, the conditions of life were at once narrower

and less subject to change. Social environment exercised a stricter and

more exclusive control over the individual, holding him within the

bounds of law and custom. This influence was often only an external one;

correct behaviour was frequently mistaken for moral integrity. This gave

rise to much unreality and pharisaical hypocrisy. Still, a certain

result was attained in the direction of moral culture; certain

restraints were acknowledged, which cannot, without impunity, be

dispensed with. Restraints play an important part in the life of the

soul, as well as in that of the body. Modern freedom of action makes the

individual depend on himself alone, and we must be very optimistic to

believe him able to completely withstand, unaided, all the temptations

of life.

We cannot omit one characteristic modern development: the change of

men's mutual relation from a personal to an impersonal one. We have but

to think of the difference between the cordial community of life

established by the old arts and crafts, and the cool, almost hostile

manner in which, in our great labour complexes, "employers" and

"employees" nowadays associate. There is no longer the slightest

personal relation or personal sympathy between them.

If we survey all these losses, the balance of the day will hardly appear

to be in favour of morality. But we must not forget that the present age

has also supplied morality with new and valuable impulses. This is

above all the case with labour--the modern form of work to which we have

just alluded. There is a strong moral element in the ever increasing

formation and organisation of great labour complexes, not only in the

factory, but also in science, state organisation, education, and so

forth. The individual is thereby obliged to work in close union with

others, and in accordance with objective requirements. He must adapt his

own activity to the general character of the work; and yet he must do

his own part conscientiously, so that the mass of separate achievements

may blend harmoniously and ensure the steady progress of the whole. This

requires such loyalty, self-control, and sacrifice of personal taste and

opinion, that a strong moral effect is undeniable. In this respect, man

now learns more implicit obedience than at any former period. Another

moral element in modern labour is the concentration of man's whole

strength on his work, to the exclusion of all inert repose.

If the impersonal element predominates in work, the social side of

modern life offers, on the other hand, more direct union and more

reciprocal action between man and man. This was, at first, mainly

theoretical. It was pointed out how much one man depends on his

fellow-men. People realised that the individual develops with other

individuals and as part of the community, with which his aspirations are

indissolubly connected, even when he imagines he is striking out a path

for himself. But such theories could only have so much influence,

because they were in harmony with the realities of life. Modern life,

with its technical developments, brought individuals into close touch

and created new opportunities of mutual intercourse, uniting men both in

success and in failure. Thus grew up the consciousness of human

solidarity, the recognition of men's interdependence, the idea of mutual

obligation. The result is a wealth of humane activity, which penetrates

into all the ramifications of life, attacking and seeking to eradicate

all forms of want and misery, instead of merely helping to relieve

individual cases. We encounter the earnest endeavour to impart material

and spiritual possessions, as far as possible, to all men; to help and

strengthen the less favoured section of humanity; to further the

interests of aspiring spirits. These efforts are but various aspects of

one great duty, which we feel we cannot ignore; we can no longer look

upon them as works of mercy, which it is a virtue to perform. This is at

the root of the social idea. And this social idea is, in our day, the

greatest bond of union between human beings; not only does it stir

individuals, but it also exercises a strong influence on law, education,

and so forth. In this respect our time has a right to claim undoubted

superiority over all former times.

These moral achievements of the present, valuable as they are, yet have

their inner limitations. Nearly all movement here proceeds outward, and

is directed towards distinct single achievements, while the culture and

welfare of the inner man are mostly treated as of secondary importance.

Zeal for surface ends leads to the neglect of the central values of

life. Yet all outer achievement only means real gain for us, if it

promotes the growth of the whole man, of his soul, of his personality,

making him nobler, greater, and happier. If there is no development and

strengthening of the centre of life, achievement on the surface is apt

to result in grave complications, and all that is great in the present

may thereby be driven into the wrong channels. Another danger grows out

of the ever increasing tendency to organise work. Owing to the necessity

of specialising and differentiating, the amount of work is restricted

which the individual can comprehend and master. He is tempted to

concentrate his interest on his own little province, to be indifferent

to everything outside it, and to lose all consciousness of a leading

idea and of a great whole. He thus falls a prey to the narrow conceit of

the specialist, and finally pushes aside as worthless accessories all

matters of general interest, all the questions and sorrows of humanity

at large.

By furthering a spirit of pity for human want and misery, without giving

to life an inner value and a higher aim, we are in danger of becoming

sentimental and of producing inner languor in spite of all outer

activity. We are often more anxious to procure for man a comfortable and

pleasant life, than to promote inner growth; and our care for the weak,

which is quite justified, leads us to take such weak individuals as a

criterion and to lower life to their level.

Modern life often lacks the necessary hardness and vigour; in our care

for the rights of individuals, we are inclined to neglect the rights and

requirements of the whole and also of the spiritual life. So we are in

danger of losing that which according to Goethe, "No one brings with him

into the world, yet which is all important if a man is to become a man

in every respect: reverence."

If we review the whole and consider the balance of moral profit and

loss in our day, the result cannot be a favourable one. No full

substitute is offered for what is lost. We have gained in breadth, but

we have lost in depth and strength. Above all, morality is in danger of

losing its former ruling position, and of having a subordinate one

assigned to it. It can therefore no longer call forth reverence, or be

treated as an independent aim and ideal. We realise at once the gravity

of this loss.

But this unfavourable aspect only holds good, if we consider the present

time as something complete and incapable of further development. If, on

the contrary, we seek to grasp all that is struggling into life, all the

requirements of our time that yet await fulfilment: then the situation

is quite different and far more favourable. What mainly told against

morality was the prevalent over-estimation of everything pertaining to

the visible life which surrounds us in nature and in human society. The

invisible realms of religion and the ideal have, as we have seen, often

grown dim and shadowy. Many of our contemporaries deny them altogether,

and look to the visible world for full satisfaction of all man's wants,

even of his spiritual and intellectual requirements. This could only

appear possible because, in reality, the invisible world of spiritual

values continued to influence even those who denied it, and because it

supplemented and completed the achievements of the visible world. It is,

however, characteristic of our time, that the old fusion is no longer

possible, and the irreconcilable antithesis between these two

conceptions of life stands out in bold relief. With increasing zeal, the

movement in favour of the visible world--that is to say,

Naturalism--tries to eradicate everything appertaining to the invisible

world, and to fashion the whole of life in accordance with its own

principles. Naturalism tolerates no rival, and declares war to the death

to Idealism.

We now see the truth of Bacon's words: "_Veritas potius emergit ex

errore quam ex confusione_" (Truth can more easily emerge from error

than from confusion). For if we accept naturalism as the only valid

conception of life, and develop it consistently in all its bearings, we

cannot but see its incapacity to embrace the whole of life. The apparent

victory of naturalism thus contains the germ of a defeat, the beginning

of a great reaction. What becomes of man and of human life, if the

visible world means to him the only form of reality? He is then but part

of nature--dark and soulless nature. The vast expansion and range of

nature overwhelms him with the consciousness of his own insignificance,

while, at the same time, nature is absolutely indifferent to his wishes

and aspirations. What he makes of himself and his life has not the very

slightest significance for this world of nature. All aspiration which

transcends his natural instinct of self-preservation must appear to be

mere folly. Such ideals as personality and character are but held to be

illusions.

If man turns away from the outer world and takes refuge in his own

sphere, in the social life among his fellows, naturalism there shows him

a mere juxtaposition, but no inner community which could offer new aims

or develop new values. What remains is only a number of individuals

inhabiting the same little corner of the universe. Each of these

individuals strives to gain recognition of his own merits, and to assert

himself, to the detriment of others. Much sordidness and hypocrisy

become rampant, and it is impossible to counteract them within so narrow

a range, or to hope for the growing up of a nobler and purer race of

men. The individual remains bound to the condition of society, which

also determines his own nature; he appears to be but a product of the

social environment. Having no deeper source of life within himself, how

should he be able to escape from the trammels of society, to rise above

it or oppose it? Society and environment thus become the destiny of man;

and there is no scope for freedom, for initiative, for independent

action.

If we survey and appreciate all this with unbiassed minds, this life

must appear empty and meaningless and scarcely worth living. At the same

time, we shall discern a development of mankind far transcending these

narrow limits, as indeed has already been pointed out in this our study

of morality. The degradation of life effected by naturalism might be

endured in feeble and senile periods conscious of no great tasks, but

not in our time, which teems with stupendous tasks it is earnestly

striving to carry out. These great tasks and problems can only be

grappled with, if we are fully conscious of concentrated energy and

increased spiritual power. Modern life has developed in various and

opposite directions. Its expansion is greater than its concentration,

and this threatens it with disintegration. There is an increasing and

imperative need of more unity and cohesion, of some universal and

harmonious character of the whole. How should this be attained without a

vigorous deepening of life, without the development of invisible

values? We observe, in our day, the encounter of an older and a newer

age, of a conception of life hallowed by the traditions of history, and

a new one that is struggling into existence; there is a sharp conflict

between the past and the present. We cannot but admit in the old an

imperishable germ of truth, and in the new, an inalienable right to

impress and influence us. We must prove and sift, separate and unite.

But how were any progress in this direction possible, could we not find

a superior point of view, such as can be offered only by a world of

thought, not by the visible life? This problem gains vastly in

significance by extending to the social life of all humanity. We see

here a struggle between an older, more aristocratic form of society, and

a newer, more democratic one. This struggle engenders violent passions,

especially in the province of economics. We are here placed before a

grave question: shall we be able to impart the benefits of civilisation

to all men alike, and thus broaden every individual soul, without

injury to its inner depths?

These are problems which do not originate in ourselves, but which are

forced upon us by the movement of history. Their very necessity bids us

hope for progression, in spite of all impediments. The power which has

imposed these problems on us will enable us to solve them. But we shall

also need to put forth our uttermost strength, and to quicken all our

latent spiritual forces; we must grasp our life as a whole, must

acknowledge its high aims with all our heart and soul, and must find our

real self in these ideals. Only thus can we gain the sense of inner

necessity which alone can lead us onward.

In this manner, our aspiration becomes closely linked to morality. Let

us see wherein we have already recognised the quintessence of morality.

Life and aspiration are detached from the little Ego, and take root in a

spiritual world in which we find our own essential being, so that while

working for this spiritual world, we are at the same time working for

our own depth and spiritual self-preservation. Such a change and

reaction, such identification with the movement of the spiritual life,

means only that our aspiration has gained a moral character. This moral

character brings us, at all points, into touch with our time. By means

of our own aspiration, we can now grasp, unite, and deepen all the

goodwill, genuine feeling, and untiring activity of our day, which was

hitherto inadequate only because it lacked inner unity and quickening

spiritual power.

We can thus face the future with courage and confidence. Humanity has by

no means exhausted its vital power; it is full of new possibilities

which demand realisation; and therefore we may expect an inner

progression of life and a rejuvenation of morality.

What is true of mankind in general, is especially true of America. The

multitude of grave problems cannot discourage a nation which feels in

itself so much youthful vigour, that it will not submit to a dark fate,

but is able and ready to mould its own fate, and to aspire to yet

greater heights than it has hitherto attained. But to achieve this,

moral force is as necessary as unshaken confidence in the power of the

spirit. We believe in a bright future for this great country. We believe

also in the development in America of such moral strength as will

successfully overcome all conflicts and lead to splendid results, for

the benefit not only of the American nation, but of all mankind.

THE END

To these dangers arising from the general conduct of life, we must add