THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
+393.+ Subordinate clauses may be classified not only according to
their use as parts of speech, but also, in quite a different way, in
accordance with their +various meanings+. These distinctions in idea
are of capital importance for the accurate and forcible expression of
thought.
+394.+ The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses may express is
great, but most of these meanings come under the following heads:--(1)
+place+ or +time+, (2) +cause+, (3) +concession+, (4) +purpose+,
(5) +result+, (6) +condition+, (7) +comparison+,[43] (8) +indirect
discourse+, (9) +indirect question+.
The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by the word
which introduces it.
I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME
+395.+ +An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time.+
I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
The house _where the robbery occurred_ is No. 14.
The bridge _over which we rode_ is in ruins.
There is a point _beyond which you cannot go_.
The day _when_ (or _on which_) _I was to sail_ arrived at last.
The day _before you came_ was rainy.
His terror _while it thundered_ was pitiable.
II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Remain _where I can see you_.
That belongs _where you found it_.
_Whithersoever I go_, fear dogs my steps.
_Whenever the bell rings_, you must take down the receiver.
Esmond heard the chimes _as he sat in his own chamber_.
I have lived in Cairo _since my father died_.
+396.+ Adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced by
relative pronouns (see examples above).
Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by
relative adverbs. Thus,--
PLACE: where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wherefrom,
whereto, etc.
TIME: when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since.
For _as_ and _since_ in causal clauses, see § 398; for _while_ in
concessive clauses, see § 399.
+397.+ Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omission of the
copula and its subject.
When [_he was_] rescued, he was almost dead.
Tom was attacked by cramp _while swimming_ across the river.
II. CAUSAL CLAUSES
+398.+ +An adverbial clause may express cause.+
+Causal clauses+ are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions
_because_, _since_, _as_, _inasmuch as_, and sometimes _that_.
I came home _because I was tired_.
_As the day was clear_, we decided to climb the mountain.
_Since you will not relent_, you must take the consequences.
We were glad _that the wreck was no worse_.
Tom was delighted _that his friend was safe_.
_Since_ is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes +time+; +as+
is an adverb when it denotes +time+. Both _since_ and _as_ are
conjunctions when they express +cause+. For _as_ used as a relative
pronoun, see § 147.
III. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
+399.+ +An adverbial clause may express concession.+
A +concessive clause+ is usually introduced by a subordinate
conjunction, _though_, _although_, or _even if_. It +admits+ (or
concedes) some fact or supposition +in spite of which+ the assertion in
the main clause is made.
_Although I do not like his manners_, I respect his character.
We won the game, _though we expected to lose_.
_Even if you fail_, you will have gained experience.
_Even if you were a king_, you would find somebody or something more
powerful than yourself.
_Though he should read books forever_, he would not grow wise.
NOTE. _While_ is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for
_although_.
The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may be
emphasized by means of _yet_, _still_, _nevertheless_.
Although the task was heavy, _yet_ his courage never failed.
[_Although_ and _yet_ are correlative conjunctions (§ 369).]
Though his reputation was great at home, _yet_ it was greater abroad.
Concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject.
_Though_ [_he was_] _tired_, he was not disheartened.
This punishment, _though perhaps necessary_, seems rather severe.
+400.+ For the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive
in concessive clauses, see § 279; for that between _should_ and
_would_, see § 305.
+401.+ A concessive clause may be introduced by the conjunction _as_,
or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
{_Whatever_ you say, | _Whichever_ argument you present, | _However_
much you object,} he will carry his point.
_Weak as I am_, I will make the effort.
_Gay as the scene was_, ’twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond.
NOTE. The adverbial use of _however_ is quite distinct from its use
as a coördinate conjunction (§ 362).
+402.+ Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive clause
without a conjunction to introduce it (§ 281).
_Be it ever so humble_, there’s no place like home.
I will help you, _cost what it may_!
IV–V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT
+403.+ +A subordinate clause may express purpose or result.+
I. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
These men died _that we might live_.
I will take care _that you are not harmed_.
John worked day and night _that the plans might be ready in time_.
We threw our ballast overboard, _so that the airship might clear the
treetops_.
All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, _in
order that the ship may be launched promptly and without accident_.
II. CLAUSES OF RESULT
He has recovered his strength, _so that he can now work_.
The town stood at the foot of the volcano, _so that every building
was destroyed_.
Quentin started _so_ suddenly _that he almost dropped his weapon_.
His rancor against the duke was _so_ apparent _that one saw it in the
first half-hour’s conversation_.
Their minds were _so_ much embittered _that they imputed to each
other nothing less than deliberate villany_.
You make _such_ a noise _that I cannot hear the music_.
+404.+ +Clauses of purpose+ may be introduced by the subordinate
conjunction _that_ or by a phrase containing it (_so that_, _in order
that_, _to the end that_, etc.).
Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by _that ... not_ or by
_lest_. For _lest_ with the subjunctive, see § 284.
Take heed _lest thou fall_.
I feared _lest I might anger thee_.--SHAKSPERE.
+405.+ +Clauses of result+ may be introduced by the phrase _so that_,
consisting of the adverb _so_ and the subordinate conjunction _that_;
or by _that_ alone, especially when _so_, _such_, or some similar word
stands in the main clause.
+406.+ A clause of +purpose+ or of +result+ may be either an +adverbial
clause+ (as in § 403) or a +substantive clause+.
I intend _that you shall be elected_. [Object.]
My intention is _that you shall be appointed_. [Predicate nominative.]
The result is _that he is bankrupt_. [Predicate nominative.]
His exertions had this effect, _that the vote was unanimous_.
[Appositive.]
+407.+ A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the +object+ of
a verb of _commanding_, _desiring_, or the like.
The general ordered _that the fort should be blown up_.
The prisoner begged _that his fetters might be struck off_.
+408.+ For subordinate clauses with _shall_ or _should_, implying
purpose or expectation, see § 304.
+409.+ Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with _to_ or _in
order to_, and result by the infinitive with _to_ or _as to_.
He abandoned his profession _to_ [or _in order to_] _become a
missionary_. [Purpose.]
He was kind enough _to help me_. [Result. Compare: He was so kind
_that he helped me_.]
He was so kind _as to help me_. [Result.]
+Negative result+ is often expressed by the adverb _too_ and the
infinitive.
Iron is _too_ heavy _to float_. [Compare: Iron is so heavy _that it
does not float_.]
+410.+ Purpose may be expressed by an +infinitive clause+ (§ 325).
The teacher intended _us to finish the book_. [Compare: The teacher
intended _that we should finish the book_.]
The foreman ordered _the engine to be stopped_. [Compare: The foreman
ordered _that the engine should be stopped_.]
VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
+411.+ +A clause that expresses a condition introduced by _if_, or by
some equivalent word or phrase, is called a conditional clause.+
+A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional
sentence.+
_If it rains_, we shall remain at home.
I shall attend the convention _if I am in town_.
I will take this book, _if you please_.
+412.+ A _conditional sentence_ in its simplest form consists of two
parts:--
(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by _if_, and
expressing the +condition+.
(2) A main clause expressing the +conclusion+, that is, the statement
which is true in case the condition expressed in the _if_-clause is
true.
Thus in the first example in § 411, the +condition+ is _if it rains_;
the +conclusion+ is _we shall remain at home_.
Either the condition or the conclusion may come first.
The conditional clause is often called the +protasis+, and the
conclusion is often called the +apodosis+.
The +conclusion+ of a conditional sentence may be declarative,
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
If you go to Philadelphia, _where shall you stay_? [Interrogative.]
_Sit here_, if you wish. [Imperative.]
If you win the prize, _how glad I shall be_! [Exclamatory.]
+413.+ A conditional clause may be introduced by _provided_ (or
_provided that_), _granted that_, _supposing_ (or _suppose_), _on
condition that_.
I will permit you to go, _on condition that_ you come home early.
You may have the money, _provided_ you will put it in the bank.
_Supposing_ (or _suppose_) it rains, what shall we do?
_Suppose_ is really an imperative and _supposing_ a participle, the
clause being the object.
+414.+ A +negative condition+ is commonly introduced by _if ... not_ or
_unless_.
I will wait for him, _if_ you do _not_ object.
_Unless_ you overcome that habit, you will be ruined.
+415.+ +Double+ (or +alternative+) +conditions+ may be introduced by
_whether ... or_.
_Whether_ he goes or stays, he must pay a week’s board. [Compare:
_If_ he goes _or if_ he stays, etc.]
He is determined to buy that car, _whether_ you approve _or_ not.
[That is: _if_ you approve _or if_ you do not approve.]
+416.+ A conditional clause may be introduced by _whoever_, _whenever_,
or some similar compound (§§ 159, 195).
_Whoever_ offends, is punished. [Compare: _If anybody_ offends, he is
punished.]
_Whoever_ shall offend, shall be punished.
_Whomever_ you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare: If you shall
ask anybody.]
He will come _whenever_ [= _if ever_] he is called.
NOTE. In older English and in poetry, _who_ is common in this
construction: as,--“_Who_ [= _whoever_] steals my purse, steals
trash” (SHAKSPERE).
+417.+ A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and its subject.
I will go if [_it is_] necessary.
If [_it is_] possible, come to-morrow.
The _if_-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the
conclusion omitted.
If I only had a rifle!
+418.+ A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion, a
question, an imperative, or the absolute construction (§ 345).
We take the receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We
replace it, and the connection is broken. [Compare: If we take the
receiver from the hook, the operator answers, etc.]
Press that button, and the bell will ring.
Do you refuse? Then you must take the consequences.
We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting.
NOTE. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause.
Thus, in the first example, we have two independent coördinate
clauses, making a compound sentence (§ 44).
FORMS OF CONDITIONS
+419.+ Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but it is easy
to classify them according to the +time+ of the supposed case and the
+degree of doubt+ that the speaker expresses.
+420.+ Conditions may be +present+, +past+, or +future+.
PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS
+421.+ Present and past conditions may be either (1) +non-committal+ or
(2) +contrary to fact+.
1. A condition is +non-committal+ when it implies nothing as to the
truth or falsity of the case supposed.
_If James is angry_, I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps
not.]
2. A condition is +contrary to fact+ when it implies that the supposed
case is not or was not true.
_If James were angry_, I should be sorry. [James is _not_ angry.]
+422.+ In a +non-committal present condition+, the _if_-clause[44]
takes the present indicative; in a +non-committal past condition+, the
past, the perfect, or the pluperfect.
The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows.
I. PRESENT CONDITION, NON-COMMITTAL
_If this pebble is a diamond_, {it is valuable. | guard it carefully.
| you have made a great discovery. | you will get a large sum for it.
| why are you so careless of it? | what a prize it is!}
_If it is raining_, shut the window.
_If Jack lives in this house_, {he is a lucky boy. | ring the bell. |
he has moved since last May.}
II. PAST CONDITION, NON-COMMITTAL
_If that pebble was a diamond_, {it was valuable. | why did you throw
it away? | go back and look for it.}
_If Tom has apologized_, {he has done his duty. | you ought to excuse
him. | forgive him.}
_If John had reached home before we started_, he must have made a
quick journey.
In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit himself as
to the truth of the supposed case. Perhaps the pebble was a diamond,
perhaps not; Tom may or may not have apologized; whether or not John
had reached home, we cannot tell.
+423.+ In a +condition contrary to fact+, the _if_-clause takes the
past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time, the
pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time.
The conclusion regularly takes _should_ or _would_ (§ 286, 3).
If John _were_ here, I _should recognize_ him. [Present condition,
present conclusion.]
If John _were_ here, I _should have recognized_ him before this.
[Present condition, past conclusion.]
If I _had offended_ him, I _should have regretted_ it. [Past
condition, past conclusion.]
If I _had_ then _offended_ him, I _should regret_ it now. [Past
condition, present conclusion.]
In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies that the
supposed case (or +condition+) _is_ (or _was_) _not a fact_. It
follows, of course, that the +conclusion+ is not a fact:--John is _not_
here; therefore I _do not_ recognize him.
+424.+ In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without _if_ is
common. In this use, the subject follows the verb (§ 281).
_Were_ he my friend, I should expect his help. [= If he _were_ my
friend. Present condition, contrary to fact.]
_Had_ he _been_ my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he
_had been_ my friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.]
NOTE. In older English, the subjunctive may be used in both clauses:
as,--“He _were_ no lion, _were_ not Romans hinds” (SHAKSPERE).
FUTURE CONDITIONS
+425.+ +Future conditions+ always imply +doubt+, for no one can tell
what may or may not happen to-morrow.
+426.+ In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting future time is
used in both clauses.
1. In a future condition which suggests nothing as to the probability
or improbability of the case supposed, the present indicative is
regularly used in the _if_-clause, and the future indicative in the
conclusion.
If it _rains_ to-morrow, I _shall_ not _go_.
In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with _shall_ may be
used in the _if_-clause: as,--“If it _shall rain_ to-morrow, I shall
not go.”
2. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the _if_-clause. This
form commonly suggests more doubt than the present indicative.
If it _rain_ to-morrow, I shall not go.
3. In a future condition which puts the supposed case rather vaguely,
often with a considerable suggestion of doubt, a verb-phrase with
_should_ or _would_ is used in both clauses.
If it _should rain_ to-morrow, I _should_ not _go_.
For the use of _should_ or _would_ in such clauses, see § 305.
A phrase with _were to_ may replace the _should_-phrase in the
_if_-clause. This form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt.
If it _were to rain_ to-morrow, I should not go.
The past subjunctive may stand in the _if_-clause instead of the
_should_-phrase.
If it _rained_ to-morrow, I should not go.
NOTE. The comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds
of future conditions cannot be defined with precision; for it varies
with the circumstances or the context, and often depends on emphasis
or the tone of the voice. Thus, in “if it should rain to-morrow,”
_should_ may be so emphasized as to make the supposed case seem
highly improbable, whereas an emphasis on _to-morrow_ would have a
very different effect. As to the subjunctive, its use is often due
rather to the writer’s liking for that mood than to any special doubt
in his mind.
+427.+ For _even if_ in concessive clauses, see § 399; for _as if_ in
clauses of comparison, see § 428; for _if_ (in the sense of _whether_)
in indirect questions, see § 442.
VII. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
+428.+ +An adverbial clause introduced by _as if_ may express
comparison.+[45]
You speak _as if you were angry_.[46]
He breathes _as if he were exhausted_.
She cared for me _as if I had been her son_.
_As though_ is also used, but _as if_ is now preferred by most
writers.
The subjunctive _were_, not the indicative _was_, is used after _as if_
(§ 282).
+429.+ _As_ and _than_, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce +clauses
of comparison+ or +degree+.
You are as old _as he_ [_is_].
I am younger _than you_ [_are_].
He weighs as much _as I_ [_weigh_].
I pity you more _than_ [_I pity_] _her_.
When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows _as_ or _than_
is in the same case in which it would stand if the verb were expressed.
Thus,--
You are stronger than _he_. [NOT: than _him_.]
I see you oftener than _him_. [NOT: than _he_.]
He plays a better game than _I_. [NOT: than _me_.]
They will miss John more than _me_. [That is: more than they miss
_me_.]
VIII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE
+430.+ A quotation may be +direct+ or +indirect+.
A +direct quotation+ repeats a speech or thought in its original form.
I replied: “I am sorry to hear it.”
“Henceforth,” he explained, “I shall call on Tuesdays.”
“You must see California,” she insisted.
“Elizabeth no longer lives here,” he said.
“I know nothing about it,” was the witness’s reply.
“Where,” thought I, “are the crew?”[47]
An +indirect quotation+ repeats a speech or thought in substance, but
usually with some change in its form.
An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate clause
dependent on some word of _saying_ or _thinking_, and introduced by the
conjunction _that_.
I replied _that I was sorry to hear it_. [Direct: I am sorry.]
He explained _that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays_.
She insisted _that I must see California_.
+A direct quotation+ begins with a +capital letter+, unless it is a
fragment of a sentence. It is enclosed in +quotation marks+.
+An indirect quotation+ begins with a +small letter+. It usually has no
quotation marks.
+431.+ +A substantive clause introduced by _that_ may be used with
verbs and other expressions of _telling_, _thinking_, _knowing_, and
_perceiving_, to report the words or thought of a person in substance,
but usually with some change of form.+
+Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse.+
For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a
direct quotation) is said to be in the +direct discourse+.
+432.+ Statements in _indirect discourse_, being substantive clauses,
may be used in various noun constructions: (1) as +object+ of some
verb of _telling_, _thinking_, or the like, (2) as +subject+, (3) as
+predicate nominative+, (4) as +appositive+.
He said _that the box was empty_. [Object.]
_That the box was empty_ was all he could say. [Subject.]
My remark was _that the bill is a menace_. [Predicate nominative.]
Your remark, _that the bill is a menace_, has aroused vigorous
protest. [Apposition.]
+433.+ The conjunction _that_ is often omitted.
Jack said [_that_] he was sorry.
I hope [_that_] you can come.
I know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me.--COWPER.
+434.+ In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect tense,
the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past, and the perfect
becomes pluperfect.
1. DIRECT: I _am_ tired. INDIRECT: John {said | had said} that he
_was_ tired.
2. DIRECT: I _have won_. INDIRECT: John {said | had said} that he
_had won_.
But a general or universal truth always remains in the present tense.
DIRECT: Air _is_ a gas. INDIRECT: I told him that air _is_ a gas.
INDIRECT: I had told him a hundred times that air _is_ a gas.
+435.+ The clause with _that_ in indirect discourse is sometimes
replaced by an infinitive clause (§ 325).
The jury declared _him to be innocent_. [Compare: The jury declared
_that he was innocent_.]
Morton admitted _them to be counterfeit_. [Compare: Morton admitted
_that they were counterfeit_.]
In these sentences, _him_ and _them_ are, of course, the subjects of
the infinitives, not the objects of _declared_ and _admitted_.
+436.+ When the verb of _telling_ or _thinking_ is in the +passive
voice+, three constructions occur:--
1. A clause with _that_ is used as the subject of the passive verb.
That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported.
2. The expletive _it_ is used as the grammatical subject, and a
_that_-clause follows the passive verb.
It is commonly reported that Rogers desires the office.
3. The subject of the _that_-clause becomes the subject of the passive
verb, and the verb of the clause is replaced by an infinitive.
Rogers is commonly reported to desire the office.
The choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of emphasis
or euphony. The first may easily become heavy or awkward, and it is
therefore less common than either of the others.
NOTE. The third of these idioms is often called the +personal
construction+, to distinguish it from the second, in which the
grammatical subject is the impersonal _it_ (§ 120, 1). The infinitive
in this third idiom may be regarded as a peculiar adverbial modifier
of the passive verb.
Further examples of the three constructions with passive verbs of
_telling_, _thinking_, etc., are the following:--
That in vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among
the nations of the world is now universally acknowledged.--MACAULAY.
It is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most
delightful.--SHELLEY.
It must be owned that Charles’s life has points of some
originality.--STEVENSON.
Porto Bello is still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the
Dutch have declared war against us.--GRAY.
He was generally believed to have been a pirate.--LYTTON.
Pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his
head.--JOHNSON.
She was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that
the elaborate delicacy of its workmanship gave way.--HAWTHORNE.
This is said to be the only château in France in which the ancient
furniture of its original age is preserved.--LONGFELLOW.
+437.+ A substantive clause with _that_ is common after _it seems_, _it
is true_, _it is evident_, and similar expressions.
It seems _that Robert has lost all his money_.
It is true _that genius does not always bring happiness with it_.
It is evident _that Andrews tells the truth_.
This construction is really the same as that in § 436, 2.
+438.+ The uses of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in
+indirect discourse+ are the same as in the +direct+,[48] with the
following exception:--
+When the first person with _shall_ or _should_ in direct discourse
becomes the second or third person in the indirect, _shall_ or _should_
is retained.+
DIRECT: You say, “_I shall_ die.”
INDIRECT: You say that _you shall_ die.
DIRECT: You said, “_I shall_ die.”
INDIRECT: You said that _you should_ die.
DIRECT: He says, “_I shall_ die.”
INDIRECT: He says that _he shall_ die.
DIRECT: He said, “_I shall_ die.”
INDIRECT: He said that _he should_ die.
The reason for the retention of _shall_ or _should_ is that, in such
cases, the second or third person of the indirect discourse represents
the first person of the direct.
The change from _shall_ (after _says_) to _should_ (after _said_) is a
mere change of tense, according to the rule in § 434.
NOTE. The general principle is, to retain in the indirect discourse
the auxiliary of the direct, simply changing the tense if necessary
(§ 434). This principle of course covers the use of _you_ or _he
shall_ or _should_ to represent _I shall_ or _should_. There is,
however, one important exception to the general principle: when its
application would result in the use of _I will_ or _I would_ to
express mere futurity, _I shall_ or _I should_ is employed. Thus,
John says to Charles, “If you fall overboard, _you will_ drown”; but
Charles, reporting this, must say, “John tells me that, if I fall
overboard, _I shall_ [NOT _will_] drown.” The general rule, then, may
be stated as follows: The indirect discourse retains the auxiliary
of the direct (with a change in tense, if necessary), unless such
retention makes _will_ or _would_ express simple futurity in the
first person,--in that case, _shall_ or _should_ is used.
+439.+ The following sentences illustrate the correct use of _shall_
and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in the indirect discourse:--
1. He writes me that he believes _he shall_ be at Eton till the
middle of November.--GRAY. [Direct: I shall be at Eton.]
2. He that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and
decency, must, while he is young, consider that _he shall_ one day be
old.--JOHNSON. [Direct: I shall one day be old.]
3. Could he but reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that _he should_ be
safe.--PRESCOTT. [Direct: I shall be safe.]
4. Plantagenet took it into his head that _he should_ like to learn
to play at bowls.--DISRAELI. [Direct: I should like.]
5. He answered that _he should_ be very proud of hoisting his flag
under Sir John’s command.--SOUTHEY. [Direct: I shall (_or_ should)
be, etc.]
6. He knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of
reformation, _he should_ raise every bad passion in arms against
him.--MACAULAY. [Direct: If I apply myself ..., I shall raise, etc.]
7. He was pleased to say that _he should_ like to have the author in
his service.--CARLYLE. [Direct: I should like.]
8. Mr. Tristram at last declared that _he_ was overcome with fatigue,
and _should_ be happy to sit down.--HENRY JAMES. [Direct: I should be
happy.]
9. She vowed that unless he made a great match, _she should_ never
die easy.--THACKERAY. [Direct: Unless you make a great match, I shall
never die easy.]
10. You think now _I shall_ get into a scrape at home. You think
_I shall_ scream and plunge and spoil everything.--GEORGE ELIOT.
[Direct: She will get into a scrape, etc.]
11. You in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent,
by declaring that _you will_ be so yourself.--COWPER. [Determination:
I will be silent.]
12. He [Swift] tells them that _he will_ run away and leave them, if
they do not instantly make a provision for him.--JEFFREY. [Threat: I
will run away.]
13. The king declared that _he would_ not reprieve her for one
day.--MACKINTOSH. [Direct: I will not.]
14. Horace declares that _he would_ not for all the world get into a
boat with a man who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries.--COWPER.
[Direct: I would not.]
15. I called up Sirboko, and told him, if _he would_ liberate this
one man to please me, _he should_ be no loser.--SPEKE. [Direct: If
you will liberate, etc., you shall be no loser.]
16. We concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days’
time, _we would_ return.--DE FOE. [Direct: If we do not, etc., we
will return.]
17. With a theatrical gesture and the remark that _I should_ see,
he opened some cages and released half a dozen cats.--W. J. LOCKE.
[Direct: You shall see.]
IX. INDIRECT QUESTIONS
+440.+ +A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is
called a direct question.+
What is your name?
“What is your name?” he asked.
The direct form may be retained when the question is quoted or
reported, as in the second example above. Often, however, a question
is quoted or reported, not in the direct form, but in the form of a
+subordinate clause+: as,--
He asked _what my name was_.
Such a clause is called an +indirect question+.
+441.+ +An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct
question in the form of a subordinate clause.+
+Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of _asking_,
_doubting_, _thinking_, _perceiving_, and the like.+
Franklin asked _where the difficulty lay_. [Direct question: “Where
does the difficulty lie?”]
The sergeant wondered _how he should escape_. [Direct question: “How
shall I escape?”]
I have not decided _which train I shall take_. [Direct question:
“Which train shall I take?”]
+442.+ Both +direct+ and +indirect questions+ may be introduced (1)
by the interrogative pronouns _who_, _which_, _what_; (2) by the
interrogative adverbs _when_, _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_,
_why_.
+Indirect questions+ may be introduced by the subordinate conjunctions
_whether_ (_whether ... or_) and _if_.
The use of +tenses+ in indirect questions is the same as in the
indirect discourse (§ 434).
The constable inquired _whether_ (or _if_) _I lived in Casterbridge_.
[His question was: Do you live in Casterbridge?]
Your father wishes to know _if you have been playing truant_. [Direct
question: Have you been playing truant?]
I considered _whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold_. [Direct
question: Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold?]
+443.+ Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may be used in
various noun constructions: (1) as +object+ of some verb of +asking+
or the like, (2) as +subject+, (3) as +predicate nominative+, (4) as
+appositive+, (5) as +object+ of a preposition.
The skipper asked _what had become of the cook_. [Object.]
He was asked _what his profession was_. [Retained object after the
passive (§§ 253, 389).]
_How we could escape_ was a difficult question. [Subject.]
The problem was _how they should find food_. [Predicate nominative.]
The question _who was to blame_ has never been settled. [Apposition
with _question_.]
They all felt great perplexity as to _what they should do_. [Object
of a preposition.]
An indirect question may be an adverbial clause.
They were uncertain _what course they should take_. [The clause
modifies _uncertain_.]
Edmund was in doubt _where he should spend the night_. [The clause
modifies the adjective phrase _in doubt_.]
+444.+ Since the pronouns _who_, _which_, and _what_ may be either
interrogative or relative, an indirect question may closely resemble
a relative clause. These two constructions, however, are sharply
distinguished. A relative clause always +asserts+ something. An
indirect question, on the contrary, has an +interrogative+ sense which
may be seen by turning the question into the direct form.
The sailor _who saved the child_ is a Portuguese. [The clause _who
saved the child_ is a relative clause, for it makes a distinct
assertion about the sailor,--namely, that he saved the child. _Who_
is a relative pronoun and _sailor_ is its antecedent.]
{I asked | I do not know | It is still a question | It is doubtful}
_who saved the child_. [Here the clause _who saved the child_ makes
no assertion. On the contrary, it expresses a question which may
easily be put in a direct form with an interrogation point: “Who
saved the child?” _Who_ is an interrogative pronoun. It has no
antecedent.]
The following examples further illustrate the difference between these
two constructions:--
1. I foresee the course _which he will take_. [Relative clause.] I
foresee _which course he will take_. [Indirect question.]
2. I heard _what he said_. [Relative clause. _What_ = “that which.”]
I wondered _what he said_. [Indirect question. _What_ is an
interrogative pronoun.]
3. This is the man _who brought the news_. [Relative clause.] The
king asked _who brought the news_. [Indirect question.]
4. Here is a paper _which you must sign_. [Relative clause.] The
clerk will tell you _which paper you must sign_. [Indirect question.]
NOTE. In such a sentence as “Tom knows _who saved the child_,” the
indirect question may at first appear to be a relative clause with
an omitted antecedent (_the man_, or _the person_). If, however,
we insert such an antecedent (“Tom knows _the man_ who saved the
child”), the meaning is completely changed. In the original sentence,
it is stated that Tom knows the answer to the question, “Who saved
the child?” In the new form of the sentence, it is stated that Tom is
acquainted with a certain person, and to this is added an assertion
about this person in the form of a relative clause.
+445.+ An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means of an
interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive.
_Whom to choose_ is a serious question. [Direct question: Whom shall
we choose?]
John asked _what to do_. [John’s question was: What shall I do?]
I know _where to go_. [Direct question: Where shall I go?]
Tell me _when to strike the bell_.
I was at a loss _how to reply_.
I am in doubt _how to begin this essay_.
In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun
(either as subject or object). In the fifth, the phrase _how to reply_
is adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase _at a loss_.
+446.+ The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect questions, and
is still occasionally used after _if_ or _whether_.
I doubt if it _be_ true.
Elton questioned whether the project _were_ wise.
+447.+ The rule for _shall_ (_should_) and _will_ (_would_) in indirect
questions is, to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question,
merely changing the tense (_shall_ to _should_; _will_ to _would_) when
necessary (§ 442).
I. MERE FUTURITY
1. DIRECT: What _shall I_ do?
INDIRECT: I wonder what _I shall_ do.
You ask me what _you shall_ do.
He asks me what _he shall_ do.
I wondered what _I should_ do.
You asked me what _you should_ do.
He asked me what _he should_ do.
2. DIRECT: _Shall you_ lose your position?
INDIRECT: {I ask | He asks} you if _you shall_ lose your position.
{I asked | He asked} you if _you should_ lose
your position.
3. DIRECT: _Will Charles_ lose his position?
INDIRECT: I ask if _Charles will_ lose his position.
{I | You | Tom} asked if _Charles would_ lose
his position.
II. VOLITION
4. DIRECT: _Will you_ help me?
INDIRECT: You ask if _I will_ help you.
He asks if _I will_ help him.
You asked if _I would_ help you.
He asked if _I would_ help him.
{I asked him | You asked him | Tom asked him}
if _he would_ {help me. | help you. | help him.}
NOTE. There is a single exception to the rule in § 447. When, in
changing from a direct to an indirect question, the third person
with _will_ or _would_ becomes the first, _shall_ or _should_
is substituted unless volition is expressed. Thus, John says to
Thomas, “_Will Charles_ die of his wound?” Charles, reporting John’s
question, says, “John asked Thomas whether _I should_ die of my
wound.” Compare § 438, note.
PART THREE
ANALYSIS
CHAPTER I
THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
+448.+ +Analysis+ is a Greek word which means “the act of dissolving or
breaking up.” In grammar it is applied to the separation of a sentence
into its constituent parts, or +elements+. To dissect a sentence in
this way is to +analyze+ it.
The elements which make up a +sentence+ are: (1) the +simple
subject+; (2) the +simple predicate+; (3) +modifiers+; (4) the
+complements+,--direct object, predicate objective, predicate
adjective, predicate nominative; and (5) the so-called +independent
elements+,--the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct
address), the exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical
expressions (§ 501).
+449.+ The absolute essentials for a sentence are a +substantive
as subject+ and a +verb as predicate+ (§ 35). By combining these
two indispensable elements, in various ways, with +modifiers+ and
+complements+, the sentence may be extended to any length desired.
Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of the writer and
the hearer’s ability to follow the thought without losing the thread.
In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are built up,
or constructed. Our starting point in this study will be the +simple
sentence+.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
+450.+ The following statement is a +simple sentence+, for it contains
but +one subject+ and +one predicate+ (§ 46):--
The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions.
The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists of the
subject noun _bear_ (the simple subject) and the predicate verb _lives_
(the simple predicate). To make the +complete subject+, _bear_ takes as
+modifiers+ the two adjectives _the_ and _polar_; to make the +complete
predicate+, _lives_ takes as +modifier+ the adverbial phrase _in the
Arctic regions_.
By attaching another simple subject to _bear_ we make a +compound
subject+. Similarly, we make a +compound predicate+ by adding another
verb (§ 38).
The polar _bear_ and the _walrus_ | _live_ and _thrive_ in the Arctic
regions.
The compound subject is _bear and walrus_; the compound predicate is
_live and thrive_. Both verbs are modified by the adverbial phrase _in
the Arctic regions_. The sentence itself is still a simple sentence.
In each of the following simple sentences either the subject or the
predicate or both are compound:--
Games and carols closed the busy day.--ROGERS.
The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing
moon.--GEORGE MEREDITH.
Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows, and
saw nothing.--DICKENS.
Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face.--DOYLE.
Crows flutter about the towers and perch on every
weathercock.--IRVING.
He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed
forth.--LYTTON.
Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and
vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense
mass.--DICKENS.
There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the
harrows.--LONGFELLOW.
Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted
upon its immediately being carried into effect.--POE.
Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite
London, look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons
and our martial laurels.--DE QUINCEY.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
+451.+ If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 450, the
result is a +compound sentence+.
The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it |
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is manifestly a +compound sentence+, for it consists of two
+coördinate clauses+, joined by the conjunction _but_ (§ 46).
The framework of the second clause consists of the subject _it_ and
the simple predicate _reaches_. To make the complete predicate, the
verb _reaches_ takes not only a modifier (the adverb _sometimes_), but
a +complement+,--the direct object _latitudes_, which completes the
meaning of the verb. This noun is itself modified by the adjective
_temperate_. Both clauses are +simple+, for each contains but one
subject and one predicate.
+452.+ Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may be joined
(with or without conjunctions) to make one compound sentence.
The quiet August noon has come;
A slumberous silence fills the sky;
The fields are still, the woods are dumb,
In glassy sleep the waters lie.--BRYANT.
States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die.--BYRON.
The court was sitting; the case was heard; the judge had finished;
and only the verdict was yet in arrear.--DE QUINCEY.
He softly blushed; he sighed; he hoped; he feared; he doubted; he
sometimes yielded to the delightful idea.--THACKERAY.
A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the door,
the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville.--COWPER.
His health had suffered from confinement; his high spirit had been
cruelly wounded; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken
heart.--MACAULAY.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
+453.+ The simple sentence in § 450 may be made +complex+ by means of a
+subordinate clause+ used as a +modifier+ (§ 47).
The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions_, sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes.
The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes _when the ice
drifts southward_.
In the first example, the simple subject (_bear_), besides its two
adjective modifiers (_the_ and _polar_), takes a third, the adjective
clause _which lives in the Arctic regions_ (§ 47). The sentence, then,
is +complex+: the main clause is _the polar bear sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _which lives in the
Arctic regions_.
The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is the same as in
the first (_the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_). The
subordinate clause is _when the ice drifts southward_, an +adverbial
modifier+ of the predicate verb _reaches_.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES
+454.+ Two or more +coördinate clauses+ may be joined to make one
+compound clause+.
The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical
constitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate_,
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes _when the floes
break up and when the ice drifts southward_.
In the first example, the italicized words form a +compound adjective
clause+, modifying the noun _bear_. It consists of two +coördinate
adjective clauses+ joined by _and_. These clauses are coördinate
because they are of the same +order+ or +rank+ in the sentence (§ 46),
each being (if taken singly) an adjective modifier of the noun.
In the second example, the predicate verb _reaches_ is modified by a
+compound adverbial clause+, similarly made up.
+455.+ A clause is +complex+ when it contains a modifying clause.
The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at
home_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
Here the +adjective clause+ _which lives in the Arctic regions when it
is at home_ is +complex+, for it contains the adverbial clause _when it
is at home_, modifying the verb _lives_.
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+456.+ Two or more independent complex clauses may be joined to make a
+compound complex sentence+.
The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common
in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the
polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts
southward.
This is a +compound complex sentence+, for it consists of two complex
clauses joined by the coördinate conjunction _and_. Each of these two
clauses is independent of the other, for each might stand by itself as
a complex sentence.
The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, _of which there
are several varieties_, modifying _bear_; the second contains an
adverbial clause, _when the ice drifts southward_, modifying _reaches_.
+457.+ A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses is also
classed as a compound complex sentence if any one of these is complex.
The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern
Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate
latitudes when the ice drifts southward.
The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar
bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the first clause
is simple (§ 451) and the second is complex. In the other, the first
clause is complex and the second is simple.
CHAPTER II
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES
+458.+ In analyzing a +simple sentence+, we first divide it into the
+complete subject+ and the +complete predicate+. Then we point out
the +simple subject+ with its +modifiers+, and the +simple predicate+
with its +modifiers+ and +complement+ (if there is one). If either the
subject or the predicate is compound, we mention the simple subjects or
predicates that are joined.
1. The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.
This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is _the polar bear_;
the complete predicate is _lives in the Arctic regions_. The simple
subject is the noun _bear_; the simple predicate is the verb _lives_.
_Bear_ is modified by the adjectives _the_ and _polar_; _lives_ is
modified by the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_. This phrase
consists of the preposition _in_; its object, the noun _regions_; and
the adjectives _the_ and _Arctic_, modifying _regions_.
2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic
regions.
The complete subject is _the polar bear and the walrus_. Two simple
subjects (_bear_ and _walrus_) are joined by the conjunction _and_
to make a compound subject, and two simple predicates (_live_ and
_thrive_) are joined by _and_ to make a compound predicate. _Live_
and _thrive_ are both modified by the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic
regions_.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
+459.+ In analyzing a +compound sentence+ we first divide it into its
+coördinate clauses+, and then analyze each clause by itself. Thus,--
The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.
This is a compound sentence consisting of two coördinate clauses
joined by the conjunction _but_: (1) _the polar bear lives in the
Arctic regions_ and (2) _it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_.
The complete subject of the first clause is _the polar bear_ [and so
on, as in § 458, above]. The subject of the second clause is _it_;
the complete predicate is _sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_.
The simple predicate is _reaches_, which is modified by the adverb
_sometimes_ and is completed by the direct object _latitudes_. The
complement _latitudes_ is modified by the adjective _temperate_.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
+460.+ In analyzing a +complex sentence+, we first divide it into the
+main clause+ and the +subordinate clause+.
1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _the polar bear
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is
_which lives in the Arctic regions_. The complete subject of the
sentence is _the polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions_; the
complete predicate is _sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_. The
simple subject is _bear_, which is modified by the adjectives _the_
and _polar_ and by the adjective clause _which lives in the Arctic
regions_. The simple predicate is _reaches_, which is modified by the
adverb _sometimes_ and completed by the direct object _latitudes_.
This complement, _latitudes_, is modified by the adjective
_temperate_. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative
pronoun _which_. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
2. The polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts
southward.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _the polar bear
reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _when the
ice drifts southward_. The complete subject of the sentence is _the
polar bear_; the complete predicate is _reaches temperate latitudes
when the ice drifts southward_. The simple subject is _bear_, which
is modified by the adjectives _the_ and _polar_. The simple predicate
is _reaches_, which is modified by the adverbial clause _when the ice
drifts southward_, and completed by the noun _latitudes_ (the direct
object of _reaches_). The complement _latitudes_ is modified by the
adjective _temperate_. The subordinate clause is introduced by the
relative adverb _when_. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at
home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _the polar bear
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is
_which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home_, which is
complex, since it contains the adverbial clause _when it is at home_,
modifying the verb _lives_.
4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _he says_; the
subordinate clause is _that the polar bear lives in the Arctic
regions_. The subject of the sentence is _he_, the complete predicate
is _says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions_. The simple
predicate is _says_, which is completed by its direct object, the
noun clause _that ... regions_, introduced by the conjunction _that_.
[Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a
familiar fact.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause (_is a familiar fact_)
appears as a predicate only, since the subordinate clause (_that the
polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_) is a noun clause
used as the complete subject of the sentence. The simple predicate
is _is_, which is completed by the predicate nominative _fact_.
This complement is modified by the adjectives _a_ and _familiar_.
The subordinate clause, which is used as the complete subject, is
introduced by the conjunction _that_. [Then analyze this clause.]
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+461.+ In analyzing a +compound complex+ sentence, we first divide
it into the +independent clauses+ (simple or complex) of which it
consists, and then analyze each of these as if it were a sentence by
itself.
See the examples in §§ 456, 457.
CHAPTER III
MODIFIERS
+462.+ The various kinds of +modifiers+ and +complements+ have all
been studied in preceding chapters,--each in connection with the
construction which it illustrates. For purposes of analysis, however,
it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and complements as such.
The topics will be taken up in the following order:--(1) modifiers,--of
the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements; (3) modifiers of
complements; (4) modifiers of modifiers.
+463.+ +A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning
of another word is called a modifier+ (§ 19).
{Men | _Able_ men | Men _of ability_} can always find employment.
{Walls | _Battlemented_ walls | Walls _with battlements_} usually
enclosed mediæval cities.
{Cottages | _English_ cottages | Cottages _in England_} are often
thatched.
The boy listened {_eagerly_. | _with eagerness_.}
I coughed {_purposely_. | _on purpose_.}
The bullet passed {_harmlessly_. | _without doing harm_.}
+464.+ Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs,
but also to adjectives and adverbs.
All modifiers of substantives are called +adjective modifiers+; all
modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called +adverbial
modifiers+.
NOTE. The terms +adjective modifier+ and +adjective+ are not
synonymous. All adjectives are adjective modifiers, but all adjective
modifiers are not adjectives. Thus, in “Henry’s skates are rusty,”
the possessive noun _Henry’s_ is an adjective modifier, since it
limits the noun _skates_ as an adjective might do.
+465.+ A group of words used as a modifier may be either a +phrase+ or
a +clause+ (§§ 40–46).
{_Able_ men | Men _of ability_ | Men _who have ability_} can always
find employment.
I spoke {_thoughtlessly_. | _without thinking_. | _before I thought_.}
+A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an
adjective phrase or clause.+
+A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an
adverbial phrase or clause.+
Adjective and adverbial clauses are always +subordinate+, because they
are used as parts of speech (§ 46).
MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT
+466.+ Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier,
but +modifiers of the subject+ are particularly important.
The simple subject may be modified by (1) an +adjective+, an +adjective
phrase+, or an +adjective clause+; (2) a +participle+; (3) an
+infinitive+; (4) a +possessive+; (5) an +appositive+.
I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
+467.+ The simple subject may be modified by an +adjective+, an
+adjective phrase+, or an +adjective clause+.
{_Ivory_ trinkets | Trinkets _of ivory_ | Trinkets _which were carved
from ivory_} lay scattered about.
{_Treeless_ spots | Spots _without trees_ | Spots _where no trees
grew_} were plainly visible.
In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first sentence
is modified by an +adjective+, that of the second by an +adjective
phrase+, that of the third by an +adjective clause+.
Most adjective phrases are +prepositional+ (§ 42), as in the examples.
+468.+ An +adjective clause+ may be introduced by a +relative pronoun+
or a +relative adverb+. For lists, see § 377.
I. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The architect _who designed this church_ was a man of genius.
The painter _whom Ruskin oftenest mentions_ is Turner.
A piece of amber _which is rubbed briskly_ will attract bits of paper.
The day _that I dreaded_ came at last.
The plain _through which this river flows_ is marvelously fertile.
The book _from which I got this information_ is always regarded as
authoritative.
A friend _in whom one can trust_ is a treasure beyond price.
The boys _with whom he associates_ do him no good.
II. RELATIVE ADVERBS
The spot _where the Old Guard made their last stand_ is marked by a
bronze eagle.
The morning _when I arrived in Rome_ is one of my pleasantest
memories.
The year _after Ashton left home_ brought fresh disaster.
The land _whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat_ will never be known.
NOTE. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a
relative adverb. Thus, in the second example, _on which_ might be
substituted for _when_.
II. PARTICIPLES
+469.+ The subject may be modified by a +participle+ (with or without
modifier or complement).
1. _Smiling_, the child shook his head.
2. My aunt, _reassured_, took up her book again.
3. The prisoner sank back _exhausted_.
4. _Exasperated_ beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.
5. John, _obeying_ a sudden impulse, took to his heels.
6. _Having broken_ one oar, Robert had to scull.
7. The natives, _fearing_ captivity above all things, leaped into the
river.
8. Albert left the room, _looking_ rather sullen.
In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial
phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the seventh, it
has both an object and a modifier; in the eighth, it is followed by the
predicate adjective _sullen_. In analysis, the whole participial phrase
(consisting of the participle and accompanying words) may be treated as
an adjective phrase modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard
the participle as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers,
etc., separately.
Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject _natives_ is
modified by the participle _fearing_, which has for a complement
_captivity_ (the direct object) and is modified by the adverbial
phrase _above all things_.
NOTE. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same
time a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the
place of an adverbial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, _fearing_
is practically equivalent to the clause _because they feared_,
which, if substituted for the participle, would of course modify
the predicate verb _leaped_. This dual office of the participle
comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In
analyzing, we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the
noun to which it belongs; but its function as a substitute for an
adverbial clause is an important means of securing variety in style.
III. INFINITIVES
+470.+ The subject may be modified by an +infinitive+.
Eagerness _to learn_ was young Lincoln’s strongest passion.
Desire _to travel_ made Taylor restless.
The wish _to succeed_ prompted him to do his best.
Ability _to write rapidly_ is a valuable accomplishment.
Howard’s unwillingness _to desert a friend_ cost him his life.
In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modifier
(_rapidly_); and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object
(_friend_). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allowable,
as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).
IV. POSSESSIVES
+471.+ The subject may be modified by a substantive in the +possessive
case+.
Such a substantive may be called a +possessive modifier+.
_Napoleon’s_ tomb is in Paris.
A _man’s_ house is his castle.
_One’s_ taste in reading changes as one grows older.
A _moment’s_ thought would have saved me.
The _squirrel’s_ teeth grow rapidly.
The _Indians’_ camp was near the river.
_His_ name is Alfred.
_Your_ carriage has arrived.
In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive case
modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective
would do.
NOTE. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive.
Thus, in the first example, instead of “_Napoleon’s_ tomb” one may
say “the tomb _of Napoleon_” (§ 93).
V. APPOSITIVES
+472.+ The subject may be modified by a +substantive in apposition+ (§
88, 5).
Meredith the _carpenter_ lives in that house.
Herbert, our _captain_, has broken his leg.
The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque _image_, was thrown down by the
Spaniards.
Many books, both _pamphlets_ and bound _volumes_, littered the table.
[Here the subject (_books_) is modified by two appositives.]
Appositives often have modifiers of their own.
Thus _carpenter_ is modified by the adjective _the_, _captain_ by the
possessive _our_, _image_ by the adjectives _a_ and _grotesque_.
In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the
appositive and attached words) may be regarded as modifying the
subject. It is as well, however, to treat the appositive as the
modifier and then to enumerate the adjectives, etc., by which the
appositive itself is modified.
+473.+ A +noun clause+ may be used as an appositive, and so may be an
adjective modifier (§ 386).
The question _whether Antonio was a citizen_ was settled in the
affirmative. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in
apposition with _question_.]
The statement _that water freezes_ seems absurd to a native of the
torrid zone. [The clause _that water freezes_ is in apposition with
_statement_.]
An adjective in the appositive position is often called an
+appositive adjective+ (§ 172). “A sword, _keen_ and _bright_,
flashed from the soldier’s scabbard.”
MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE
+474.+ The +simple predicate+, being a verb or verb-phrase, can have
only +adverbial modifiers+.
The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an +adverb+, an +adverbial
phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+, (2) an +infinitive+, (3) an
+adverbial objective+, (4) a +nominative absolute+, (5) an +indirect
object+, (6) a +cognate object+.
I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
+475.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +adverb+, an
+adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.
The landlord collects his rents {_monthly_. | _on the first of every
month_. | _when the first of the month comes_.}
The old schoolhouse stands {_there_. | _at the cross-roads_. | _where
the roads meet_.}
We left the hall {_early_. | _before the last speech_. | _while the
last speech was being delivered_.}
In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first sentence is
modified by an adverb, that of the second by an adverbial phrase, and
that of the third by an adverbial clause.
Most adverbial phrases are +prepositional+ (§ 42).
ADVERB ADVERBIAL PHRASE
speedily with speed
furiously with fury
lately of late
instantly in an instant
there in that place
rapidly at a rapid rate
skillfully { in a skillful manner
{ with skill
promptly on the instant
to-morrow on the morrow
unwillingly against my will
Peculiar adverbial phrases are:--
to and fro, now and then, up and down, again and again, first and
last, full speed, full tilt, hit or miss, more or less, head first,
upside down, inside out, sink or swim, cash down.
+476.+ An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by
(1) a +relative adverb+, or (2) a +subordinate conjunction+.
I. RELATIVE ADVERBS
Our colonel was always found _where the fighting was fiercest_.
_When I give the signal_, press the button.
_Whenever I call_, you refuse to see me.
Miller arrived _after the play had begun_.
Everybody listened _while the vagrant told his story_.
My uncle laughed _until the tears came_.
The prisoner has not been seen _since he made his escape_.
II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
Archer resigned _because his health failed_.
I will give the address _if you will let me choose my subject_.
Brandon insisted on walking, _although the roads were dangerous_.
The child ran with all her might _lest she should be too late_.
I gave you a front seat _in order that you might hear_.
The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff _so that it is sheltered
from the north wind_.
II. INFINITIVE
+477.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +infinitive+ (§ 323).
He lay down _to rest_.
I stopped _to listen_.
The fire continued _to burn_.
The wind began _to subside_.
Jack worked hard _to fell_ the tree.
Will did his best _to win_ the prize.
Kate began _to weep_ bitterly.
That draughtsman seems _to be_ remarkably skilful.
The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in the last four
examples.
III. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE
+478.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +adverbial objective+
(§ 109).
I have waited _ages_.
We have walked _miles_.
Arthur practised _weeks_.
The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial
phrase.
Walter ran _the entire distance_.
He stayed _a whole day_.
I will forgive you _this time_.
He came at me _full tilt_.
The wind blew _all night_.
Come with me _a little way_.
In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase _the entire distance_
modifies the verb _ran_ as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of
the noun _distance_ with its adjective modifiers, _the_ and _entire_.
IV. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE
+479.+ The simple predicate may be modified by a +nominative absolute+
(§ 345).
A substantive in the +absolute construction+ makes with its modifiers
an adverbial phrase.
_The ship having arrived_, we all embarked.
We shall sail on Tuesday, _weather permitting_.
_That done_, repair to Pompey’s theatre.
_The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk_, we
hesitated to attempt the passage.
In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, _the ship having
arrived_, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase, _on the
arrival of the ship_, and defines the time of the action expressed by
the verb _embarked_.
V. INDIRECT OBJECT
+480.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +indirect object+ (§
105).
He gave _me_ a watch. [= He gave a watch _to me_.]
Tom told _me_ the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story _to me_.]
In these sentences, the indirect object _me_, being equivalent to a
prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier.
The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.
VI. COGNATE OBJECT
+481.+ The simple predicate may be modified by a +cognate object+ or by
a phrase containing such an object (§ 108).
The officer looked _daggers_ at me [= looked at me angrily].
The shepherd sang a merry _song_ [= sang merrily].
The skipper laughed a scornful _laugh_ [= laughed scornfully].
In the first sentence, the cognate object (_daggers_) modifies the
predicate verb (_looked_) as the adverb _angrily_ would do. It is
therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third sentences the
modifier of the predicate verb (_sang_, _laughed_) is an adverbial
phrase consisting of a cognate object (_song_, _laugh_) with its
adjective modifiers (_a merry_, _a scornful_).
CHAPTER IV
COMPLEMENTS
+482.+ 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is +complete in itself+. Such
a verb needs only a subject. When this has been supplied, we have a
sentence, for the mere verb, without any additional word or words, is
capable of being a predicate.
Birds _fly_.
Fishes _swim_.
The sun _shines_.
The moon _rose_.
The man _scowled_.
The girl _laughed_.
The owls _hooted_.
The clock _ticked_.
Verbs of this kind are sometimes called +complete verbs+, or +verbs of
complete predication+.
2. Other verbs are not, by themselves, capable of serving as
predicates. Thus,--
The Indians killed ----.
Mr. Harris makes ----.
Tom is ----.
The man seemed ----.
These are not sentences, for the predicate of each is unfinished. The
verb requires the addition of a substantive or an adjective to complete
its sense.
The Indians killed _deer_.
Mr. Harris makes _shoes_.
Tom is _captain_.
The man seemed _sorry_.
Verbs of this kind are often called +incomplete verbs+, or +verbs of
incomplete predication+.
NOTE. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it
belongs. Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in
some of its senses and to the second in others (§§ 212–215).
+483.+ +A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to
complete its meaning is called a complement.+
+Complements are of four kinds,--the direct object, the predicate
objective, the predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective.+
In the examples in § 482, _deer_ and _shoes_ are +direct objects+,--the
former denoting the +receiver+ of the action, the latter denoting the
+product+; _captain_ is a +predicate nominative+, denoting the same
person as the subject _Tom_ (§ 88, 2); _sorry_ is a predicate adjective
describing the subject _man_.
Complements may, of course, be modified. If they are substantives, they
may take adjective modifiers; if adjectives, they may take adverbial
modifiers (§§ 464, 494).
+484.+ For convenience, the definitions of the four kinds of
complements are here repeated, with examples.
1. THE DIRECT OBJECT
+485.+ +Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which
receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive
verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+
+A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is
called its direct object+ (§ 100).
The direct object is often called the +object complement+, or merely
the +object of the verb+.
Alfred has broken his _arm_.
Morse invented the electric _telegraph_.
Black foxes command a high _price_.
You have accomplished a _task_ of great difficulty.
Have you lost the _dog_ which your uncle gave you?
He asked _me_ the _news_. [Two direct objects (§ 103).]
Most of these objects are modified,--_arm_ by the possessive _his_;
_telegraph_ by _the_ and _electric_; _price_ by _a_ and _high_; _task_
by the adjective phrase _of great difficulty_; _dog_ by _the_ and by
the adjective clause _which your uncle gave you_.
+486.+ A noun clause may be used as the direct object of a verb (§ 386).
You promised _that my coat should be ready to-day_.
The mayor ordered _that the street should be closed for three hours_.
I begged _that my passport might be returned to me_.
For further examples, see §§ 407, 432, 439, 441.
2. THE PREDICATE OBJECTIVE
+487.+ +Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and
_thinking_ may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.+
+The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which
completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective+
(§ 104).
The +predicate objective+ is often called the +complementary object+
or the +objective attribute+.
The people have elected Chamberlain _governor_.
Peter calls Richard my _shadow_.
The court has appointed you the child’s _guardian_.
John thinks himself a _hero_.
+488.+ An +adjective+ may serve as a +predicate objective+. Thus,--
I thought your decision _hasty_.
I call that answer _impertinent_.
The jury found the prisoner _guilty_.
Your letter made him _joyful_.
Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives in _-ly_
serving as predicate objectives.
You called him _sickly_. [Adjective.]
You called him _early_. [Adverb.]
After the passive, a predicate objective becomes a +predicate
nominative+ (§ 489).
3. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
+489.+ +A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or
defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a
predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2).
A predicate nominative is often called a +subject complement+ or an
+attribute+.
The predicate nominative is common after _is_ and other copulative
verbs, and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice.
Chemistry is a useful _science_.
Boston is the _capital_ of Massachusetts.
Jefferson became _President_.
This bird is called a _flamingo_.
Mr. Hale was appointed _secretary_.
Albert has been chosen _captain_ of the crew.
You are a _friend_ upon whom I can rely.
In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one or more
modifiers. In the first sentence, _science_ is modified by the two
adjectives _a_ and _useful_; in the second, _capital_ is modified by
the adjective phrase _of Massachusetts_; in the last, _friend_ is
modified by the adjective clause _upon whom I can rely_.
For the distinction between the +predicate nominative+ and the +direct
object+, see § 102.
+490.+ A +noun clause+ may be used as a predicate nominative (§ 386).
My plan is _that the well should be dug to-morrow_.
His intention was _that you should remain here_.
The result is _that he is bankrupt_.
Ruth’s fear was _that the door might be locked_.
+491.+ An +infinitive+ may be used as a predicate nominative.
To hear is _to obey_.
My hope was _to reach_ the summit before dark.
Their plan was _to undermine_ the tower.
My habit is _to rise_ early.
The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. In the second and
third examples, it takes an object; in the fourth it is modified by an
adverb.
4. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE
+492.+ +An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in
the subject is called a predicate adjective.+
+A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb and
is therefore a complement+ (§ 172, 3.)
Like the predicate nominative, the predicate adjective is common after
copulative verbs and after certain transitive verbs in the passive
voice (§§ 172, 3; 252).
John was _angry_.
My knife is growing _dull_.
The task seemed very _easy_.
The report proved _false_ in every particular.
The boat was thought _unsafe_.
The cover was made perfectly _tight_.
In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a modifier. In
the third, _easy_ is modified by the adverb _very_; in the fourth,
_false_ is modified by the adverbial phrase _in every particular_; in
the last, _tight_ is modified by _perfectly_.
+493.+ An +adjective phrase+ may be used as a predicate adjective.
Thus,--
Richard was _out of health_. [Compare: Richard was _ill_.]
Rachel seemed _in a passion_. [Compare: seemed _angry_.]
This act is _against my interests_. [Compare: is _harmful_ to me.]
The adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or without the
preposition _about_ (§ 319).
I was _about to speak_.
This house is _to let_.
I am _to sail_ to-morrow.
CHAPTER V
MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS
COMPLEMENTS MODIFIED
+494.+ Complements, being either substantives or adjectives, may be
modified in various ways, most of which have been noted in Chapter III.
1. A +substantive+ used as a +complement+ may have the same kinds of
modifiers that are used with the +subject+ (§ 466).
2. An +adjective complement+ admits only +adverbial modifiers+.
+495.+ The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of substantive
complements:--
Herbert lost _a gold_ watch. [The direct object (_watch_) is modified
by the adjectives _a_ and _gold_.]
The duke built towers _of marble_. [The direct object (_towers_) is
modified by the adjective phrase _of marble_.]
My father built _the_ house _in which I was born_. [The direct object
(_house_) is modified by the adjective _the_ and the adjective clause
_in which I was born_.]
I saw _a_ man _running_ across the field. [The direct object (_man_)
is modified by the adjective _a_ and the participle _running_.]
You have forfeited _your_ right _to vote_. [The direct object
(_right_) is modified by the possessive pronoun _your_ and the
infinitive _to vote_.]
I have seen _Henry’s_ brother. [The direct object (_brother_) is
modified by the possessive noun _Henry’s_.]
I must ask _my_ brother, the _mayor_. [The direct object (_brother_)
is modified by the possessive pronoun _my_ and the appositive
_mayor_.]
The guild has elected Walter _honorary_ president. [The predicate
objective (_president_) is modified by the adjective _honorary_.]
Her husband is _an old_ soldier. [The predicate nominative
(_soldier_) is modified by the adjectives _an_ and _old_.]
Her sons are veterans _of the Franco-Prussian war_. [The predicate
nominative (_veterans_) is modified by the adjective phrase _of the
Franco-Prussian war_.]
They are rivals _in business_. [The predicate nominative (_rivals_)
is modified by the adjective phrase _in business_.]
The author is Will Jewell, _who was formerly editor of_ “_The
Pioneer_.” [The predicate nominative (_Will Jewell_) is modified by
the adjective clause _who was formerly editor_, etc.]
Baldwin is _the_ man _standing_ under the tree. [The predicate
nominative (_man_) is modified by the adjective _the_ and the
participle _standing_.]
Your chief fault is _your_ inclination _to procrastinate_. [The
predicate nominative (_inclination_) is modified by the possessive
pronoun _your_ and the infinitive _to procrastinate_.]
This man is _Gretchen’s_ brother. [The predicate nominative
(_brother_) is modified by the possessive noun _Gretchen’s_.]
The first to fall was _the_ bugler, _John Wilson_. [The predicate
nominative (_bugler_) is modified by the adjective _the_ and the
appositive _John Wilson_.]
+496.+ +Adjective clauses+ are very common as modifiers of substantive
complements (cf. § 468).
Have you lost the watch _that your cousin gave you_?
This is the very spot _where the temple of Saturn stood_.
The general issued an order _that all non-combatants should be
treated well_.
We have abundant proof _that during his stay on the Continent, Bacon
did not neglect literary and scientific pursuits_.
+497.+ An +adjective+ used as a complement may be modified by an
+adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.
I am _very_ sorry _for you_. [_Sorry_ is modified by the adverb
_very_ and the adverbial phrase _for you_.]
Charles seems {_rather_ | _very_ | _extremely_} angry.
The road is rough {_in places_. | _where they are repairing it_.}
The whole tribe appeared eager _for war_.
He grew envious _of his successful rival_.
Be zealous _in every righteous cause_.
The chief’s face looked dark _with passion_.
He was selfish _beyond belief_. [The predicate adjective (_selfish_)
is modified by the adverbial phrase _beyond belief_.]
Ellen seemed desirous _that her friends should admire her_.
The secretary appeared unwilling _to resign_. [See § 321, note.]
MODIFIERS OF OTHER MODIFIERS
+498.+ +Modifiers may themselves be modified.+
The chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in the
following sentences.
I. +Adjectives+ or +adjective phrases+ may be modified by +adverbs+ or
by words or groups of words used adverbially.
A _very_ old man came to the door.
An _exceedingly_ dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge.
This _rather_ odd proposal interested us.
The quay is _miles_ long. [Adverbial objective (§ 109).]
_At least_ five different amendments have been offered. [_Five_ is
modified by the adverbial phrase _at least_.]
The general, _wholly_ in the dark as to the enemy’s intentions,
ordered an advance. [The adjective phrase _in the dark_ is modified
by _wholly_.]
_Quite_ at his ease, John began to speak. [_At his ease_ is modified
by _quite_.]
Her smile, pathetic _in its weariness_, quickly faded. [The adverbial
phrase modifies _pathetic_]
This sleeve is _a good two inches_ short. [The phrase modifies
_short_.]
II. +Possessive nouns+ may be modified by adjectives or by possessives.
_The poor_ man’s days are numbered.
_Honest_ Tom’s face shone with delight.
_The faithful_ animal’s head drooped.
_My_ uncle’s barn is on fire.
_John’s_ brother’s name is Reginald.
III. +Appositives+ may be modified by adjectives or by groups of words
used as adjectives.
Joe, _the old_ butler, met me at the station.
Sam, _the cunning_ rascal, had stolen the oars.
Her mother, a woman _of fashion_, sadly neglected her.
The other, the man _at the table_, laughed rudely.
Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer _who had charge of the construction_,
proved incompetent.
Two Englishmen, friends _whom I visited last summer_, are coming to
New York in December.
IV. +Adverbs+ or +adverbial phrases+ may be modified by adverbs or by
words or groups of words used adverbially.
Jane plays _very_ well.
Robert spoke _almost_ hopefully.
She answered _quite_ at random.
I write to him _at least_ once _a year_.
+499.+ An adjective may be modified by an +infinitive+ (§ 321).
Unable _to move_, I suffered torments of anxiety.
The sailors, eager _to reach_ the island, plunged into the sea.
Reluctant _to act_, but unwilling _to stand_ idle, Burwell was in a
pitiful state of indecision.
+500.+ Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as modifiers of
modifiers (cf. § 496).
Geronimo, an old chief _who bore the scars of many battles_, led the
attack. [The adjective clause modifies the appositive _chief_.]
The servant, angry _because he had been rebuked_, slammed the door as
he went out.
The hunter, confident _that the deer had not heard him_, took
deliberate aim.
The fugitive, in a panic _lest he should be overtaken_, made frantic
efforts to scale the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the
adjective phrase _in a panic_.]
CHAPTER VI
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
+501.+ +A word or group of words that has no grammatical connection
with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element.+
+Independent elements are of four kinds,--interjections, vocatives
(or nominatives by direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and
parenthetical expressions.+
_Ah!_ why did I undertake this task?
Help arrived, _alas!_ too late.
You are a strange man, _Arthur_.
_Mary_, come here!
Poor _Charles_! I am sorry for him.
_Clothes! clothes!_ you are always wanting clothes.
Lucky _she_! we are all envious of her prospects.
The first two sentences contain +interjections+ (§ 372); the second
two, +vocatives+ (or nominatives by direct address) (§ 88, 3); the last
three, +exclamatory nominatives+ (§ 88, 4).
When the independent word has a +modifier+ (as in the fifth and seventh
examples), the whole phrase may be treated as an independent element.
+502.+ +A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence
as a mere comment, without belonging either to the subject or the
predicate, is said to be parenthetical.+
The market, _indeed_, was already closed.
Peter, _to be sure_, was not very trustworthy.
The house, _at all events_, is safe.
The road is, _I admit_, very hilly.
Luttrell’s method, _it must be confessed_, was a little disappointing.
Richard was not a bad fellow, _after all_.
+503.+ In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by itself, and
not as a part of the complete subject or the complete predicate.
CHAPTER VII
COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
+504.+ The use of subordinate clauses as complements and modifiers, and
as modifiers of complements and of modifiers, may produce sentences of
great length and complicated structure.
Such sentences, if skilfully composed, are not hard to follow. Their
analysis requires merely the intelligent application of a few simple
principles, which have already been explained and illustrated.
+505.+ These principles may be summed up as follows:--
I. All clauses are either +independent+ or +subordinate+. A clause is
subordinate if it is used as a part of speech (noun, adjective, or
adverb); otherwise, it is independent (§ 46).
II. +Coördinate+ means “of the same rank” in the sentence (§ 46).
1. Two or more +independent clauses+ in the same sentence are
manifestly coördinate.
_The fire blazed_ and _the wood crackled_. [Two declarative clauses.]
_What is your name_, and _where were you born_? [Interrogative
clauses.]
_Sit down_ and _tell me your story_. [Imperative clauses.]
2. Two or more +subordinate clauses+ are coördinate _with each other_
when they are used together in the same construction,--as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
Such a group may be regarded as forming one +compound subordinate
clause+.
The truth is, _that I have no money_ and _that my friends have
forsaken me_. [Noun clauses.]
The Indians, _who were armed with long lances_, and _who showed
great skill in using them_, made a furious attack on the cavalry.
[Adjective clauses.]
_When he had spoken_, but _before a vote had been taken_, a strange
tumult was heard in the outer room. [Adverbial clauses.]
In the first example, we have a +compound noun clause+; in the second,
a +compound adjective clause+; in the third, a +compound adverbial
clause+.
3. Coördinate clauses are either joined by coördinate conjunctions
(_and_, _or_, _but_, etc.), or such conjunctions may be supplied
without changing the sense (§ 362).
The good-natured old gentleman, _who was friendly to both parties_,
[AND] _who did not lack courage_, AND _who hated a quarrel_, spoke
his mind with complete frankness.
III. A subordinate clause may depend on another subordinate clause.
The horse shied _when he saw the locomotive_. [The subordinate clause
depends upon the independent (main) clause.]
The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, _which was puffing
violently_. [The second subordinate clause depends upon the first,
being an adjective modifier of _locomotive_.]
In such cases, the whole group of subordinate clauses may be taken
together as forming one +complex subordinate clause+.
Thus, in the second example, _when he saw the locomotive, which was
puffing violently_ may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause
modifying _shied_, and containing an adjective clause (_which was
puffing violently_).
+506.+ From the principles summarized in § 505, it appears that--
+Clauses (like sentences) may be simple, compound, or complex.+
1. A +simple clause+ contains but one subject and one predicate, either
or both of which may be compound (§ 451).
2. A +compound clause+ consists of two or more coördinate clauses (§
454).
3. A +complex clause+ consists of at least two clauses, one of which is
subordinate to the other.
+507.+ The +unit+ in all combinations of clauses is clearly the +simple
sentence+, which, when used as a part of a more complicated sentence,
becomes a +simple clause+.
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen, are really
but two in number,--+coördination+ and +subordination+.
+Coördination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses; subordination of one clause to another produces complex
sentences or complex clauses.+
+508.+ Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs (in
structure) to one of the three classes,--+simple+, +compound+, and
+complex+.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
+509.+ A simple sentence may have a +compound subject or predicate+ (or
both), and may also include a number of modifiers and complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It remains
+simple in structure+ so long as it contains but one simple or compound
subject and one simple or compound predicate. Thus,--
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six
hundred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top.--WEBSTER.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate,
partly to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to
the noun _Dumbarton Castle_.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the
insecure and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power
of accomplices, to live in constant dread of warrants and king’s
messengers, nay, perhaps, to end his days on a scaffold, or to live
on alms in some back street of the Hague.--MACAULAY.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used
as adverbial modifiers of the complement _disposed_ (a participle
used as an adjective). Each of these infinitives takes a complement
or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of
Strafford, and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a
collision between the opposite principles of government, and divided
the whole country into Cavaliers and Roundheads.--MAY.
Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three
nouns in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the
compound predicate have each a complement, and the second has an
adverbial modifier (a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging,
making themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness.--POE.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of
participles (_making_ and _examining_), which modify the simple
subject _twenty_.
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or
prohibition, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome
pasturage.--LAMB.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of
subterranean wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events.--SCOTT.
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters.--PRESCOTT.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received
the homage of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus,
precariously reigned during a tumult of twenty-eight days.--GIBBON.
NOTE. A +simple sentence with compound predicate+ often differs
very slightly from a +compound sentence+. Thus in examples 4–7 the
insertion of a single pronoun (_they_, _she_) to serve as a subject
for the second verb (_proceeded_, _browsed_, etc.) will make the
sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+510.+ Every sentence that is not simple must be either +compound+ or
+complex+.
A sentence is +compound+ if it consists of two or more independent
clauses; +complex+, if it consists of one independent (main) clause and
one or more subordinate clauses.
+511.+ An ordinary +compound sentence+ consists of two or more
coördinate simple clauses.
Such a sentence may be of great length (as in the last example below),
but its structure is usually transparent.
A cricket chirps on the hearth, | and | we are reminded of Christmas
gambols long ago.--HAZLITT.
The moments were numbered; | the strife was finished; | the vision
was closed.--DE QUINCEY.
The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the
strongest towers of the Alhambra, | but | his restless anxiety kept
him from repose.--IRVING.
The clock has just struck two; | the expiring taper rises and sinks
in the socket; | the watchman forgets his hour in slumber; | the
laborious and the happy are at rest; | and | nothing wakes but
meditation, guilt, revelry, and despair.--GOLDSMITH.
The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent
objects; | it is not a contest for acquisition of territory; | it
is not a contest for power and glory; | as little is it carried
on merely for any commercial advantage, or any particular form
of government; | but | it is a contest for the security, the
tranquillity, and the very existence of Great Britain, connected
with that of every established government and every country in
Europe.--PITT.
+512.+ A +complex sentence+, in its most elementary form, consists of
one simple independent (main) clause and one simple subordinate clause.
The gas exploded when I struck a match.
Though he is idle, he is not lazy.
The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries.
Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness,
that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on
the blue sky.--KEATS.
The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing
of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who
stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent
suspense.--GIBBON.
+513.+ Both compound sentences and complex sentences admit of much
variety in structure, according to the nature and the relations of the
clauses that compose them.
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+514.+ +Any or all of the coördinate clauses that make up a compound
sentence may be complex. In that case, the sentence is called a
compound complex sentence.+
NOTE. Compound complex sentences form a special class or subdivision
under the general head of compound sentences.[49]
Old Uncle Venner was just coming out of his door, with a wood-horse
and saw on his shoulder; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled
not to keep company with Phœbe, so far as their paths lay together;
nor, in spite of his patched coat and rusty beaver, and the curious
fashion of his tow-cloth trousers, could she find it in her heart to
outwalk him.--HAWTHORNE.
This sentence consists of +three coördinate clauses+, each
independent of the others. These are joined by the coördinate
conjunctions _and_, _nor_. The first and the third clause are
+simple+, but the second clause is +complex+. Hence the whole forms
one +compound complex sentence+.
The complex clause consists of two clauses, the second of which is
subordinate to the first. Taken as a whole, however, this complex
clause is manifestly coördinate with the two simple clauses, since
the three form a series joined by coördinate conjunctions.
+515.+ Further examples of +compound complex sentences+ are:--
1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his
child; and he roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle
in Delphi.--KINGSLEY.
2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown; novels are their
literature.--EMERSON.
3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have
more of their music.--COWPER.
4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful
faces that had once been reflected in its stream had passed
away.--FROUDE.
5. There are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar;
and if they were not so directly contrary to those of my own
dear country, I should be tempted to say a little in their
justification.--SWIFT.
6. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams that
they should rest awhile in this delightful place.--FIELDING.
7. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be; yet it was
difficult to say what she did.--C. BRONTË.
8. Malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison, and the common
people were active, hardy, and resolute; but the city was rich and
commercial, and under the habitual control of opulent merchants, who
dreaded the ruinous consequences of a siege.--IRVING.
9. The Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise; and, before the
barbarian horde had come within their lines, they opened such a
deadly fire from their heavy guns, supported by the musketry and
crossbows, that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly,
but fearfully mangled, to their former position.--PRESCOTT.
10. Her cheeks were as pale as marble, but of a cold, unhealthy,
ashen white; and my heart ached to think that they had been bleached,
most probably, by bitter and continual tears.--HOOD.
11. The hawk, having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight, fell
like a thunderbolt on the raven, stunned him with the blow, clutched
him in his talons, folded him in his wings, and, the hawk undermost,
they tumbled down like a black ball, till within a short distance
from the earth.--TRELAWNY.
In this sentence _they were_ is understood after _till_.
VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
+516.+ A complex sentence may be expanded either by compounding the
main clause, or by increasing the number of subordinate clauses. Both
methods may be used in the same sentence.
+517.+ +The independent (main) clause of a complex sentence may be
compound.+
When they saw the ship, _they shouted for joy and some of them burst
into tears_.
As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, _the sun
dipped and disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity
and grayness of the early night_.--STEVENSON.
_The eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed with
sudden anger_, as he listened to proposals so humiliating.--PRESCOTT.
_Sharpe was so hated in Scotland during his life, and his death won
him so many friends, or pitying observers_, that it is not easy to
write of him without prejudice or favor.--A. LANG.
As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation,
_his life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry
beggars and lazy dependents_.--THACKERAY.
Note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound main clause,
not upon either of its members.
Thus, in the first example, the subordinate clause (_when they saw
the ship_) depends upon the compound main clause, _they shouted for
joy and some of them burst into tears_. It is an adverbial modifier
of both _shouted_ and _burst_.
+518.+ Though a complex sentence can have but one (simple or compound)
main clause, there is, in theory, no limit to the number of subordinate
clauses.
+519.+ Subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause (1) as
+separate modifiers or complements+; (2) in a +coördinate series of
clauses+, all in the same construction, and forming one +compound
clause+; (3) in a series of +successively subordinate clauses+, forming
one +complex clause+.
+520.+ +Two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main
clause separately, each as a distinct modifier or complement.+
The bridge, _which had been weakened by the ice_, fell with a crash
_while the locomotive was crossing it_. [The first subordinate clause
is an adjective modifier of _bridge_; the second is an adverbial
modifier of _fell_.]
The architect _who drew the plans_ says _that the house will cost
ten thousand dollars_. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective
modifier of _architect_; the second is a complement, being the object
of _says_.]
Isabella, _whom every incident was sufficient to dismay_, hesitated
_whether she should proceed_.--H. WALPOLE.
As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller
had just left sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored
line.--RUSKIN.
Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to
despise, assume new terrors as we grow old.--GOLDSMITH.
When Farmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth spread till they
were within an unimportant distance of his ears.--HARDY.
As Florian Deleal walked, one hot afternoon, he overtook by
the wayside a poor aged man, and, as he seemed weary with the
road, helped him on with the burden which he carried, a certain
distance.--PATER.
While Joe was absent on this errand, the elder Willet and his three
companions continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep
silence, each having his eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was
suspended over the fire.--DICKENS.
+521.+ +Two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction,
forming one compound clause, may be attached to the main clause as a
modifier or complement.+
1. The truth was _that Leonard had overslept, that he had missed the
train, and that he had failed to keep his appointment_.
2. The guide told us _that the road was impassable, that the river
was in flood, and that the bridge had been swept away_.
3. Ellis, _whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low
ebb_, stared dismally at the passing crowd.
4. _Before the battle was over and while the result was still in
doubt_, the general ordered a retreat.
5. _After we had arrived at the hotel, but before we had engaged our
rooms_, we received an invitation to stay at the castle.
6. My first thought was, _that all was lost, and that my only chance
for executing a retreat was to sacrifice my baggage_.--DE QUINCEY.
7. The author fully convinced his readers _that they were a race of
cowards and scoundrels, that nothing could save them, that they were
on the point of being enslaved by their enemies, and that they richly
deserved their fate_.--MACAULAY.
In the first and second examples, three coördinate noun clauses are
joined to make one compound clause, which is used as a complement,--as
a predicate nominative in the first sentence, as the direct object of
_told_ in the second.
In the third example, a compound adjective clause modifies _Ellis_.
In the fourth and fifth, a compound adverbial clause modifies
the predicate verb (_ordered_, _received_). In the seventh, four
_that_-clauses unite in one compound clause.
+522.+ +Two or more successively subordinate clauses, forming one
complex clause, may be joined to the main clause as a modifier or
complement.+
In such a series, the first subordinate clause is attached directly to
the main clause, the second is subordinate to the first, the third to
the second, and so on in succession.
In the course of my travels, I met a good-natured old gentleman,
(_a_) _who was born in the village_ (_b_) _where my parents lived_
(_c_) _before they came to America_.
Here _gentleman_ (a complement in the main clause) is modified by
the adjective clause _who was born in the village_ (_a_). _Village_,
in clause _a_, is modified by the adjective clause _where my parents
lived_ (_b_). _Lived_, the predicate verb of clause _b_, is modified by
the adverbial clause _before they came to America_ (_c_).
Thus it appears that _a_ is subordinate to the main clause, and that
_b_, in turn, is subordinate to _a_, and _c_ to _b_. In other words,
the three clauses (_a_, _b_, _c_) are united to make one complex
clause,--_who was born in the village where my parents lived before
they came to America_. This clause, taken as a whole, serves as an
adjective modifier describing _gentleman_.
+523.+ Further examples of the +successive subordination+ of one clause
to another may be seen in the following sentences:--
I have passed my latter years in this city, _where I am frequently
seen in public places, though there are not above half-a-dozen of my
select friends that know me_.--ADDISON.
In this manner they advanced by moonlight _till they came within view
of the two towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley,
at the extremity of which rose the vast ruins of Istakar_.--BECKFORD.
The young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly
in tune to a feeling heart, _that I instantly made a vow I would give
him a four-and-twenty sous piece, when I got to Marseilles_.--STERNE.
[The conjunction _that_ is omitted before _I would_ (§ 388).]
Three years had scarcely elapsed _before the sons of Constantine
seemed impatient to convince mankind that they were incapable of
contenting themselves with the dominions which they were unqualified
to govern_.--GIBBON.
Mr. Lewis sent me an account of Dr. Arbuthnot’s illness, _which is
a very sensible affliction to me, who, by living so long out of the
world, have lost that hardness of heart contracted by years and
general conversation_.--SWIFT.
NOTE. The method of forming complex clauses by successive
subordination, if overworked, produces long, straggling, shapeless
sentences, as in the following example from Borrow:--“I scouted the
idea that Slingsby would have stolen this blacksmith’s gear; for
I had the highest opinion of his honesty, _which_ opinion I still
retain at the present day, _which_ is upwards of twenty years from
the time of _which_ I am speaking, during the whole of _which_ period
I have neither seen the poor fellow nor received any intelligence of
him.” A famous instance of the use of this structure for comic effect
is “The House that Jack Built.”
SPECIAL COMPLICATIONS
+524.+ The processes of +coördination and subordination+ (§§ 514–523)
may be so utilized in one and the same sentence as to produce a very
complicated structure.
Examples of such sentences are given below, for reference (§§ 525–526).
Their structure, however elaborate, is always either +complex+ or
+compound complex+.
I. IN COMPLEX SENTENCES
+525.+ The following sentences are complex. They contain either
compound or complex clauses, or both.
1. They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and which
they were constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the gold
which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they
were unacquainted.--MACAULAY.
The main clause of this complex sentence is _they preferred the
silver to the gold_. To this are separately attached (§ 520) two
adjective clauses, both +compound+: (1) _with which ... hand_,
modifying _silver_; (2) _which they had ... unacquainted_, modifying
_gold_.
2. All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where hung
the rotting remains of a prince who had made England the dread of the
world, who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness and
of her colonial empire, who had conquered Scotland and Ireland, who
had humbled Holland and Spain.--MACAULAY.
The sentence is +complex+. The main clause is _all London crowded to
shout and laugh round the gibbet_. The rest of the sentence (_where
... Spain_) forms one long complex adjective clause, modifying
_gibbet_. In this complex clause, the first clause (_where ...
prince_) has dependent on it a compound adjective clause (modifying
_prince_), made up of four coördinate clauses, each beginning with
_who_. The subordination of this compound clause to that which
precedes (_where ... prince_) produces the long complex subordinate
clause _where ... Spain_.
3. As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall
leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his
mind being perfectly at ease, fell into a contemplation on a passage
in Æschylus, which entertained him for three miles together, without
suffering him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller.--FIELDING.
In this +complex sentence+, two subordinate clauses are separately
attached to the main clause: (1) the adverbial clause _as ... inn_;
(2) the adjective clause _who ... fellow-traveller_. This latter
clause is complex, since it contains the adjective clause _which ...
fellow-traveller_, dependent on _who ... Æschylus_, and modifying
_passage_.
4. As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling
about my clearing; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos and
threes athwart my view, or perching restlessly on the white pine
boughs behind my house, gives a voice to the air; a fishhawk dimples
the glassy surface of the pond and brings up a fish; a mink steals
out of the marsh before my door and seizes a frog by the shore; the
sedge is bending under the weight of the reed-birds flitting hither
and hither; and for the last half hour I have heard the rattle of
railroad cars, now dying away and then revving like the beat of a
partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to the country.--THOREAU.
This sentence is +complex+. Its main clause is compound, consisting
of a series of six coördinate simple clauses. The whole of this long
compound main clause is modified by the adverbial clause with which
the sentence begins (_as ... afternoon_).
5. That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired
great wealth, that they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it
extravagantly, that they raised the price of everything in their
neighborhood, from fresh eggs to rotten boroughs; that their liveries
outshone those of dukes, that their coaches were finer than that of
the Lord Mayor, that the examples of their large and ill-governed
households corrupted half the servants in the country; that some of
them, with all their magnificence, could not catch the tone of good
society, but in spite of the stud and the crowd of menials, of the
plate and the Dresden china, of the venison and the Burgundy, were
still low men,--these were things which excited, both in the class
from which they had sprung, and in that into which they attempted to
force themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of mingled
envy and contempt.--MACAULAY.
This +complex sentence+, though very long, is perfectly easy to
follow. It begins with a long compound noun clause (consisting of
nine coördinate _that_-clauses). This would be the subject of the
main predicate verb _were_, but for the fact that the pronoun _these_
is inserted to act as the subject (referring back to the compound
noun clause and summing it up in a single word). To the complement
_things_ is attached the adjective clause _which excited ...
contempt_. This clause is complex, for it contains three adjective
clauses, (1) _from which they had sprung_ (modifying _class_), (2)
_into which ... themselves_ (modifying _that_), and (3) _which is
... contempt_ (modifying _aversion_). All three are separately
attached to the clause on which they depend, _which excited that
bitter aversion_. Thus all that portion of the sentence which follows
_things_ forms one complex clause, modifying that noun.
6. That I may avoid the imputation of throwing out, even privately,
any loose, random imputations against the public conduct of a
gentleman for whom I once entertained a very warm affection, and
whose abilities I regard with the greatest admiration, I will put
down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection
which I feel to his late doctrines and proceedings, trusting that
I shall be able to demonstrate to the friends whose good opinion
I would still cultivate, that not levity, nor caprice, nor less
defensible motives, but that very grave reasons, influence my
judgment.--BURKE.
This is a fine example of a long, but well-constructed +complex
sentence+. The main clause is _I will put down, distinctly and
articulately, some of the matters of objection_. Upon this simple
clause, everything else in the sentence depends in one way or another.
II. IN COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+526.+ Any complex sentence, however elaborate, may be used as one
of the +coördinate complex clauses+ that make up a +compound complex
sentence+.
1. While the king was treated at this rude rate, Cromwell, with his
army, was in Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in
his favor; but on the approach of the Scots, who were much superior
in number, he was forced to retire towards Dunbar, where his ships
and provisions lay.--BURNET.
In this +compound complex sentence+, both coördinate clauses are
complex. In each, the main clause has two subordinate clauses
attached to it separately (§ 520).
2. They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only to
let the ships run adrift, or fall foul on each other; but when they
perceived the whole fleet moving in order, and saw me pulling at the
end, they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost
impossible to describe or conceive.--SWIFT.
In this +compound complex sentence+, both of the two coördinate
clauses are complex. The first contains the noun clause [_that_] _my
design ... each other_, used as the object of _thought_. The second
contains two subordinate clauses, separately attached to the main
clause (_they set ... despair_). For the infinitive _cut_, see § 322.
The infinitive _to let_ is used as a predicate nominative (§ 491); it
has as its object the infinitive clause _the ships ... each other_,
containing two infinitives, _run_ and _fall_ (§ 325).
3. While things went on quietly, while there was no opposition, while
everything was given by the favor of a small ruling junto, Fox had
a decided advantage over Pitt; but when dangerous times came, when
Europe was convulsed with war, when Parliament was broken up into
factions, when the public mind was violently excited, the favorite of
the people rose to supreme power.--MACAULAY.
This +compound complex sentence+ consists of two complex clauses,
joined by the coördinate conjunction _but_. In each of these, the
subordinate clause is compound (§ 521), consisting of several
coördinate adverbial clauses introduced by relative adverbs (_while_
in the first, _when_ in the second).
4. The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early
attracted the notice of his employers; and before the Peace of Breda
he had, at the request of Arlington, published a pamphlet on the war,
of which nothing is now known, except that it had some vogue at the
time, and that Charles, not a contemptible judge, pronounced it to be
very well written.--MACAULAY.
In this +compound complex sentence+, the first coördinate clause is
simple, the second is complex. In the second, the adjective clause
_of which nothing is known_ has dependent on it the group of words
_except ... well written_, consisting of the preposition _except_ and
its object (the compound noun clause, _that ... time, and that ...
well written_). This group serves as an adjective modifier of the
noun _nothing_. The whole passage _of which ... well written_ forms a
complex adjective clause, modifying _pamphlet_. _It to be very well
written_ is a complement, being an infinitive clause used as the
object of _pronounced_ (§ 325).
CHAPTER VIII
ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES
+527.+ Good usage does not demand that all sentences shall be
absolutely complete. It often allows (and sometimes requires) the
omission of words that, though necessary to the construction, are so
easily supplied by the mind that it would be mere waste of time to
utter them.
+528.+ +The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical
completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis.+
+A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical.+
+Ellipsis+ is a Greek word meaning “omission.”
In the following examples the omitted words are supplied in brackets.
[I] thank you.
[I] pray do not [you] move.
[You] pass me that book.
Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue.
Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish.
Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were
armed] with swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks.
When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East.
Though [he is] timid, he is no coward.
They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed.
While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar.
If [it is] possible, send me word to-night.
You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary.