(§§ 498–500, pp. 207–208)
1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective phrases)
modified either by adverbs or by groups of words used adverbially.
2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noun modified; an
appositive modified; an adverbial phrase modified.
3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or adverbial
clauses as modifiers of modifiers.
4. Analyze the sentences in § 498.
EXERCISE 64
(§§ 501–503, p. 209)
Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is an
interjection, a vocative (nominative by direct address), an exclamatory
nominative, or a parenthetical expression. Analyze the sentences.
1. The king, Melfort said, was determined to be severe. 2. O Mary,
go and call the cattle home. 3. Pardon me, my dear fellow. 4.
Between ourselves, I shall not be sorry to have a quiet evening.
5. Knowledge, indeed, and science express purely intellectual
ideas.--NEWMAN. 6. Oh! oh! pictures don’t pay. 7. To make a long
story short, the company broke up. 8. True, our friend is already
in his teens. 9. To use a ready-made similitude, we might liken
universal history to a magic web.--CARLYLE. 10. Poor fellows! they
only did as they were ordered, I suppose. 11. The world, as we said,
has been unjust to him. 12. Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to
hear.
13. Peace! count the clock. 14. Excuse, no doubt, is in readiness for
such omission. 15. The lord--for so I understood he was--looked at
me with an air of surprise. 16. Lo, Cæsar is afraid. 17. Delay not,
Cæsar; read it instantly. 18. My counsel, I need not say, made full
use of this hint. 19. My small services, you remember, were of no
use. 20. I knew--one knows everything in dreams--that they had been
slain. 21. I knew it, I say, to be a fallacy. 22. Liberty! freedom!
tyranny is dead! 23. Stay, ho! and let us hear Mark Antony.
EXERCISE 65
(§§ 504–523, pp. 210–219)
1. Analyze the simple sentences in § 509; the compound sentences in §
511; the complex sentences in § 512; the compound complex sentences in
§§ 514–515.
2. Study the examples in §§ 517–523, and explain their structure
orally. Tell whether the various subordinate clauses are simple,
compound, or complex, and why. Give the construction of each. Analyze
the sentences.
3. Construct five complex sentences on the principle of § 517; of §
520; of § 521; of § 522.
EXERCISE 66
(§§ 524–526, pp. 220–223)
1. Study the sentences in §§ 525–526 until you can explain their
structure.
2. Find, in some good English or American author, ten sentences of
considerable length and explain their structure.
EXERCISE 67
(§§ 527–533, pp. 224–226)
1. Analyze the sentences in § 528. Explain the ellipsis in each
sentence.
2. Supply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical sentences
in § 533 (p. 226). Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.
3. Analyze the sentences in § 533.
4. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following kinds of
ellipsis:--(1) the subject of an imperative; (2) a relative pronoun;
(3) the conjunction _that_; (4) the copula and its subject with
_while_, _when_, _though_, _if_; (5) ellipsis in a clause with _as_ or
_than_.
EXERCISE 68
(§§ 448–526, pp. 183–223)
The following compound, complex, and compound complex sentences will
give further practice in analysis and in study of the relations of
clauses.
1. Deerslayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the
bushes. 2. The mind of man is like a clock that is always running
down and requires to be as constantly wound up.--HAZLITT. 3. He
became sensible that his life was still in imminent peril. 4. A young
author is apt to run into a confusion of mixed metaphors, which leave
the sense disjointed, and distract the imagination.--GOLDSMITH. 5.
Everybody kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever
he could get. 6. The dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper
that not a word of it had reached the young lady’s ears. 7. The
captain screwed his lips up, and drummed on the table, but he did not
speak. 8. Poor Andrew Fern had heard that his townsman’s sloop had
been captured by a privateer. 9. Through the grounds we went, and
very pretty I thought them. 10. He sometimes made doleful complaint
that there were no stagecoaches, nowadays.
11. Lights gleamed in the distance, and people were already astir.
12. That few men celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity
to their precepts, must be readily confessed.--JOHNSON. 13. Down went
Pew with a cry that rang high into the night. 14. Pluck the dog off,
lest he throttle him. 15. I knew that the worst of men have their
good points. 16. A rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in
great force. 17. Mr. Henry went and walked at the low end of the hall
without reply; for he had an excellent gift of silence. 18. It is a
bright brisk morning, and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully
past my window. 19. The musician was an old gray-headed negro, who
had been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood for more than
half a century. 20. After he had waited three hours, the general’s
patience was exhausted, and, as he learned that the Mexicans were
busy in preparations for defence, he made immediate dispositions for
the assault.--PRESCOTT.
21. As I rode along near the coast, I kept a very sharp lookout in
the lanes and woods. 22. Every man desires to live long, but no
man would be old.--SWIFT. 23. If my face had been pale the moment
before, it now glowed almost to burning. 24. The sentinels who paced
the ramparts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army was in
sight. 25. Her heart was happy and her courage rose. 26. There is a
report that Clifford is to be secretary. 27. The season of winter,
when, from the shortness of the daylight, labor becomes impossible,
is in Zetland the time of revel, feasting, and merriment. 28.
Every log which is carried past us by the current has come from an
undiscovered country. 29. The fair heavens shone over the windy blue
seas, and the green island of Ulva lay basking in the sunlight. 30.
The greatest event was, that the Miss Jenkynses had purchased a new
carpet for the drawing room. 31. My grandfather made a bow to the
motley assemblage as he entered. 32. Talk to a man about himself, and
he is generally captivated.
33. Pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune. 34. When
the morning dawned, the king gazed with admiration at the city, which
he hoped soon to add to his dominions.--IRVING. 35. No one doubts
that the sloth and the ant-eater, the kangaroo and the opossum, the
tiger and the badger, the tapir and the rhinoceros, are respectively
members of the same orders.--HUXLEY. 36. The traveller, a man of
middle age, wrapped in a gray frieze cloak, quickened his pace when
he had reached the outskirts of the town, for a gloomy extent of
nearly four miles lay between him and his home. 37. It was a scene on
which I had often looked down, but where I had never before beheld a
human figure. 38. He found that he had undertaken a task which was
beyond his power. 39. In the Dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of
Napoleon, which Lord Holland put up in 1817, while Napoleon was a
prisoner at Saint Helena.
40. The girl’s was not one of those natures which are most attracted
by what is strange and exceptional in human character. 41. Mrs.
Pendennis was sure that he would lead her dear boy into mischief,
if Pen went to the same college with him. 42. I had been some time
at sea before I became aware of the fact that hearing plays a
perceptible part in gauging the force of the wind. 43. The Macedonian
conqueror, when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a
nightingale, replied with contempt, that he had heard the nightingale
herself; and the same treatment must every man expect, whose praise
is that he imitates another.--JOHNSON. 44. Tie a couple of strings
across a board and set it in your window, and you have an instrument
which no artist’s harp can rival.--EMERSON. 45. I was on the point
of asking what part of the country he had chosen for his retreat.
46. That no man can lawfully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a
self-evident proposition.--MACKINTOSH.
47. How far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the
outfit is not very clear. 48. The next epoch in the history of Russia
was that of Peter the Great, whose genius overcame the obstacles
consequent on the remoteness of its situation, and opened to its
people the career of European industry, arts, and arms.--ALISON.
49. As the chase lengthens, the sportsmen drop off, till at last
the foremost huntsman is left alone, and his horse, overcome with
fatigue, stumbles and dies in a rocky valley.--JEFFREY. 50. The
Lowland knight, though startled, repeats his defiance; and Sir
Roderick, respecting his valor, by a signal dismisses his men
to their concealment, and assures him anew of his safety. 51. I
stood awe-struck--I cannot tell how long--watching how the live
flame-snakes crept and hissed, and leapt and roared, and rushed in
long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the howling wind, and
fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves, and swept over the
peaked roofs, and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard
beyond.--KINGSLEY. 52. When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up several
Oriental manuscripts, which I have still by me.--ADDISON. 53. Often
have I wondered at the temerity of my father, who, in spite of an
habitual general respect which we all in common manifested towards
him, would venture now and then to stand up against him in some
argument touching their youthful days.--LAMB. 54. By all means begin
your folio; even if the doctor does not give you a year, even if he
hesitates about a month, make one brave push and see what can be
accomplished in a week.--STEVENSON.
APPENDIX
LISTS OF VERBS
In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indisputably
correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the present day. The
pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in using the forms registered
in this list.[52]
A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in
ordinary language are included in this list. These have various
irregularities. A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak.
Weak verbs are printed in italics.
For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299.
I
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
abide abode abode
am (_subjunc._, be) was been
arise arose arisen
awake awoke, _awaked_ _awaked_
bear bore borne, born[53]
beat beat beaten
beget begot begotten
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
_bend_ _bent_ _bent_
_bereave_ _bereft_, _bereft_,
_bereaved_ _bereaved_[54]
_beseech_ _besought_ _besought_
_bet_ _bet_ _bet_
bid (command) bade bidden
bid (money) bid bid
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
_bleed_ _bled_ _bled_
_bless_ (see p. 298)
blow blew blown
break broke broken
_breed_ _bred_ _bred_
_bring_ _brought_ _brought_
_build_ _built_ _built_
_burn_ (see p. 298)
burst burst burst
_buy_ _bought_ _bought_
_cast_ _cast_ _cast_
_catch_ _caught_ _caught_
chide chid chidden
choose chose chosen
*cleave (split)[55] _cleft_, clove _cleft_, _cleaved_
(cloven, _adj._)
cling clung clung
come came come
_cost_ _cost_ _cost_
_creep_ _crept_ _crept_
_crow_ (see p. 299)
_curse_ (see p. 298)
_cut_ _cut_ _cut_
_dare_ (see p. 299)
_deal_ _dealt_ _dealt_
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
_dream_ (see p. 298)
_dress_ (see p. 298)
drink drank drunk
(drunken, _adj._)
drive drove driven
_dwell_ _dwelt_ _dwelt_
eat ate eaten
_engrave_ (see p. 299)
fall fell fallen
_feed_ _fed_ _fed_
_feel_ _felt_ _felt_
fight fought fought
find found found
_flee_ _fled_ _fled_
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbear forbore forborne
forget forgot forgotten
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
_freight_ (see p. 299)
get got got[56]
_gird_ (see p. 298)
give gave given
go _went_ gone
_grave_ (see p. 299)
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung, _hanged_[57] hung, _hanged_[57]
_have_ _had_ _had_
_hear_ _heard_ _heard_
heave hove, _heaved_[58] hove, _heaved_[58]
_hew_ _hewed_ hewn
hide hid hidden
_hit_ _hit_ _hit_
hold held held
_hurt_ _hurt_ _hurt_
_keep_ _kept_ _kept_
_kneel_ (see p. 298)
_knit_ (see p. 298)
know knew known
_lade_[59] _laded_ _laded_, laden
_lay_ _laid_ _laid_
_lead_ _led_ _led_
_learn_ (see p. 298)
_leave_ _left_ _left_
_lend_ _lent_ _lent_
let let let
lie (recline)[60] lay lain
_light_ _lighted_ _lighted_
or _lit_[61] or _lit_[61]
_lose_ _lost_ _lost_
_make_ _made_ _made_
_mean_ _meant_ _meant_
_meet_ _met_ _met_
_mow_ (see p. 299)
_pay_ _paid_ _paid_
_pen_(shut up) (see p. 298)
_put_ _put_ _put_
_quit_ (see p. 298)
_read_ _rĕad_ _rĕad_
*_reave_ _reft_, _reaved_ _reft_, _reaved_
reeve rove rove
_rend_ _rent_ _rent_
_rid_ _rid_ _rid_
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
*_rive_ _rived_ riven, _rived_
run ran run
_say_ _said_ _said_
see saw seen
_seek_ _sought_ _sought_
*seethe (_transitive_)[62] sod, _seethed_ _seethed_
(sodden, _adj._)
_sell_ _sold_ _sold_
_send_ _sent_ _sent_
_set_ _set_ _set_
_sew_ (see p. 299)
shake shook shaken
_shape_ (see p. 299)
_shave_ _shaved_ _shaved_
(shaven, _adj._)
_shear_ (see p. 299)
_shed_ _shed_ _shed_
shine shone shone
_shoe_ _shod_ _shod_
shoot shot shot
_show_ _showed_ shown
_shred_ (see p. 298)
shrink shrank shrunk
(shrunken, _adj._)
*shrive shrove, _shrived_ shriven, _shrived_
_shut_ _shut_ _shut_
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
_sleep_ _slept_ _slept_
slide slid slid, slidden
sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
_slit_ _slit_ _slit_
_smell_ (see p. 298)
smite smote smitten
_sow_ _sowed_ _sowed_, sown
speak spoke spoken
_speed_ (see p. 298)
_spell_ (see p. 299)
_spend_ _spent_ _spent_
_spill_ (see p. 299)
spin spun spun
spit spit spit
_split_ _split_ _split_
_spoil_ (see p. 299)
_spread_ _spread_ _spread_
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
stave stove, _staved_ stove, _staved_
_stay_ (see p. 299)
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk stunk
_strew_ _strewed_ strewn
stride strode stridden
strike struck struck
(stricken, _adj._)[63]
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
_sweat_ (see p. 299)
_sweep_ _swept_ _swept_
_swell_ _swelled_ _swelled_, swollen
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
_teach_ _taught_ _taught_
tear tore torn
_tell_ _told_ _told_
_think_ _thought_ _thought_
thrive throve, _thrived_ thriven, _thrived_
throw threw thrown
_thrust_ _thrust_ _thrust_
tread trod trodden
wake woke, _waked_ woke, _waked_
_wax_ (grow) (see p. 299)
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
_wed_ (see p. 299)
_weep_ _wept_ _wept_
_wet_ _wet_ _wet_
win won won
wind wound wound
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
_Bear_, _break_, _drive_, _get_ (_beget_, _forget_), _speak_, _spin_,
_stink_, _swear_, _tear_, have an archaic past tense in _a_: _bare_,
_brake_, _drave_, _gat_, _spake_, etc.
_Beat_, _beget_ (_forget_), _bite_, _break_, _forsake_, _hide_,
_ride_, _shake_, _speak_, _weave_, _write_, and some other verbs have
archaic forms of the past participle like those of the past tense.
The participles in _en_, however, are now the accepted forms. _Chid_
and _trod_ are common participial forms.
_Begin_, _drink_, _ring_, _shrink_, _sing_, _sink_, _spring_, _swim_,
often have in poetry a _u_-form (_begun_, _sung_, etc.) in the past
tense as well as in the past participle. This form (though good _old_
English)[64] should be avoided in modern speech.
_Bend_, _beseech_, _bet_, _build_, _burst_, _catch_, _dwell_, _rend_,
_split_, _wet_, have archaic or less usual forms in _ed_: _bended_,
_beseeched_, _betted_, etc. _Builded_ is common in the proverbial “He
_builded_ better than he knew.” _Bursted_ is common as an adjective:
“a _bursted_ bubble.”
_Bid_, “to command,” has sometimes _bid_ in both the past tense
and the past participle; _bid_, “to offer money,” has these forms
regularly.
_Blend_, _leap_, _lean_, have usually _blended_, _leaped_, _leaned_;
but _blent_, _leapt_, _leant_ are not uncommon.
_Clothe_ has commonly _clothed_; but _clad_ is common in literary
use, and is regular in the adjectives _well-clad_, _ill-clad_ (for
which ordinary speech has substituted _well-dressed_, _badly_ or
_poorly dressed_).
_Dive_ has _dived_; but _dove_ (an old form) is common in America.
_Plead_ has past tense and past participle _pleaded_. _Plead_
(pronounced _plĕd_) is avoided by careful writers and speakers.
_Prove_ has past tense and past participle _proved_. The past
participle _proven_ should be avoided.
_Work_ has past tense and past participle _worked_. _Wrought_ in the
past tense and the past participle is archaic, but is also modern as
an adjective (as in _wrought iron_).
Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong
forms; thus _digged,_ _shined_, past tense and past participle of
_dig_, _shine_; _showed_, past participle of _show_.
_Ate_ and _eaten_ are preferred to _eat_ (pronounced _ĕt_).
_Quoth_, “said,” is an old strong past tense. The compound _bequeath_
has _bequeathed_ only.
Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses _sate_ for _sat_, _trode_
for _trod_, _spat_ for _spit_; also _writ_ for _wrote_ and _written_,
_rid_ for _rode_ and _ridden_, _strewed_ and _strown_ for _strewn_.
II
The following verbs vary between _ed_ and _t_ (_d_) in the past tense
and the past participle. In some of them, this variation is a mere
difference of spelling. In writing, the _ed_ forms are preferred in
most cases; in speaking, the _t_ forms are very common.
bless blessed, blest[65]
burn burned, burnt[66]
curse cursed, curst[65]
dare dared (_less commonly_, durst)
dream dreamed, dreamt
dress dressed, drest
gird girded, girt[66]
kneel kneeled, knelt[66]
knit knit, knitted[66]
learn learned, learnt[67]
pen (shut up) penned, pent[66]
quit quitted, quit[66]
shred shredded, shred[66]
smell smelled, smelt[66]
speed sped, speeded[66]
spell spelled, spelt
spill spilled, spilt[66]
spoil spoiled, spoilt[66]
stay stayed, staid
sweat sweated, sweat[66]
wed wedded (_p.p. also_ wed)[66]
III
The following verbs have regular _ed_ forms in modern prose, but in
poetry and the high style sometimes show archaic forms.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
crow crowed, crew crowed, crown
freight freighted freighted, fraught (_figurative_)
grave graved graved, graven
engrave engraved engraved, engraven
mow mowed mowed, mown
sew sewed sewed, sewn
shape shaped shaped, shapen
shear sheared, shore sheared, shorn
wax (grow) waxed waxed, waxen
IV
The present tense of _may_, _can_, _shall_, is an old strong past.
Hence the first and third persons singular are alike:--_I may_, _he
may_. The actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms:--_might_,
_could_, _should_. _Must_ is the weak past tense of an obsolete
_mōt_, and is almost always used as a present tense (§ 292).
_Dare_ and _owe_ originally belonged to this class. _Owe_ has become
a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense _ought_,
which is used in a present sense (see § 293); _dare_ has in the
third person _dare_ or _dares_, and in the past _dared_, more rarely
_durst_. The archaic _wot_ “know,” past _wist_, also belongs to this
class. _Will_ is inflected like _shall_, having _will_ in the first
and third singular, _wilt_ in the second singular, and _would_ in the
past.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO BE_
INDICATIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I am. We are.
2. Thou art. You are.
3. He is. They are.
PAST TENSE
1. I was. We were.
2. Thou wast (wert). You were.
3. He was. They were.
FUTURE TENSE
1. I shall be. We shall be.
2. Thou wilt be. You will be.
3. He will be. They will be.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I have been. We have been.
2. Thou hast been. You have been.
3. He has been. They have been.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I had been. We had been.
2. Thou hadst been. You had been.
3. He had been. They had been.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
1. I shall have been. We shall have been.
2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been.
3. He will have been. They will have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. If I be. If we be.
2. If thou be. If you be.
3. If he be. If they be.
PAST TENSE
1. If I were. If we were.
2. If thou wert. If you were.
3. If he were. If they were.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I have been. If we have been.
2. If thou have been. If you have been.
3. If he have been. If they have been.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I had been. If we had been.
2. If thou hadst been. If you had been.
3. If he had been. If they had been.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present. Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you].
INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be; _Perfect_, to have been.
PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being; _Past_, been; _Perfect_, having been.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO STRIKE_
_ACTIVE VOICE_
INDICATIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. I strike. We strike.
2. Thou strikest. You strike.
3. He strikes. They strike.
PAST TENSE
1. I struck. We struck.
2. Thou struckest. You struck.
3. He struck. They struck.
FUTURE TENSE
1. I shall strike. We shall strike.
2. Thou wilt strike. You will strike.
3. He will strike. They will strike.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I have struck. We have struck.
2. Thou hast struck. You have struck.
3. He has struck. They have struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I had struck. We had struck.
2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck.
3. He had struck. They had struck.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck.
2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck.
3. He will have struck. They will have struck.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. If I strike. If we strike.
2. If thou strike. If you strike.
3. If he strike. If they strike.
PAST TENSE
1. If I struck. If we struck.
2. If thou struck. If you struck.
3. If he struck. If they struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I have struck. If we have struck.
2. If thou have struck. If you have struck.
3. If he have struck. If they have struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I had struck. If we had struck.
2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck.
3. If he had struck. If they had struck.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Strike [thou _or_ you].
INFINITIVE. _Present_, to strike; _Perfect_, to have struck.
PARTICIPLE. _Present_, striking; _Past_, struck;
_Perfect_, having struck.
_PASSIVE VOICE_
INDICATIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. I am struck. We are struck.
2. Thou art struck. You are struck.
3. He is struck. They are struck.
PAST TENSE
1. I was struck. We were struck.
2. Thou wast (_or_ wert) struck. You were struck.
3. He was struck. They were struck.
FUTURE TENSE
1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck.
2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck.
3. He will be struck. They will be struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I have been struck. We have been struck.
2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck.
3. He has been struck. They have been struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I had been struck. We had been struck.
2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck.
3. He had been struck. They had been struck.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck.
2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck.
3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. If I be struck. If we be struck.
2. If thou be struck. If you be struck.
3. If he be struck. If they be struck.
PAST TENSE
1. If I were struck. If we were struck.
2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck.
3. If he were struck. If they were struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck.
2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck.
3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck.
2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck.
3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you] struck.
INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be struck;
_Perfect_, to have been struck.
PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being struck; _Past_, struck;
_Perfect_, having been struck.
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter.
2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter.
3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital
letter.
NOTE. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences.
4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins with a
capital letter.
5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital
letters; as,--_American_, _Indian_, _Swedish_, _Spenserian_.
NOTE. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be
closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come,
and therefore begin with small letters. Thus,--voltaic, galvanic,
mesmeric, maudlin, stentorian.
6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a capital
letter.
_Mr._ Thomas Smith
John Wilson, _Esq._
_Miss_ Allerton
_Dr._ F. E. Wilson
C. J. Adams, _M.D._
_President_ Grant
_Professor_ Whitney
_Sir_ Walter Raleigh
7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every important
word that follows, begins with a capital letter.
8. The interjection _O_ and the pronoun _I_ are always written in
capital letters.
9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized.
NOTE. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized
when they refer to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule
is often disregarded altogether when its observance would result in
a multitude of capitals, as in the Bible and in many hymn books and
works of theology.
10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when
they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar
statements. Such capitals are called _emphatic_ (or _topical_)
_capitals_.
NOTE. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the
titles of books (see Rule 7), but their use is not obligatory. They
are especially common in text-books and other elementary manuals.
RULES OF PUNCTUATION[68]
The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interrogation
point, the exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the
dash, marks of parenthesis, and quotation marks. The hyphen and the
apostrophe may be conveniently treated along with marks of punctuation.
I
1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point are
used at the end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be followed
by one of these three marks.
The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a
period. But a declarative or an imperative sentence that is likewise
exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead of a period.
The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point.
An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is followed
by an exclamation point; as,--“How absolute the knave is!”
2. A period is used after an abbreviation.
3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or phrase.
NOTE. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the
exclamation point. With other words and with phrases, usage differs;
if strong feeling is expressed, the exclamation point is commonly
used, but too many such marks deface the page.
II
The comma is used--
1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a _vocative
nominative_). Thus,--
John, tell me the truth.
Little boy, what is your name?
NOTE. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used
instead of a comma.
2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus,--
The cry ran through the ranks, “Are we never to move forward?”
NOTE. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a
dash, may be used instead of a comma, especially with the words _as
follows_.
3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object of a
following verb. Thus,--
“They are coming; the attack will be made on the center,” said Lord
Fitzroy Somerset.
“I see it,” was the cool reply of the duke.
NOTE. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an
exclamation point, no comma is used.
4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coördinate
series, when these are not connected by _and_, _or_, or _nor_.
If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the
series but omitted with the others, the comma may be used before the
conjunction.
I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer.
They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was
difficult to come at them.
It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly
things I made.
They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose.
NOTE 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if
the members of the series consist of several words, or if the writer
wishes to emphasize their distinctness.
NOTE 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons
unless they are short and simple (see pp. 309–310).
5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus,--
Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and
want of interest in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then
mechanically to resume the motion of twirling her spindle.--SCOTT.
6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate. Thus,--
To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary
life and opinions, would have seemed to me like the denial of a
debt.--COLERIDGE.
7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with its
modifiers. Thus,--
I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel.
There was an impression upon the public mind, natural enough from the
continually augmenting velocity of the mail, but quite erroneous,
that an outside seat on this class of carriages was a post of
danger.--DE QUINCEY.
NOTE 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this
head. Thus,--
The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect,
told me I had dwelt long enough upon it.--ADDISON.
NOTE 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to
form one idea, no comma is used. Thus,--
My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco.
NOTE 3. An intensive pronoun (_myself_, etc.) is not separated by a
comma from the substantive which it emphasizes.
NOTE 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single
substantive is sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash.
8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by a
descriptive relative. Thus,--
I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family,
who have been my only neighbors ever since I have lived at
Weston.--COWPER.
NOTE. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus,--
I want to know many things which only you can tell me.
Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good
fortune.
9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus,--
They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the
ferryman being afraid of them.--DEFOE.
10. To set off _however_, _nevertheless_, _moreover_, etc., and
introductory phrases like _in the first place_, _on the one hand_, etc.
11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose commas,
dashes, or marks of parenthesis may be used.
When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the rest
of the sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus,--
I exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me
excused.--THACKERAY.
When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked off
by dashes, or enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are less
frequently used at present than formerly.
The connection of the mail with the state and the executive
government--a connection obvious, but yet not strictly defined--gave
to the whole mail establishment an official grandeur.--DE QUINCEY.
NOTE. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of
the text.
III
The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons,
semicolons, or commas.
1. The colon is used--
_a._ To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance of
the first in another form, or defines the first as an appositive
defines a noun. Thus,--
This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an
innovation in the Roman: all his plays have double actions.--DRYDEN.
_b._ To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which contain a
semicolon. Thus,--
At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in
penetrating so far into the recesses of the mountains; but now, as
you know, the approach is easy, and the communication, in summer
time, almost hourly: nor is this strange, for travellers after
pleasure are become not less active, and more numerous, than those
who formerly left their homes for purposes of gain.--WORDSWORTH.
NOTE. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to
use a semicolon or to begin a new sentence.
2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general
nature and contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or
more of them contain commas. Thus,--
The sky was cloudless; the sun shone out bright and warm; the songs
of birds, and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air; and
the cottage garden, crowded with every rich and beautiful tint,
sparkled in the heavy dew like beds of glittering jewels.--DICKENS.
3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple (see p.
307).
NOTE. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined
in many cases by the writer’s feeling of the closer or the looser
connection of the ideas expressed by the several clauses, and is to
some extent a matter of taste.
IV
1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally separated
from the main clause by a comma. But when the dependent clause is short
and the connection close, the comma may be omitted.
NOTE. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a
restrictive relative clause is not (see p. 70).
2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construction,
are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each. Thus,--
[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half
players, who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make
up a rubber; who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning; that
they like to win one game and lose another; that they can while away
an hour very agreeably at a card table, but are indifferent whether
they play or no; and will desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong
card, to take it up and play another.--LAMB.
V
1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.
NOTE. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different
type, the marks may be omitted.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single
quotation marks.
3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks are
put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last.
NOTE. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307.
4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be
enclosed in quotation marks or italicized.
VI
1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are
indicated by dashes. Thus,--
Eh!--what--why--upon my life, and so it is--Charley, my boy, so it’s
you, is it?--LEVER.
2. Parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes (see p. 308).
3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct
quotation, or a statement formally introduced,--especially with _as
follows_, _namely_, and the like. Before an enumeration a comma and a
dash may be used. Thus,--
There are eight parts of speech:--nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. OR--
There are eight parts of speech,--nouns, pronouns, etc.
4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the last
paragraph but one).
VII
1. The apostrophe is used--
_a._ To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions.
_b._ As a sign of the possessive or genitive.
_c._ To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc.
2. The hyphen is used--
_a._ When the parts of a word are separated in writing.
_b._ Between the parts of some compound words. (See the dictionary in
each case.)
RULES OF SYNTAX
1. The +subject+ of a verb is in the +nominative case+ (p. 41).
2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining
the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a +predicate
nominative+ (p. 41).
3. A substantive used for the purpose of +addressing+ a person
directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a +vocative+.
A vocative is in the +nominative case+, and is often called a
+nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+ (p. 42).
4. A substantive used as an +exclamation+ is called an +exclamatory
nominative+ or a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 42).
5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or
circumstances of an action.
This is called the +absolute construction+.
The substantive is in the +nominative case+ and is called a +nominative
absolute+ (p. 144).
6. The +possessive case+ denotes ownership or possession (p. 43).
7. The +object+ of a verb or preposition is in the +objective case+ (p.
47).
8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is
called its +direct object+, and is said to be in the +objective case+
(p. 48).
9. A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one
denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+ (p. 50).
10. Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_
may take +two objects+ referring to the same person or thing.
The first of these is the +direct object+, and the second, which
completes the sense of the predicate, is called a +predicate objective+
(pp. 50, 111).
11. Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may
take +two objects+, a +direct object+ and an +indirect object+.
The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward
which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate (p.
50).
12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a
noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.
A noun in this construction is called the +cognate object+ of the verb
and is in the +objective case+ (p. 52).
13. A noun, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modifiers,
may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an +adverbial objective+
(p. 53).
14. An +appositive+ is in the same case as the substantive which it
limits (p. 42).
15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and
+person+ (p. 55).
16. +Relative pronouns+ connect dependent clauses with main clauses by
referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.
This substantive is the +antecedent+ of the relative (p. 66).
A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+,
+number+, and +person+.
The +case+ of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent,
but depends on the construction of its own clause (p. 68).
17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69).
18. The relative pronoun _what_ is equivalent to _that which_, and has
a +double construction+:--(1) the construction of the +omitted+ or
+implied antecedent+ _that_; (2) the construction of the +relative+
_which_ (p. 71).
19. The +compound relative pronouns+ may include or imply their own
antecedents and hence may have a +double construction+ (p. 72).
The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent
expressed or implied (p. 72).
20. An adjective is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it
describes or limits (pp. 5, 75).
21. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the
sentence, as +attributive+, +appositive+, and +predicate adjectives+
(p. 76).
1. An +attributive adjective+ is closely attached to its noun and
regularly precedes it.
2. An +appositive adjective+ is added to its noun to explain it, like a
noun in apposition.
3. A +predicate adjective+ completes the meaning of the predicate verb,
but describes or limits the subject.
For the use of an adjective as +predicate objective+, see § 488.
22. The +comparative degree+, not the superlative, is used in comparing
two persons or things.
The +superlative+ is used in comparing one person or thing with two or
more (p. 88).
23. +Relative adverbs+ introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in
their use to relative pronouns (p. 86).
24. A +verb+ must agree with its subject in +number+ and +person+ (p.
97).
25. A +compound subject+ with _and_ usually takes a verb in the plural
number (p. 100).
26. A +compound subject+ with _or_ or _nor_ takes a verb in the
singular number if the substantives are singular (p. 100).
27. Nouns that are +plural in form but singular in sense+ commonly take
a verb in the singular number (p. 101).
28. +Collective nouns+ take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural
verb.
When the persons or things denoted are thought of as +individuals+, the
plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a +unit+, the
singular should be used (p. 101).
29. A verb is in the +active voice+ when it represents the subject as
the +doer+ of an act (p. 107).
30. A verb is in the +passive voice+ when it represents the subject as
the +receiver+ or the +product+ of an action (p. 107).
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and
the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial
phrase modifying the predicate verb (p. 110).
31. When a verb takes both a +direct+ and an +indirect object+, one of
the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the
subject (p. 112).
32. The +indicative+ is the mood of +simple assertion+ or
+interrogation+, but it is used in other constructions also (p. 115).
33. The +imperative+ is the mood of +command+ or +request+ (p. 115).
34. The +subject+ of an +imperative+ is seldom expressed unless it is
emphatic.
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,--_You go_,
_You read_ (p. 117).
35. The +subjunctive mood+ is used in certain special constructions of
+wish+, +condition+, and the like (pp. 115, 118).
For particulars and examples, see pp. 119–123.
For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124–132.
36. An +infinitive+, with or without a complement or modifiers, may be
used as the +subject+ of a sentence, as a +predicate nominative+, or as
an +appositive+ (pp. 134, 135).
37. An +infinitive+ may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions
_but_, _except_, _about_, (p. 135).
38. The +infinitive+ may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (p.
136).
39. An +infinitive+ may modify a verb by +completing+ its meaning, or
by expressing the +purpose+ of the action (p. 137).
40. An +infinitive+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ of a +noun+
or as an +adverbial modifier+ of an +adjective+.
In this use the infinitive is said to +depend+ on the word which it
modifies (p. 136).
41. A kind of +clause+, consisting of a substantive in the objective
case followed by an +infinitive+, may be used as the object of certain
verbs.
Such clauses are called +infinitive clauses+, and the substantive is
said to be the subject of the infinitive.
The +subject+ of an +infinitive+ is in the objective case.
+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_,
_commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of
_believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_ (p. 138).
An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_.
An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a
predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138–139).
42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140).
43. A +participle+ is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it
describes or limits (pp. 12, 142).
44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which
it may belong (p. 142).
45. An +infinitive+ or a +participle+, like any other verb-form, may
take an +object+ if its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143).
46. +Infinitives+ and +participles+, like other verb-forms, may be
+modified+ by adverbs, adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp.
134, 142).
47. +Verbal+ (or +participial+) +nouns+ in _-ing_ have the form of
present participles, but the construction of nouns (p. 145).
48. +Verbal nouns+ in _-ing_ have certain properties of the verb (p.
146).
1. Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a +direct+ or an +indirect object+
if their meaning allows.
2. A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an +adverbial modifier+.
But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be +modified+ by
+adjectives+.
49. A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the adjective
element in a +compound noun+ (p. 146).
50. The substantive which follows a +preposition+ is called its
+object+ and is in the +objective case+ (p. 148).
51. A +coördinate conjunction+ connects words or groups of words that
are independent of each other (p. 151).
52. A +subordinate conjunction+ connects a subordinate clause with the
clause on which it depends (p. 151).
53. +Interjections+ usually have no grammatical connection with the
phrases or sentences in which they stand.
Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by
means of a preposition (p. 155).
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of languages,
which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the languages of
Europe and the most important of those found in India. Within this
family, English belongs to the Teutonic (or Germanic) Group, which
contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian tongues (Icelandic,
Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others.
English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old
English. This was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home
was in northern Germany, on the eastern and southern shores of the
North Sea, but who invaded Britain about A.D. 450, and subdued the
Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars. The most
considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the Saxons.
Their dominion was well assured by the beginning of the seventh
century, and their language, which they usually called “English” (that
is, “the tongue of the Angles”), gradually spread through England and
most of Scotland. In Wales, however, the native Britons have maintained
their own Celtic speech to the present day; and in the Scottish
Highlands, Gaelic--which is akin to Welsh and practically identical
with the native language of Ireland--is still extensively used.
At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen, and
the Britons, who had been for four centuries under the sway of the
Roman Empire, were Christians, and much more highly civilized than
their conquerors. Indeed, they had adopted many features of Roman
culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at least in the larger
towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the Anglo-Saxons
also had embraced Christianity and had made remarkable advances in
literature and learning. The language of the Britons exerted but slight
influence upon that of the Anglo-Saxons. The Celtic words in English
are few in number, and most of them were borrowed in comparatively
recent times.
The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in the
history of our language. The Normans were a Scandinavian tribe who had
been in possession of Normandy (in northern France) for about a hundred
and fifty years. They had abandoned their native tongue, and spoke a
dialect of French. From 1066 to about the year 1400, two languages
were therefore common in England,--English, which was employed by the
vast majority of the people, and French, which was the language of
the court and the higher orders. French, however, was never a serious
rival of English for supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a
class, not of the nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an
accomplishment. By the time of Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and
died in 1400), it was clear that the English tongue was henceforth to
be regarded as the only natural language for Englishmen, whether they
were of Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin.
Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon English. It
is not true--though often asserted--that the multitude of French words
which our language contains were derived from the Norman dialect.
Comparatively few of them came into English until after 1300, when
Normandy had been lost to the English crown for a hundred years.
Since 1300 we have borrowed freely--not from Norman, however, but
from Central (or Parisian) French, which had become the standard to
which the English descendants of the Normans endeavored to conform.
The effect of the Conquest, then, was not to fill English with Norman
terms. It was rather to bring England into close social and literary
relations with France, and thus to facilitate the adoption of words and
constructions from Central French.
Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the main
upon private patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose interest
was in French, discouraged the maintenance of any national or general
standard of English composition. Every English writer had recourse to
his local dialect, and one dialect was felt to be as good as another.
By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come,
apparently, to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished than
the others. All that was needed was the appearance of some writer of
supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native. Chaucer was
such a writer, for he was born in London. To be sure, Chaucer did
not “make modern English.” None the less, he was a powerful agent in
settling the language. Since his time, at all events, the fact of a
“standard of literary usage” has been undisputed. Dialects still exist,
but they are not regarded as authoritative. Educated speakers and
writers of English, the world over, use the language with substantial
uniformity.[69]
Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had undergone many
changes before Chaucer was born. Most of its inflections had been
lost, and still others have been discarded since. Further, there had
been extensive borrowing from French and Latin, and this continued
throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once formed, has proved
lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions from many languages,
and is still receiving them. Greek may be mentioned in particular as
the source of many words, especially in the various departments of
science. But French and Latin remain the chief foreign elements in
English.
In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in
Roman type are of Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words are
derived from Latin or French.
It was not until evening was nearly _closed_ that Ivanhoe was
_restored_ to _consciousness_ of his _situation_. He awoke from a
broken slumber, under the _confused impressions_ which are _naturally
attendant_ on the _recovery_ from a _state_ of _insensibility_.
He was un_able_ for some time to recall _exactly_ to _memory_ the
_circumstances_ which had _preceded_ his fall in the _lists_, or
to make out any _connected chain_ of the _events_ in which he had
been _engaged_ upon the yesterday. A _sense_ of wounds and _injury_,
_joined_ to great weakness and _exhaustion_, was mingled with the
_recollection_ of blows dealt and _received_, of steeds rushing upon
each other, overthrowing and overthrown, of shouts and clashing of
_arms_, and all the heady _tumult_ of a _confused_ fight. An _effort_
to draw aside the _curtain_ of his _couch_ was in some _degree
success_ful, although _rendered difficult_ by the _pain_ of his wound.
English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though they
form no such proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin. Danish
and Norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth century.
Permanent settlements followed, as well as wars of conquest, and for
about thirty years (1013–1042) a Danish family occupied the English
throne. These events explain the Scandinavian element in our language.
Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from abroad,
it is still essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still the
native structure. The borrowings have enriched its vocabulary, but have
had comparatively little effect upon its syntax. The foreign words have
been naturalized, and their presence in no wise interferes with the
unity and general consistency of the English language. It is a strange
error to regard English as a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Norman
French. As for the loss or decay of inflections, that is not due to
a mixture of dialects. It is a natural tendency, which may be seen,
for example, in Dutch and Danish, though there was no Norman Conquest
in Holland or Denmark. The loss, indeed, is really a gain, for it is
progress in the direction of simplicity.
The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a century, or
a century and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its extreme limit may
be set at 1200. The period from 1200 to 1500 is usually known as the
Middle English Period. From 1500 to the present time may be regarded as
the Modern Period, though within these boundaries English has changed
enormously in pronunciation and in vocabulary, very largely in syntax,
and to some extent in inflection. The almost complete abandonment of
the subjunctive in common speech is one of the latest of these changes.
This, too, is in the direction of simplicity.
The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers,
explorers, and colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or
dialects) of a handful of Germanic adventurers, has spread to all
parts of the world, so that now it is not merely the language of
England, but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland,
North America, India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area,
numerous varieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but,
on the whole, the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well
preserved.
FOOTNOTES
[1] For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316.
[2] Compare pp. 316–317.
[3] In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions
are mentioned from time to time, but always with a note as to their
actual status in the language.
[4] In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student
is constantly encountering in the English classics are treated in their
proper places,--always with an indication of their difference from the
modern standard.
[5] In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to
_describe_ a substantive when it describes the object which the
substantive denotes.
[6] Definitive adjectives are often called +limiting adjectives+. All
adjectives, however, _limit_, even those that also _describe_.
[7] The usual brief definition of a verb is, “A verb is a word which
asserts.” But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in
declarative sentences.
[8] For full inflection see pp. 300–301.
[9] +Compound complex+ sentences are also called +complex compound+
sentences. For further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190,
215–216.
[10] _Vixen_ is really formed from _fox_ (compare the German _Füchsin_
from _Fuchs_).
[11] _Halo_, _memento_, _zero_ also form a plural in _es_ (_haloes_,
etc.).
[12] This list is intended for reference.
[13] The English word _animalcule_ (plural _animalcules_) is
preferable. The plural _animalculæ_ is erroneous.
[14] _Messrs._ is an abbreviation of the French _messieurs_.
[15] When such nouns as _chemistry_ refer to textbooks, they may be
used in the plural: as,--“Bring your _chemistries_ to-morrow.”
[16] This section is intended chiefly for reference.
[17] Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye.
[18] The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a
compound personal pronoun (“Charles deceived _himself_”). See § 126.
[19] The pupil should not “supply nouns” in such sentences as these.
For example, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into “This
[morning] is a fine morning,” and then to parse _this_ as an adjective.
It is even more objectionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting
_thing_ or the like after _this_. The plan of “supplying” unexpressed
words (as being “understood”) tends to confuse real distinctions of
language, and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided.
[20] The negative _not_ (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of
_naught_.
[21] Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are
sometimes called +conjunctive pronouns+.
[22] For indirect questions, see § 441.
[23] In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really
different words from the positive.
[24] The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used
in different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes,
too, there is room for difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and
fifth examples under 1, _terribly_ and _surprisingly_ are equivalent to
“in a terrible (or surprising) manner,” and therefore are classified as
adverbs of manner; but they may also be regarded as adverbs of degree.
[25] Many comparatives and superlatives in _er_ and _est_ that are no
longer allowable in prose are still used in poetry.
[26] Many grammarians regard _is_ and the noun or adjective that
follows it (_is money_, etc.) as the simple predicate; but the
nomenclature here adopted is equally scientific and more convenient.
[27] The word _tense_ is simply an English form of the French word for
_time_.
[28] The +past tense+ is often called the +preterite+ (from a Latin
word meaning “gone by”). _Preterite_ is in some ways a better name for
the tense than _past_, since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses
also refer to past time.
[29] Silent final _e_ is not counted as an ending.
[30] Notice also the change from _v_ to _f_ before _t_.
[31] The ending _ed_ indicates tense, not person or number.
[32] The second person singular is often given as “_Thou walkest_ or
_You walk_,” but it is simpler to regard _You walk_ in this use as a
plural in a singular sense (§ 224).
[33] This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is
unimportant, and the feeling of the moment often determines the number
of the verb.
[34] So _I can strike_, etc.
[35] So _I could strike_, etc.
[36] So _I can have struck_, etc.
[37] So _I could have struck_, etc.
[38] For the so-called +infinitive clause+, in which the infinitive has
a subject of a peculiar kind, see §§ 324–328.
[39] After verbs of _wishing_, etc., they express purpose (§ 403);
after verbs of _believing_, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§
431).
[40] The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling.
[41] Coördinate conjunctions are also called +coördinating+, and
subordinate conjunctions are also called +subordinating+.
[42] Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory
nominative (§ 88, 4).
[43] Including clauses of +manner+ and +degree+ (§§ 428–429).
[44] By “_if_-clause” is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction.
[45] Clauses introduced by _as_ are often called +clauses of manner+.
[46] Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, “The man acts as
if he were crazy” is equivalent to “The man acts as [he would act]
if he were crazy.” But it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in
analyzing.
[47] In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object
of the verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive);
and if it forms a complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it
stood by itself. It is not proper to regard the direct quotation as a
subordinate clause.
[48] See pp. 102–105, 127–132.
[49] Instead of +compound complex+, the term +complex compound+ is
often used. The terms are synonymous, both meaning “compound in general
structure, but complex in one or more members.”
[50] Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112.
[51] For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative,
see pp. 249–250, 252.
[52] The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily
indicate that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable
diversity of usage with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the
facts at length would take much space. An attempt to include archaic,
poetical, and rare forms in the same list with the usual modern forms
is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the list here presented is confined
to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion.
Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later (pp. 297–299).
[53] _Born_ is used only in the passive sense of “born into the world.”
[54] The adjective form is _bereaved_: as, “The bereaved father.”
[55] _Cleave_, “to adhere,” has _cleaved_ in both the past tense and
the past participle, and also an archaic past form _clave_.
[56] The archaic participle _gotten_ is used in the compounds
_begotten_ and _forgotten_, and as an adjective (“_ill-gotten_ gains”).
Many good speakers also use it instead of the past participle got, but
_got_ is the accepted modern form.
[57] _Hanged_ is used only of execution by hanging.
[58] Usage varies with the context. We say, “The crew _hove_ the cargo
overboard,” but NOT “She _hove_ a sigh.”
[59] _Load_ has _loaded_ in both the past tense and the past
participle. _Laden_ is sometimes used as the past participle of _load_.
[60] _Lie_, “to tell a falsehood,” has _lied_ in both the past tense
and the past participle.
[61] So both _light_, “to kindle,” and _light_, “to alight.” The verb
_alight_ has usually _alighted_ in both the past tense and the past
participle.
[62] _Seethe_, intransitive, has usually _seethed_ in both the past
tense and the past participle. It is in rather common literary use.
[63] _Stricken_ is also used as a participle in a figurative sense.
Thus we say, “The community was _stricken_ with pestilence,”--but “The
dog was _struck_ with a stick.”
[64] It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the
principal parts of _begin_ were: present, _beginne_; past, _began_;
past plural, _begunnon_; past participle, _begunnen_.
[65] The adjectives are usually pronounced _blessèd_, _cursèd_. Compare
also the adjective _accursèd_.
[66] Both forms are in good use.
[67] Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced _learnèd_.
[68] The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on
important distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in
thought. In detail, however, there is much variety of usage, and
care should be taken not to insist on such uniformity in the pupils’
practice as is not found in the printed books which they use. If
young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their sentences
properly, much has been accomplished.
[69] It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the
present day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern
Londoner. The point is, that what we now call “English” is, in most
respects, the direct descendant of the London dialect of the fourteenth
century.
INDEX
[_References are to pages_; f. _signifies “and following page”_; ff.
_signifies “and following pages.”_]
_A_ for _on_ (_a-fishing_), 147, 149.
_A_ or _an_, 77 ff.;
distributive, 79.
_About_, with infinitive, 105, 135.
Absolute construction, 144. See Nominative.
Absolute use of transitive verbs, 92.
Abstract nouns, 29 f.
Accusative, 52.
Action, nouns in _-ing_, 145 ff.
Active voice, 107 ff. See Passive.
Adjective, 5, 75 ff.;
descriptive and definitive, 5, 75 f.;
proper, 75;
compound, 75;
pronominal, 76 (cf. 62 ff.);
attributive, appositive, predicate, 76 f.;
articles, 77 ff;
comparison, 79 ff., 88 f.;
numerals, 89 f.;
noun as adjective, adjective as noun, 9, 78;
participle as, 143;
adjective in exclamations, 155 f.;
as modifier of subject, 192 f.
See Adjective pronoun, Predicate adjective.
Adjective clauses, 20, 66, 86, 157 f.;
place or time, 163 f.;
as modifiers of subject, 192 f.;
of complement, 206.
Adjective phrases, 16, 157;
comparison of, 89;
as modifiers of subject, 192 f.;
as complements, 204;
as modifiers of modifiers, 207.
Adjective pronouns, 62 ff.;
demonstrative, 62 ff.;
indefinite, 64 f.
Adverb, defined, 7;
classification, forms, and use, 83 ff.;
relative or conjunctive, 86;
interrogative, 86;
comparison, 87 ff.;
numeral, 89 f.;
in exclamations, 155 f.;
as modifier, 196 f., 206, 208.
Adverbial clauses, 20 f., 86, 158 f.;
place or time, 163 f.;
causal, 164;
concessive, 164 f.;
purpose or result, 166 f.;
conditional, 167 ff.;
comparison, degree, manner, 173;
indirect question, 180;
as modifiers of predicate, 196 f.;
of complement, 206;
of modifiers, 207 f.
Adverbial objective, 53;
clause as, 158 f.;
as modifier, 198.
Adverbial phrases, 16, 53, 142, 158;
numeral, 90;
as modifiers of predicate, 196 f., 198 ff.;
of complement, 206;
of modifiers, 207 f.
_Advising_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138.
Affirmative, 85.
_A-fishing_, etc., 147, 149.
_After_, preposition, 148;
relative adverb, 86, 157, 164.
Agreement, of predicate nominative with subject, 41, 57 f.;
of appositive, 42, 47, 53, 57;
of pronoun with antecedent, 55, 65;
of relative with antecedent, 68, 102;
of verb with subject, 97, 100 ff.
_All_, 65.
Alternative conditions, 168;
questions, 179.
_Although._ See _Though_.
Analysis, 183 ff.;
structure of sentences, 183 ff.;
analysis, with models, 188 ff.;
simple sentences, 188;
compound, 188 f.;
complex, 189 f.;
compound complex, 190;
modifiers, 191 ff.;
complements, 200 ff.;
modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.;
independent elements, 209;
combinations of clauses, 210 ff.;
elliptical sentences, 224 ff.
See further under these several heads.
Anglo-Saxon, xv, 316 f.
Animals, names of, gender, 32;
pronouns, 69.
_Another_, 64 f.
Antecedent of pronoun, 4;
agreement, 55, 65, 68, 102;
unexpressed, 71 ff.;
_what_, 71;
compound relatives, 72 f.
_Any_, _anything_, 64 f.
Apodosis, 168.
Apostrophe, 43 ff., 56, 311.
_Appear_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93.
Apposition, 42. See Appositive.
Appositive, case of, 42, 47, 53, 57;
with possessive, 47;
infinitive as, 134 f.;
clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174, 180, 196;
appositive as modifier, 195 f., 207.
Appositive adjective, 76.
Appositive phrase, 195.
Archaisms, xvii. See Old.
Articles, 77 ff.;
generic, 77;
repeated, 78;
with verbal noun, 147.
_As_, relative pronoun, 67;
relative adverb, 86, 153;
conjunction, 153;
in concession, 165;
in clauses of degree, 173.
_As if_, _as though_, 122, 153, 173;
_as to_, with infinitive, 167.
_Asking_, verb of, two objects, 50;
retained object, 112;
with indirect question, 179 ff. (cf. 160).
Assertion, 2, 5, 13.
Attribute. See Predicate adjective, Predicate objective.
Attributive adjective, 76.
_Aught_, _naught_, 65.
Authorship, 43.
Auxiliary verbs, 6, 91;
in future, 102 ff.;
in compound tenses, 106;
in passive, 108 ff.;
in progressive form, 113 f.;
in emphatic form, 114;
replacing subjunctive, 123;
in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.
_Be_, 6 f., 93;
conjugation, 99, 118 f., 300 f.;
auxiliary of passive, 108 ff.;
of progressive form, 113;
ellipsis of, 114, 144, 164 f., 169, 224 f.;
predicate pronoun after, 139.
See Predicate nominative.
_Become_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93.
_Before_, preposition, 148;
relative adverb, 86, 157, 163 f.;
with subjunctive, 122;
with _should_, 130.
_Believing_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138.
Biblical style. See Solemn.
_Bid_, with infinitive, 138.
_Both_, pronoun, 64.
_Both ... and_, 15, 153.
_But_, adverb, 135.
_But_, coördinate conjunction, 152;
subordinate, 153 f.;
elliptical constructions, 154.
_But_, preposition, 148;
with infinitive, 135.
_Calling_, verbs of, two objects, 50;
predicate nominative after passive, 111.
_Can_, _could_, 124 ff., 299.
Capital letters, 27 ff., 75;
rules, 305.
Cardinal numerals, 89 f.
Case, 40 ff.;
nominative, 40 ff.;
possessive, 43 ff.;
objective, 47 ff.;
of appositives, 42, 47, 53, 57.
See Pronouns.
Cause, clauses of, 164;
nominative absolute, 144.
Chaucer, xv, 43, 49, 85, 317 f.
_Choosing_, verbs of, two objects, 50;
predicate nominative after passive, 111.
Clauses, independent and subordinate, 16 ff.;
as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.;
infinitive, 137 ff.;
simple, compound, complex, 210 ff.;
combination of, 210 ff.
See Adjective, Adverbial, Noun, Infinitive clause.
Clauses, subordinate, classified according to meaning, 163 ff.;
place and time, 163 f.;
cause, 164;
concession, 164 f.;
purpose and result, 166 f.;
conditional, 167 ff.;
comparison and manner, 173;
indirect discourse, 173 ff.;
indirect questions, 179 ff.
Cognate object, 52;
_it_ as, 58;
as modifier, 199.
Collective nouns, 29 f.;
verbs with, 101 f.
Colloquial forms and constructions, xvi, 38, 57 ff., 61, 69, 100, 112,
120, 149, 155.
Colon, 309 f.
Color, adjectives of, 84.
Combinations of clauses, 210 ff.
_Come_, _have_ (or _am_) _come_, 107.
Comma, 70, 306 ff.
Command, with _shall_ or _will_, 105, 118;
as condition, 169;
verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138;
with noun clause, 160, 167.
See Imperative.
Common gender, 31.
Common nouns, 27 ff.;
personification, 28 f.
Comparative and superlative, of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.;
of adverbs, 87 ff.;
use, 88 f.;
comparative with _the_, 86.
Comparison, clauses of, 173.
Comparison of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.;
of adverbs, 87 ff.;
use of, 88 f.
Complementary infinitive, 137.
Complementary object, 50. See Predicate objective.
Complements. See Object, Predicate objective, Predicate nominative,
Predicate adjective.
Complements, classified, 200 ff.;
direct object, 201;
predicate objective, 202;
predicate nominative, 202 f.;
predicate adjective, 203 f.
Complements, modifiers of, 205 f.
Complete predicate. See Predicate.
Complete predication, 200.
Complete subject. See Subject.
Complete tenses, 106 f.
Complete verbs, 200.
Complex clauses, 18, 187, 211 f., 215 f., 219 ff.
Complex compound. See Compound complex.
Complex sentences, 17 ff., 186;
analyzed, 189 f.;
varieties of, 216 ff.
Compound adjectives, 75.
Compound clauses, 151, 186, 210 ff.
Compound complex sentences, 18, 187, 215 f.;
analyzed, 190, 222 f.
Compound conjunctions, 153.
Compound nouns, 30, 146 f.;
plural, 36;
possessive, 46 f.
Compound personal pronouns, 60 ff.;
intensive and reflexive, 61 f.;
relatives, 72 f.
Compound predicate, 15, 184 f., 212 f.
Compound sentences, 17 ff., 185;
analyzed, 188 f.;
elaboration of, 213 f.
Compound subject, 15, 184 f., 212 f.;
agreement, 100 f.
Compound tenses, 106 f.
_Concerning_, 142, 149.
Concession, moods in, 120 ff.;
_should_ and _would_ in, 123, 131;
clauses of, 164 ff.
Conclusion, 168.
Conditional clauses and sentences, moods in, 120 ff., 170 ff.;
forms and meaning, 167 ff.;
classification, 169 ff.;
past and present, 170 f.;
non-committal and contrary to fact, 170 f.;
future, 171 f.;
_shall_, _will_, _should_, _would_, 130 f.
Conjugation, 25, 94 ff.;
indicative present and past, 98 f.;
future, 102;
active and passive, 108 ff.;
progressive, 113 f.;
potential verb-phrases, 124 f.;
tables of, 300 ff.
Conjunction, defined, 8;
classification and use, 151 ff.;
coördinate or coördinating, 151 f.;
subordinate or subordinating, 151, 153 f.;
correlative, 153 f.;
adverb, preposition, and, 152 f.;
and adverb, 150.
Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns. See Relative.
_Considering_, 142, 149.
Construction, xiv, 25 ff.
Contractions: _it’s_, 56;
_I’ll_, _we’ll_, 104;
_let’s_, 120;
_may n’t_, _ought n’t_, 126;
_I’d_, _we’d_, 130.
Contrary to fact, conditions, 170 f.
Coördinate (coördinating) conjunctions, 151 f.
Coördinate clauses, 17 ff., 185 ff., 210 ff.
Coördination in sentences, 210 ff. See Coördinate.
Copula. See _Be_.
Copulative verbs, 6 f., 76, 93. See _Be_.
Correlative conjunctions, 153 f.
_Could._ See _Can_.
_Dare_, 137, 299.
Dash, 310.
Dative, 52, 60.
Declarative sentences, 2.
_Declaring_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138.
Declension of nouns, 40;
of personal pronouns, 55 f.;
of _self_-pronouns, 60;
of demonstratives, 63;
of relatives, 67;
of compound relatives, 72;
of interrogatives, 73.
Defective verbs, 299.
Definite article, 77 ff.
Definitive adjectives, 5, 75 f.
Degree, adverbs of, 84;
clauses of, 173.
See Comparison.
Deity, words for the, 305.
Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives, 62 ff.
Dependent. See Subordinate.
Descriptive adjectives, 4, 75;
relatives, 70 f.
_Desiring_, verbs of, with infinitive, 137;
with noun clause, 160, 167.
_Did._ See _Do_.
Direct address, nominative in, 42;
independent element, 209.
Direct discourse, 174 ff.
Direct object. See Object.
Direct quotations, 173 f.;
questions, 179.
_Do_, _did_, in questions, 114;
in emphatic verb-phrases, 114;
in imperative, 117;
as substitute for some other verb, 114.
Double comparison, 88;
conditions, 168.
_Doubting_, verb of, with indirect question, 179 (cf. 160).
_Each_, _each other_, 64 f.
Editorial _we_, 57.
_Either_, 64;
_either ... or_, 15, 153.
_Elder_, _eldest_, 81.
Elements. See Subject, Predicate, Modifiers, Complements, Independent.
Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3, 47, 58, 63, 69, 71, 114, 117,
19 f., 121 f., 133, 144, 149, 153 f., 155, 160, 164 f., 169, 173,
175, 224 ff.
Elliptical sentences, 224 ff.
_’em_, 57.
Emphasis, superlative of, 88.
Emphatic verb-phrases, 114;
imperative, 117.
_-en_, plural ending of nouns, 35;
old plural ending of verbs, 99.
Endings, in inflection, 25;
gender, 33;
number, 34 ff.;
case, 40;
possessive, 43 f.;
comparison, 80 ff., 87;
adverbs, 83 ff.;
tense, 95 f.;
personal endings, 97 f.
English language, xi ff.;
history of, 316 ff.
Errors of speech, 37, 45, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64 f., 74, 77, 88, 102 ff.,
126, 128 ff., 133 ff., 139, 147.
_Even if_, 153, 164 f.
_Every_, _everybody_, _everything_, 64 f.
_Except_, with infinitive, 135.
Exclamation, nominative in, 42, 57, 156;
objective _me_, 60;
infinitive, 136;
various parts of speech, 155 f.;
phrases, 155 f.;
clauses, 169;
as independent element, 209.
See Interjection.
Exclamation point, 155, 306.
Exclamatory sentences, 2 f., 74;
phrases, 155 f.;
expressions, 155 f., 209.
See Exclamation, Interjection.
Exercises, 227–290. See Table of Contents, v.
Exhortations, 120.
Expectation, subjunctive, 122 f.;
_should_, 130.
Expletive. See _It_, _There_.
Extent, possessive of, 46.
_Eyne_, 35.
_Feel_, with predicate adjective, 77;
with infinitive, 136.
Feminine. See Gender.
_Few_, 65.
Figures, plural of, 36.
_For_, conjunction, 152.
_For_, preposition, 148, 152;
with infinitive, 135;
with infinitive clause, 139.
Foreign plurals, 37.
Fractional parts, 90.
Future conditions, 171 f.
Future perfect tense, 106.
Future tense, 94, 102 ff. See _Shall_, _will_.
Gender, 31 ff.;
of nouns and pronouns, 31;
special rules for nouns, 32 ff.;
of pronouns, 56;
of relatives, 67 ff.
See Personification.
_Generally speaking_, 142.
Generic article, 77.
Genitive. See Possessive.
Gerund, 146.
_Giving_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50;
retained object, 112.
_Go._ See Motion.
_Going to_, 105.
Grammar, nature and principles of, xi ff.
_Granted that_, 168.
Habitual action, 127.
_Had rather_, etc., 123;
_had to_, 126.
_Half_, 102.
_Have_, _had_, 6, 95;
auxiliary in compound tenses, 106 ff., 141.
_He_, 56;
for _he or she_, 65.
_Hear_, with infinitive, 136.
_Hem_, old pronoun, 57.
_His_, as neuter, 56.
_Hosen_, 35.
_How_, 86.
_However_, 152;
in concessions, 165.
Hyphen, 30, 311.
_I’d_, _we’d_, 130.
Idioms, nature of, xv.
_If_, 153;
in conditions, 168 ff.;
in wishes, 169;
in indirect questions, 179.
_Ill_, 81, 87.
_I’ll_, _we’ll_, 104.
Imperative mood, 116 ff.;
in exclamations, 156;
as a condition, 169.
Imperative sentences, 2 f., 116 ff.;
subject of, 2, 117.
Impersonal _it_, 58. See _It_.
_In case that_, 153;
_in order that_, 153, 166;
_in order to_, 167.
Incomplete predication, 200;
verbs, 200.
Indefinite article, 77 ff.;
pronouns and adjectives, 64 f.;
nouns, 65;
relatives (_whoever_, etc.), 72 f.
Independent clauses, 17 f. See Clauses.
Independent elements, 209.
Independent participles, 142.
Indicative mood, 115 f.;
variety of use, 116;
in statements and questions of fact, 116;
in commands, 105, 118;
in concessions, 121;
in conditions, 170, 172.
Indirect discourse, 173 ff.;
tenses in, 175;
passive, 175 f.;
_shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 177 f.
Indirect object, 50 f.;
retained with passive, 112;
of participial nouns, 146;
as modifier, 199.
Indirect questions, 179 ff.;
infinitive in, 181;
subjunctive in, 181;
_shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 182.
Indirect quotations, 173 ff.
Infinitive, 11 ff., 132 ff.;
forms, 107, 133;
object and modifiers, 134;
uses, 134 ff.;
as noun, 11 ff., 134;
as object, 135;
as nominative of exclamation, 136;
as modifier, 136 f., 194, 197 f.;
with _see_, _hear_, _feel_, 136;
complementary, 137;
of purpose, 137, 167;
in verb-phrases, 12;
in future, 102;
in emphatic forms, 114, 117;
in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.;
with _ought_, tenses, 126;
in indirect questions, 181;
in verb-phrases, see Future, Future perfect, Emphatic, Potential.
Infinitive clause, 137 ff.;
as object, 138 f.;
as subject, 139;
predicate pronoun in, 139;
expressing purpose, 167;
indirect discourse, 175.
Infinitive phrase, 194.
Inflection, nature and function of, xiii f., 25;
summary of, 26;
of nouns, 30 ff.;
of pronouns, 55 ff.;
of adjectives, 79 ff.;
of verbs, 94 ff.;
lists of verb-forms, 291 ff.
_-ing_, verbal nouns in, 145 ff. See Participial nouns.
Intensive pronouns, 61 f.
Interjections, defined, 8;
use, 155 f.;
as independent elements, 209.
Interrogation point, 306.
Interrogative adverbs, 86;
with clauses, 157;
in indirect questions, 179;
with infinitive, 181.
Interrogative pronouns, 73 f.;
as adjectives, 74;
with prepositions, 150;
with clauses, 157;
in indirect questions, 179 ff.;
with infinitive, 181.
Interrogative sentences, 2 f.;
order in, 3;
_do_, _did_ in, 114;
direct and indirect questions, 179 ff.
Intransitive verbs, 48 f., 92 f.;
voice, 111;
in passive with preposition, 111.
Inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161.
Irregular verbs, 95, 99;
participles, 141;
lists, 291 ff.
_Is._ See _Be_.
_It_, 56;
impersonal, 58;
expletive, 58, 135, 161, 175 f.;
cognate object, 58.
_Kind_, _sort_, 64.
_Kine_, 35.
_Knowing_, verbs of, indirect discourse, 174;
indirect question, 179.
Language, nature of, xi ff.;
English, 316 ff.
_Less_, _least_, 81, 87.
_Lest_, with subjunctive, 122;
purpose, 122, 166.
_Let_, with infinitive, 138;
_let us_, 120.
Letters, plural of, 36.
_Like_, _should like_, 129.
_Like_, with objective, 52.
Limiting adjectives, 5. See Definitive.
_Look_, with predicate adjective, 77.
Main clause, 17 f.;
analysis, 184 ff., 213 ff.;
compound, 216 f.
Majesty, plural of, 57.
_Make_, with infinitive, 138.
_Making_, verbs of, two objects, 50;
predicate nominative after passive, 111.
_-man_, words ending in, plural of, 35.
Manner, adverbs of, 83;
clauses of, 173.
_Many_, 65.
Masculine. See Gender.
_May_, _might_, auxiliary, 120 ff.;
replacing subjunctive, 123;
form, 299.
Measure or extent, possessive of, 46.
_Meseems_, _methinks_, 60.
_Might_, auxiliary, 123 ff.;
replacing subjunctive, 123;
_might better_, 123.
See _May_.
Modal auxiliaries, use and meaning, 124 ff.
Mode. See Mood.
Models for parsing, analysis, 54, 74, 82, 188 ff., 243, 250 f., 262,
270. See Exercises.
Modifiers, 7;
classified, 191 ff.;
of subject, 192 ff.;
adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, 192 f.;
participles, 193 f.;
infinitives, 194;
possessives, 195;
appositives, 195 f.;
of predicate, 196 ff.;
adverbs, adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses, 196 f.;
infinitives, 197 f.;
adverbial objectives, 198;
nominative absolute, 198 f.;
indirect object, 199;
cognate object, 199.
Modifiers of complements, 205 f.
Modifiers of modifiers, 207 f.
Mood, 115 ff.;
indicative, 115 f.;
imperative, 116 ff.;
subjunctive, 118 ff.;
potential, 124.
See Indicative, Subjunctive, etc.
_More_, _most_, in comparison, 81, 87 ff.
_-most_, superlative suffix, 82.
Motion, verbs of, with _have_ or _be_, 107;
ellipsis, 225.
_Must_, auxiliary, 124 ff., 299.
_My_, _mine_, 59.
_Naming_, verbs of, two objects, 50;
predicate nominative after passive, 111.
_Naught_, _not_, 65.
_Near_, with objective, 52.
Negative, _neither_, 64, 152;
_none_, 64;
_not_, 65;
_no_, 85;
statements and questions, 114;
commands, 117;
purpose or result, 166 f.;
condition, 168.
_Neither_, pronoun, 64;
conjunction, with _nor_, 15, 152 ff.;
number with, 100.
Neuter. See Gender.
_Next_, 52, 82, 87.
_Nigh_, _next_, 82.
_No_, _yes_, 85.
Nominative case, 41 f.;
subject, 41;
predicate, 41;
direct address (vocative), 42;
in exclamation, 42;
absolute, 144, 198 f.
Non-committal conditions, 170 f.
_None_, 64.
_Nor_, _neither ... nor_, number with, 100.
_Not_, 65.
_Notwithstanding_, preposition or conjunction, 152, 154.
Noun, defined, 4;
classification, 27 ff.;
common and proper, 27 ff.;
abstract and collective, 29 f.;
compound, 30, 36, 47, 146 f.;
inflection, 30 ff.;
gender, 31 ff.;
number, 34 ff.;
person, 39;
case, 40 ff.;
numeral, 89 f.;
verbal (participial), 145 ff.
See Infinitive.
Noun clauses, 20, 159 ff.;
construction, as subject, object, etc., 159 ff.;
purpose and result, 166 f.;
indirect discourse, 174 ff.;
indirect questions, 180 ff.;
analysis, 190;
as complement, 201 ff.;
direct object, 201;
predicate objective, 202;
predicate nominative, 203.
Noun-phrases, 16, 28;
possessive of, 47;
verbal noun-phrases, 146.
_Number_, _a_ (or _the_), 101.
Number of nouns, 34 ff.;
of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 63 ff., 67 f., 72;
of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.;
agreement in, 55, 65, 68, 97, 100 ff.
Numerals, 89 f.
_O_ or _oh_, 8, 155;
in wishes, 155.
Object, of preposition, 8, 47, 148;
of verb, direct, 48 ff.;
predicate objective, 50;
indirect, 50 f.;
for whom, 51;
cognate, 52;
retained, 112;
of infinitive, 134;
of verbal (participial) noun, 146 f.;
infinitive as, 135;
infinitive clause as, 138 f.;
noun-clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174 ff., 180 f.
See Complements, Modifiers.
Object clauses. See Noun clauses.
Objective attribute, 50.
Objective case, 47 ff.;
of service, 51 f.;
adverbial, 53;
in apposition, 53;
of pronouns, 55 f., 60, 63, 67, 69, 72, 73 f.;
in exclamation, 60;
subject of infinitive, 138 f.
See Object.
Objective complement, 50. See Predicate objective.
Obsolete words, etc., xvi f. See Old.
_Of mine_, 47, 59.
_Of_-phrase, 45.
Old or poetical forms and constructions, 28 f., 32, 35, 39, 43, 45,
52, 56 ff., 59 ff., 62 f., 67, 69, 73, 78, 82, 84 f., 88, 90,
95 ff., 99, 100, 105, 114, 116 f., 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 135,
149, 154, 225, 293, 297 ff.
_On condition that_, 168.
_One_, _one’s_, _one’s self_, 60, 65;
_one another_, 64 f.
_Or_, _either ... or_, 15, 153 f.;
number with _or_, _nor_, 100.
Order. See Inverted.
Orders, _will_ in, 105. See Command.
Ordinal numerals, 89 f.
_Other_, _another_, 64 f.
_Ought_, 126 f.
_Ourself_, 60.
_Owe_, _ought_, 126, 299.
_Own_, 61.
_Pains_, 101.
Parsing, models for, 54, 74, 82, 243, 250 f., 262, 270.
_Part_, _portion_, 102.
Participial nouns, 145 ff.;
object of, 146 f.;
modifiers of, 146;
as adjective, 146 f.;
with article, 147.
Participial phrase, 194.
Participles, 11 f., 140 ff.;
present, past, perfect, 12, 106 f., 140 f.;
constructions, 142 ff.;
object and modifiers of, 142 f.;
as prepositions, 142, 149;
as adjectives, 143;
with nominative absolute, 145;
as modifiers, 193 f., 205.
Parts of speech, defined, 3 ff.;
same word as different, 9 ff.;
substitutes for, 15 ff. (see Phrases, Clauses);
inflection and syntax, 25 ff.
See Noun, Pronoun, etc.
Passive voice, 107 ff.;
form of, 108 ff.;
use of, 110 ff.;
predicate nominative with, 111;
retained object with, 112;
in progressive form, 114;
in imperative, 117;
in subjunctive, 119;
intransitive verbs with preposition, 111;
passive distinguished from _be_ with participle used as adjective, 143;
clause as retained object, 160;
indirect discourse, 175 f.
Past conditions, 169 ff.;
non-committal, 170 f.;
contrary to fact, 171.
Past participle, 106, 140 f.;
as predicate adjective, 143.
Past perfect tense, 106, 109;
subjunctive, 121 f., 171;
progressive, 125;
in conditions, 121, 170 f.;
in indirect discourse, 175.
Past tense, 94 ff.;
personal endings, 97 ff.;
passive, 108;
progressive, 113 f.;
emphatic, 114;
subjunctive, 118, 121 ff., 171 f.;
indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 ff.;
in indirect discourse, 175.
_Pending_, 142, 149.
_Per_, _per cent_, etc., 79, 149.
_Perceiving_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138;
indirect discourse, 174;
indirect question, 179.
Perfect infinitive, 107, 133;
with _ought_, 126;
participle, 107, 140 f.
Perfect (or present perfect) tense, 106.
Period, 306.
Permission, 125 f., 129.
Person of substantives, 39;
of pronouns, 55 ff.;
of relatives, 68;
of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.
Personal construction, 176.
Personal endings, 97 f.
Personal pronouns, 55 ff.;
inflection, 55 ff.;
gender and number, 56 f.;
case, 57 ff.;
_self_-pronouns, 60 ff.;
as predicate nominative, 41.
Personification, 28 f., 32.
Phrases, 16;
kinds of, 16 (see Noun-phrases, Adjective phrases,
Adverbial phrases, Verb-phrases);
as prepositions, 149;
as conjunctions, 153;
exclamatory, 155;
in analysis, 191 ff.;
as modifiers of subject, 192 f.;
of predicate, 196 f.;
as complements, 204;
as modifiers of complements, 205 f.;
of other modifiers, 207 f.
See Progressive, Emphatic, Potential, Appositive, Infinitive,
Participial, Prepositional, Verbal noun-phrases.
Place and time, adverbs of, 83 ff.;
clauses of, 163 f.
Pluperfect tense, 106, 109;
subjunctive, 121 f., 171;
progressive, 125;
in conditions, 121, 170 f.;
in indirect discourse, 175.
Plural of nouns, 34 ff.;
irregular, 35 ff.;
of compounds, 36;
of foreign nouns, 37;
of proper names and titles, 35, 38;
of possessive, 43 f.;
of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 62 ff.;
of relatives, 67 f.;
of verbs, 97 ff.;
plural of majesty, 57.
Poetical forms and constructions, xvii. See Old.
_Portion_, _part_, 102.
Positive degree, 79, 87.
Possessive case of nouns, 43 ff.;
use, 45 ff.;
of measure, 46;
of compound nouns and of phrases, 46 f.;
apposition with, 47;
of personal pronouns, 55 f., 59;
of definite pronouns, 65;
of relatives, 67, 69, 72;
of interrogatives, 73;
possessive nouns modified, 207.
Possessive modifiers, 195, 205, 207.
Possessive pronouns, 55 f., 59;
_my_, _mine_, etc., use of, 59;
_one’s_, 65;
_whose_, 67, 69, 72, 73.
Potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.;
mood, 124 ff.
_Pray_, 58.
Prayers, subjunctive, 119 f.
Predicate, 2;
inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161;
simple and complete, 14 f., 183 f.;
compound, 15, 184 f., 212 f.;
possessive in, 59;
analysis, 183 ff.;
modifiers of, 196 ff.;
complements, 200 ff.
See Complements, Modifiers.
Predicate adjective, 76 f., 93;
participle as, 143;
analysis, 203 f.;
as complement, 203 f.;
phrase as, 204;
modifiers of, 206.
Predicate nominative, 41, 49, 93;
of pronouns, 58;
after passive, 111;
infinitive as, 134 f.;
infinitive clause as, 139;
noun clause as, 159 f., 174, 180;
in analysis, 202 f.;
as complement, 202 f.;
modifiers of, 205 f.
Predicate objective, 50, 111;
adjective as, 50;
in analysis, 202;
as complement, 202;
modified, 205.
Predicate pronoun after _to be_, 139.
Predication, complete and incomplete, 200.
Preposition, defined, 8;
list and uses, 148 ff.;
object of, 8, 47, 150 ff.;
with intransitive verb, 111;
with passive, 111;
phrase used as, 149;
at end of clause, 149;
following the object, 149;
omitted, 149;
participle as, 149;
infinitive as object of, 135;
clause as object of, 161, 180.
Prepositional phrases, 16, 148.
Present conditions, 170 ff.;
non-committal, 170 f.;
contrary to fact, 171.
Present infinitive, 133;
with _ought_, 126.
Present participle, 12, 140 f.;
in verb-phrases, 13, 113 f., 130 f.;
with nominative absolute, 144.
Present perfect tense, 106.
Present tense form, 94;
personal endings, 97 f.;
conjugation, 98 f.;
in future sense, 105;
in future conditions, 172;
passive, 108;
progressive, 113 f.;
emphatic, 114;
imperative, 116 f.;
subjunctive, 118 f., 120 ff.;
indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 f.;
participle, 12, 144 ff.;
infinitive, 133.
Preterite, 94. See Past.
Preterite-present verbs, 299.
Principal clause. See Main clause.
Principal parts, 107;
list, 291 ff.
_Prithee_, 58.
Progressive verb-phrases, 113 f.;
in subjunctive, 119.
Prohibition, 117.
Pronominal adjectives. See Adjective pronouns; Demonstrative,
Indefinite, Relative, Interrogative.
Pronoun defined, 4;
antecedent of, 4;
classification, forms, and uses, 55 ff.;
predicate nominative, 41, 58.
See Personal, Adjective, Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative,
Interrogative, Intensive, Reflexive, Reciprocal, Gender.
Pronoun, predicate, after to be, 139.
Proper nouns, 27 ff.;
plural, 35, 38;
possessive, 44;
adjectives, 75.
Prophecy, _shall_, 105.
Protasis, 168.
_Provided_ (_that_), 153, 168.
Punctuation, rules of, 306 ff.
Purpose, subjunctive and indicative, 122 f.;
infinitive of, 137, 167;
clauses of, 166 f.;
infinitive clause, 167.
Questions, 3 f.;
_shall_ and _will_ in, 102 ff.;
_should_ and _would_ in, 127 ff.;
_do_, _did_, 114;
_may_, 126;
as condition, 169;
direct and indirect, 179 ff.
See Interrogative.
Quotation marks, 310.
Quotations, direct and indirect, 173 ff.
_Rather_, 87;
_had rather_, 123.
Reciprocal pronouns, 64 f.
Reflexive pronouns, 61;
simple personal pronouns as, 61.
_Refusing_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50;
retained object, 112.
Regular verbs, 95 ff.;
participles, 141.
Relative adjectives, 73.
Relative adverbs, 86;
with subjunctive, 122;
introducing clauses, 157 f.;
place and time, 164;
concession, 165;
conditions, 169.
Relative pronouns, 66 ff.;
forms, 67;
gender, 67 ff.;
agreement, 68, 102;
case, 68 f., 139;
omitted, 69;
descriptive and restrictive, 70 f.;
_what_, 71;
compound relatives, 72 f.;
relatives introducing clauses, 66, 157 f.;
place and time, 163 f.;
concession, 131, 165;
condition, 131, 169.
Restrictive relatives, 70 f.
Result, clause of, 166 f.;
infinitive, 167;
negative, 167.
Retained object, 112;
clause as, 160.
Royal _we_, 57, 60.
_Same_ (_the_) _as_, 67.
_Saying._ See _Telling_.
_See_, with infinitive, 136.
_Seem_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93;
_it seems that_, 176.
_Self_-pronouns, 60 ff.
Semicolon, 309 f.
Sentences, 1 ff.;
kinds of, 2 f.;
parts of speech in, 3 ff., 13 ff.;
essential elements in, 2, 14;
simple and complete subject and predicate, 14 f.;
clauses in, 16 ff.;
simple, compound, complex, 17 ff.;
compound complex, 18.
Sentences, analysis, 183 ff.;
structure and elements, 183;
of simple sentences, 184 f.;
of compound, 185;
of complex, 186;
of compound and complex clauses, 186 f.;
of compound complex sentences, 187;
models for analysis of simple, compound, complex,
compound complex sentences, 188 ff.;
modifiers, 191 ff.;
complements, 200 ff.;
modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.;
independent elements, 209;
combinations of clauses making sentences of various forms, 210 ff.;
special complications, 220 ff.;
elliptical sentences, 224 ff.
See Subject, Compound, Complex, Modifiers, etc.
Sequence of tenses, 175, 179.
Service, objective of, 51 f.
_Several_, 65.
Shakspere, forms and constructions in, 35, 39, 47, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62,
63, 67, 69, 88, 90, 126, 149, 154, 166, 169, 171, 225.
_Shall_ and _will_, 102 ff.;
in assertions and questions, 102 ff.;
in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.;
indirect discourse, 177 f.;
indirect questions, 182;
forms, 299.
See _Should_.
Ship, gender, 32.
_Shoon_, 35.
_Should_ and _would_, in simple sentences and independent clauses,
127 ff.;
in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.;
in indirect discourse, 177 f.;
in indirect questions, 182.
See _Shall_.
_Should_ and _would_, special senses, 126 f.;
replacing subjunctive, 123;
in clauses of purpose, 130;
concessions, 131;
in conditional sentences, 131, 171 f.
Signs, plural of, 36.
Simple clauses. See Clauses.
Simple sentences, 17 ff., 184 f.;
analyzed, 188 f.;
elaboration of, 212 f.
See Sentences.
_Since_, adverb, preposition, conjunction, 86, 153.
Singular. See Number.
_Smell_, with predicate adjective, 77.
_So as to_, 167;
_so that_, 153, 166.
Solemn (or Biblical) style, xvii, 56 f., 60, 69, 90, 95, 98 f., 105,
117, 120, 122, 172.
_Some_, 64;
_somewhat_, 65.
_Sort_, _kind_, 64.
_Sound_, with predicate adjective, 77.
Split infinitive, 134.
_Still_, _yet_, adverbs or conjunctions, 152.
Strong verbs, 95, 99;
participles, 141;
list, 291 ff.
Style and grammar, xvi f.
Subject, 2;
inverted order, 3;
omitted, 3, 58, 114, 117, 121, 164 f., 169, 224 ff.;
simple and complete, 14 f.;
compound, 15, 184 f.;
infinitive as, 11, 134 f.;
clause as, 20, 139, 159 f., 174 f., 180, 190;
case, 41;
agreement with verb, 97, 100 ff.;
modifiers of, 192 ff.;
subject of infinitive, 138.
See Predicate nominative.
Subject and predicate, 2, 13 ff., 183 ff., 191 ff.
Subject complement, 41. See Predicate nominative.
Subjunctive mood, 115 f., 118 ff.;
forms, 118 f.;
uses, 119 ff.;
in wishes, etc., 119 f.;
concessions, 120 f.;
conditions, 120 ff., 170 ff.;
clauses of purpose or expectation, 122, 166;
with _as if_, 122, 173;
in indirect questions, 181;
auxiliaries replacing subjunctive, 123.
Subordinate clauses, 17 ff.;
as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.;
analysis, 186 ff., 189 ff.;
combinations of, 210; variety of use, 216 ff.;
special complications, 220 ff.
See Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, Indicative, Subjunctive.
Subordinate clauses, meanings of, 163 ff.;
place and time, 163 f.;
cause, 164;
concession, 164 f.;
purpose and result, 166 f.;
conditional, 167 ff.;
comparison and manner, 173;
indirect discourse, 173 ff.;
indirect questions, 179 ff.
Subordinate (or subordinating) conjunctions, 151, 153 f., 157.
Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pronoun.
Substantive clauses. See Noun clauses.
_Such_, 64;
_such ... as_, 67.
Superlative of emphasis, 88. See Comparison.
_Suppose_, _supposing_, 168.
Syntax, xiv, 25 ff.;
summary of rules, 311 ff.
_Taste_, with predicate adjective, 77.
_Telling_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50;
retained object, 112;
object clause, 160;
indirect discourse, 174.
Tense, 94 ff. See Present, Past, Future, Compound tenses.
Tenses, use in conditions, 121, 170 ff.;
with _ought_, 126;
in indirect discourse, 175, 177 ff.;
in indirect questions, 179, 182.
Termination. See Endings.
_Than_, 87;
case after, 173;
clauses, 173.
_That_, conjunction with subordinate clause, 20 f., 132, 137, 153,
157 ff., 160 ff.;
in clauses of purpose, 122 f., 130, 166 f.;
result, 166 f.;
indirect discourse, 174 ff.;
omitted, 153, 160, 175, 225.
_That_, demonstrative, 62 ff.;
relative, 67 ff.;
omitted, 69.
_The_, article, 77 ff.;
abbreviated to _ye_, 57;
_the which_, 67;
adverb with comparative, 86.
_Then_, adverb or conjunction, 152.
_There_, expletive, 85.
_Thereof_, _therewith_, etc., 60.
_They_, indefinite use, 57.
_Thinking_, verbs of, two objects, 50;
predicate nominative after passive, 111;
object clause, 160;
indirect discourse, 174;
indirect question, 179.
_This_, _these_, 62 ff.
_Thou_, _ye_, _you_, 56 f.
_Though_, _although_, 21;
mood after, 120 f.
See Concession.
_Till_, _until_, relative adverb, 86;
with subjunctive, 122 f.;
with _should_, 123, 130;
preposition, 149.
Time, adverbs of, 83;
clauses of, 163 f.;
nominative absolute, 144.
Titles, plural, 38.
_To_, with infinitive, 11, 132 ff.;
standing for infinitive, 133;
expressing purpose, 167;
_to let_, 136;
_to the end that_, 166.
_Too_ ... _to_, 167.
Transition, 152.
Transitive verbs, 48 ff., 92;
used absolutely, 92;
passive use of, 110 ff.
See Object.
_Unless_, 121 ff., 168.
_Unlike_, objective with, 52.
_Until._ See _Till_.
Usage and grammar, xv ff.
Verb, 5 ff.;
inflection and syntax, 91 ff.;
classification, 91 ff.;
inflection, 94 ff., 102 ff.;
person and number, 97 ff.;
agreement with subject, 97, 100 ff.;
voice, 107 ff.;
progressive form, 113 f.;
emphatic form, 114;
mood, 115 ff.;
potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.;
infinitive, 11 f., 132 ff.;
participles, 11 f., 140 ff.;
lists of verbs, 291 ff.
See Predicate, Transitive, Tense, etc.
Verbal noun in _-ing_, 145 ff. See Participial nouns.
Verbal noun-phrases, 146.
Verb-phrases, 5, 16, 91;
to supply inflection, see Future, Complete tenses, Passive,
Progressive, Potential, Subjunctive.
Vocal organs, xi.
Vocabulary of English, 318 f.
Vocative (direct address), nominative, 42;
as independent element, 209.
Voice, 107 ff. See Passive.
_We_, indefinite use, 57;
royal and editorial _we_, 57.
Weak verbs, 95 ff., 98 f.;
participles, 141;
lists, 291 ff.
_We’d_, 130.
_Well_, 81, 87.
_We’ll_, 104.
_Were to_, 172.
_What_, relative, 71;
double construction, 71, 73;
as adjective, 73;
interrogative, 73 f.;
as adjective, 74;
in exclamatory sentences, 74;
interjection, 74.
_Whatever_, _whatsoever_, 72 f.;
in concession, 165;
in conditions, 169.
_Whatso_, 73.
_When_, _whenever_, 86;
in conditions, 169.
_Whence_, 86.
_Where_, _wherever_, 86.
_Whereof_, _wherefrom_, etc., 69.
_Whether_, _whether ... or_, 153, 168, 179.
_Which_, relative, 67 ff.;
gender, 67 ff.;
for _who_, _whom_, 69;
as adjective, 73;
_the which_, 67;
interrogative, 73;
as adjective, 74.
_Whichever_, 72 f.
_While_, noun, adverb, conjunction, 86, 153.
_Whither_, 86.
_Who_, _whose_, _whom_, relative, 66 ff.;
gender, 67 ff.;
interrogative, 73 f., 150.
_Whoever_, _whosoever_, _whoso_, 72 f.;
in concession, 165;
in condition, 169.
_Why_, 86, 179.
_Will_, in orders, 105;
in future, see _Shall_.
Wish, subjunctive in, 119 f., 123;
_may_, 125 f.;
verbs of, with infinitive or infinitive clause, 137 f.;
with object clause, 160, 167;
_O_ in a wish, 155;
_if_, 169.
Words, nature and use of, xi ff.
_Wot_, _wist_, 299.
_Would_, in wishes, 120;
habitual action, 127;
_would better_ (_rather_), 123.
See _Should_.
Written and spoken language, xi ff.
_Ye_, old uses, 57;
abbreviation, 57.
_Yes_, _no_, 85.
_Yet_, _still_, adverbs or conjunctions, 152.
_Yon_, _yond_, _yonder_, 63.
_You_ and _thou_, 56 f.;
indefinite _you_, 57.
Transcriber’s Notes
Variant spelling and hyphenation have been preserved as printed;
simple typographical errors have been corrected. Punctuation has
been standardised, and unbalanced quotation marks and parentheses
have been repaired.
The following changes have also been made:
Page vi, Contents:
Person 39 238 changed to
Person 39 236
Page 26:
Number (_Verb agrees with Subject_) [was printed with a brace
spanning _Number_ and _Person_]
Page 98, Personal Endings:
[repeated no-ending in each cell instead of replicating the book’s
row-spanning braces]
Page 258 [changed word order]:
If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other
changes as may be necessary. If the verb is active, change it to the
passive.
If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other
changes as may be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to
the active.
Footnote 66:
[The table spanned pages 298 to 299, and the footnote was repeated
across the page break; the transcriber omitted duplicate note.]