young men have charms to make them successful in their wooing.
Soldiers and dacoits have charms to protect them from bullets and
_dah_-thrusts, and everybody has charms to render harmless all snake
and insect bites. Besides the tattooed charms, certain objects
are inserted under the skin, or carried about, according to the
superstition of the individual, and representing about as high a type
of intelligence as does the horseshoe over many a door in civilized
lands.
The custom of tattooing is said to have originated many centuries
ago, when the Burmans were subject to the Shan kings in Upper Burma.
The Shans, who were themselves tattooed,--branded with tattoo-marks
captives taken in war, as evidence of their servility. Instead of
regarding this as humiliating, the Burmans were proud of their
tattooing, as marks of the king. Moreover, the despised Chins, wild
tribes in the north-western hills, did not tattoo. A non-tattooed
Burman might be mistaken for a Chin, which would be humiliating
indeed. Tattooing became popular, the custom spread rapidly, and now a
full-grown Burman who is not the proud possessor of a pair of tattooed
breeches that will last him a lifetime, is seldom found. In the
jungle-villages nearly every boy is tattooed. In the towns the custom
is rapidly dying out. Not five per cent. of Burman boys in the towns
have submitted to this custom. Town boys are much more afraid of being
taken for countrymen than of being made fun of for departing from the
time-honoured custom. In fact, the town boy is as anxious to have it
known that he is not tattooed as the unbreeched village boy would be
to conceal it.
The fact that at the last census nine hundred and eighty six persons
were returned as professional tattooers indicates that their business
is still thriving, notwithstanding the disaffection of the town dudes.
The desire to ape English customs may have something to do with this
backsliding. This is also noticeable in the habit, now popular among
town boys, especially in the schools, of cutting the hair short. Only
a few years ago a cropped head would have stamped one as a convict.
Girls are not tattooed except possibly an invisible love-charm,--but
they furnish a companion-ceremony, when ear-boring time comes round.
It answers to the time when a girl in the home-land begins to think of
getting out of short dresses, to be a child no longer.
When an ear-boring ceremony is announced everything else must take
second place. The day and hour are fixed by the soothsayer, but he
manages to make his divinations harmonize with the plans of the
parents who engaged his services. In spite of the frightened girl's
screams and struggles her ears are pierced with the gold or silver
needle of the professional ear-borer, the tom-toms and horns of the
band outside doing their best to drown her cries. The holes are kept
open until they heal, and then they are gradually enlarged by wearing
glass or metal tubes of increasing size, until finally a tube half
an inch in diameter can be inserted. In the olden time the lobe of
the ear was stretched much more than is now the fashion. I have seen
old women with holes in their ears through which two fingers could be
passed. Such ear-lobes furnished handy holders for their big cheroots.
This stretching and elongating of the lobes of their ears formerly
had a religious significance that is now being forgotten. All images
of Gautama represent him with ear-lobes touching the shoulders, as a
symbol of perfection.
Devout women,--and some of the men,--did their best to imitate his
example. Ear jewelry may be inexpensive colored glass, or of gold
elaborately designed and set with precious stones.
Once her ears are bored the girl puts an end to all street play with
small-boy acquaintances, and poses as a young lady. Changes are
observed in the style of dressing her hair; in her costume; in the
use of cosmetics,--for every Burmese girl, though naturally brown,
desires to be white; in her bearing as she walks the street; in every
pose of her graceful body. She may not have so much freedom of action
as she enjoyed before, but she knows it will not be long until some
choice young man will want her, to adorn his household.
The one universal custom, common to all, both men and women, boys and
girls alike, is the filthy habit of _kun_-chewing and smoking. The
_kun_-chew is made up of part of a betel (areca) nut, chopped fine,
and an astringent green leaf of a certain vine. A little lime-paste,
usually coloured red, is spread on the leaf, then it is wadded up
and jammed into the side of the mouth, with the betel nut. Saliva
soon accumulates. To expectorate would be to lose some of the small
pieces of the nut before the good had been extracted. Attempts at
conversation are ridiculous and nauseating in the extreme. When the
mouth can retain its load no longer its contents are discharged
through a crack in the floor.
The white pony of a lady-missionary was once tethered under a native
house for the night. What was the lady's disgust the next morning
to find her beautiful pony all stained and bedaubed with vile red
_kun_-juice. Smoking is begun before teething is finished. I myself
have seen a mother take a lighted cheroot from her own mouth, and put
it in the mouth of a wee child in her arms. Burmese ladies consider
a cigar the finishing touch to their preparations for a dress-parade.
But the Burman cigar contains but a small proportion of real tobacco
leaf, otherwise the smoke-habit would soon kill off the race. They
cannot both chew and smoke at the same time, but the twin habits keep
them so busy that they accomplish little else. It is said that the
Burman "smokes between chews, and chews between smokes."
It is simply marvellous how far a Burman can smell a rupee, and what
methods he will employ to get it. Has the mission work to be done
by carpenters, cartmen, etc., heathen Burmans are not wanting who
will regularly attend chapel services, and pose as devout inquirers
so long as the job lasts. I have known fortune-tellers, teachers,
court-clerks, and common rice-cultivators to become pretended
disciples with no other motive than to become preachers. They know
that the native evangelists have regular salaries, and that the
missionary takes a fatherly interest in their welfare, giving medicine
when they are ill, advising when they are in difficulty. Though the
salary is not large, it secures a fairly comfortable living, which
is more than many a heathen is sure of the year round. So the wily
heathen comes to our people, pretending to be deeply interested in
Christianity, applies himself to learn all he can, attends worship,
and finally asks for baptism, with every appearance of sincerity. One
year we drew a prize, "Saya Tike" he was called. "Saya" because he had
charge of a small private school. He was past middle age, of uncommon
intelligence, and fine bearing. A more earnest and devout inquirer,
to all appearances, we never met. After some months of waiting he was
baptized and received into the church. Then began his tale of woe. In
consequence of his becoming a Christian his school had been broken
up. Persecutors had broken into his house and stolen his clothing.
Friendless, penniless, and out of a situation, he appealed to the
missionary for something to do. Being fairly handy as a carpenter he
was given such work on the mission buildings. After about two weeks
he suddenly disappeared. Some weeks passed before we could get any
clue to his whereabouts. Then one day one of our preachers met him
in a jungle-village wearing the yellow robe of a Buddhist priest.
When asked why he had left the mission he complained that instead
of being employed as a teacher he had only carpenter work to do. He
preferred being a "pongyi," and have his food given him. Some months
later he again turned up at the mission, professing repentance for
his backsliding, and asking to be received back again. Our faith in
him had been badly shaken, but we tried not to show it. If we would
only give him citizen's clothing in place of his yellow robe he
would gladly go to work again. Giving him the benefit of a doubt I
arranged with my right-hand man to give him a _longyi_, such as the
other men were wearing. No, he did not like a longyi, but must have
the more stylish _puhso_. His taste not being gratified, back he went
again to his heathenism. We soon learned that all his pathetic stories
of persecution had been trumped up for the occasion, to excite our
sympathy, and secure a position.
One day a strange Burman came to the mission. He said that he was a
Christian from a mission fifty miles away. On the train he had been
robbed of his clothing and the little money he had. All he wanted was
to be kept over night, and money enough to pay his way home. The case
was referred to me. I placed the required sum in the hands of my man
"Friday" with instructions to give it to the applicant should he prove
worthy. The next morning my man came to report, and to give back the
money. I said to him, "Well, Ko Ngi, how did you find out that he was
a humbug?" Replying in broken English, he said "Last night we have
meeting (evening prayers). I think, you proper Christian, I make you
pray. He no know anything. He can't pray proper. Then I say--Your
Saya (missionary) how many chillen? He say 'Four little boy, so much
big.' I know he Saya done got _five_ chillen,--one _so much girl_,"
indicating with hand a full grown young lady. So he had sent the man
away without the hand of fellowship, and returned the money.
Among non-Christian Burmans sin, of whatever sort, is sin only when
discovered. "How could it be sin when nobody knew anything about it?"
Deceit is practiced without a pang of conscience so long as the game
can be worked.
The missionary is kind-hearted, supposed to have plenty of money, like
other "Europeans," and is considered legitimate prey.
IV
CHIEF RACES OF BURMA
Reliable history of Burma dates back only to the early part of the
eighteenth century. Burmese chronicles claim to cover a period from
seven to eight hundred years before the Christian era. The Burmese
language certainly was not reduced to writing earlier than the fifth
century of the Christian era.
Early history is founded upon legend. Doubtless many of the events
recorded actually happened, but their dates are hopelessly mixed, and
events themselves distorted by exaggeration. Measured by their records
of the Burmese-English wars of the nineteenth century, in which every
reverse was written down as a great victory,--all of the history
prior to the eighteenth century is utterly untrustworthy. Much may be
learned from other sources, but the information is at best fragmentary
and conflicting. In 1795, the time of the first "Embassy to Ava,"
historical facts dating back to the early part of the century were
gathered and verified. From that time the history of Burma, compiled
by Europeans, is fairly continuous and accurate. In giving a brief
sketch of the chief races of Burma, the main facts of history will
appear. The chief races, in order of numbers, are the Burmans, Shans,
Karens, Talaings, Chins, and Kachins. Taken in the order of priority,
the Talaings, according to the theory which seems to me to have
most in its favour,--come first in order. This theory is that they
were the first of all the many races of Burma to migrate southward
from Tibet, or neighbouring parts of Asia. They seem to have been
of the same race as the Burmans. They still retain the same general
characteristics and customs, and cannot be distinguished from the
Burmans where the two races mingle. The time of this migration is not
known, but it may safely be placed many centuries before the Christian
era. It is probable that they gradually drifted southward until they
reached Burma. The Burmans, coming from the same general source long
afterwards, failed to recognize the Talaings as having any kinship
to themselves. The fact that the Talaing language is utterly unlike
the Burmese, both in root words, and in construction of sentences
indicates that the two races, or two sections of the same race, as
the case may be,--were kept quite distinct prior to the migration of
the Talaings. The Burmans, who held the Talaings in contempt, finally
became indebted to them in a threefold manner,--by the adoption of
the Talaing system of writing, the Buddhist religion, and the sacred
books in which it was recorded.
The sacred books were brought to Thatone from Ceylon, by Buddhist
missionaries not earlier than 386 A. D. These books were
written in Pali, which is still the religious language of Buddhism.
The Talaings soon reduced their own language to writing, not adopting
the Pali characters, but drawing chiefly from the Tamil, with a change
from the square to the round shaped letters.
It is well known that there was a colony of Tamils near Thatone at
that early date. The old theory that the Talaings descended from
the Telugus, and that their original home was in Talingana, is now
generally discredited. Little is known of them prior to the Christian
era, scant mention of them being found in Burmese chronicles, and
having none of their own, covering their early history. Whatever
chronicles they may have had were destroyed by the Burmese conquerors.
The Talaings seem to have been in control in the first century, A.
D., from the Gulf of Martaban to the upper Irawadi. They founded
Pegu in the sixth century, but lost it, as well as Thatone to the
Burmans in the eleventh century. The present city of Pegu was founded
by the Talaings in the sixteenth century, and they have since been
known as Peguans. The term _Talaing_ is said to have been applied
to them by the Burmese as a term of reproach, the word meaning "the
down-trodden." They call themselves _Mons_,--but "Talaings" they will
be, so long as they maintain a distinct existence. In 1385 they were
again in power at Pegu, and two years later at Martaban. In 1410
they had extended their sway to Arracan, which they held until 1423.
The Talaings of Pegu and Martaban were conquered by the Burmans in
1551. But in 1740 we find them again to the front. Taking advantage
of the recklessness of the Burman king the Talaings, in alliance
with a colony of Shans living near Pegu, seized that town, and soon
afterwards were in possession of Prome and Toungoo. In 1752, aided, it
is said, by renegade Dutch and Portuguese, and with firearms procured
from European traders, they invaded the upper country, capturing and
burning Ava, the capital of the Burman kingdom. Three years later
Alaungpra recaptured Ava, driving the Talaings southward, and in 1755
followed with his army to Rangoon, destroying the Talaing power. The
Burmans having regained possession of the whole country, retained
control until they had to yield to the greater power of the English.
Descendants of the Talaings who remained in the Pegu district, have
practically lost their identity, readily and willingly passing as
Burmans. The main body retired to the country east of the Gulf of
Martaban. In consequence of an exodus, probably more than one,--of
Talaings into Siam after unsuccessful wars with the Burmans, joining
the many already in that country, there are now more Talaings in Siam
than in Burma. It is even claimed that Siam got her code of laws from
the Talaings. The census of 1901 gives the number of Talaings in
Burma as 321,898. The number will increase year by year, as many are
returning to Burma from Siam. Thousands of Talaings scattered through
the country doubtless returned themselves as Burmans, without so much
as recalling that their ancestors were Talaings. Many prophesy that
the Talaing language will in time, die out. This may be true, for the
Burmanizing process is slowly, steadily, irresistibly going on. Nearly
half of the Talaings in Burma speak Burmese, many of them speaking
Burmese only. But this still leaves a large body beyond the reach of
Burmanizing influences, waiting for the gospel in their own tongue. If
the Talaings--as a race, are to be evangelized in this generation or
the next, the gospel must be given to them in their own language.
THE BURMESE
The original home of all so-called indigenous races is still in
doubt. The bulk of evidence seems to be in favour of the borders of
Tibet as the original home of the race known as Burmese. To one who
knows the characteristics of these people it is difficult to conceive
of such a migration, except under compulsion. In the census report
of 1901 we find them described as follows: "The Burman as we know
him, is essentially a non-migrating, unbusinesslike, irresponsible
creature, perfectly incapable of sustained effort, content with what
can be gained by a minimum of toil." That the race ever voluntarily
left its original home, whatever the attraction, seems incredible.
The Burman himself solves the mystery by claiming celestial origin.
Brahmas dwelling in the celestial regions came down to dwell on earth.
At first they existed as semi-supernatural beings, living above the
ordinary appetites and passions of men. By extending their diet to
kinds of food not allowed to such beings they gradually lost their
supernatural attributes, and finally became like ordinary mortals.
The Burmans proudly claim lineal descent from these Brahmas. Their
argument, quite conclusive to themselves, is based on the similarity
between Brahma and Bam-ma, as they call themselves. Philologists, with
cruel disregard for the feelings of these people, have utterly spoiled
their pretty theory. Brahma is a Hindoo term, introduced long after
the Burmese migration. So now there is nothing left to substantiate
their cherished belief,--except the national habit of wanting to
eat everything they see. In both history and religion legend is
inextricably mixed with facts and fancies imported with Buddhism.
Burman tradition, backed by ancient ruins on the upper Irrawadi,
assert that Sakya tribes from central northern India, migrating by
way of Manipur, settled in Upper Burma a few centuries before the
Christian era. It is difficult to account for such ruins as are to
be seen at Tagaung, on any other theory. These ruins can hardly be
the remains of work accomplished by any of the indigenous races of
Burma, in their barbarous condition. The claim that the first Burmese
monarchy received its stimulus from these Indian princes can neither
be proved nor disproved. In any event whatever remained of the foreign
tribes was assimilated by the Mongoloid peoples who were first in the
land.
An incursion of Shans before the opening of the Christian era,
themselves forced out of western China, seems to have caused the
downfall of the kingdom of the Indian tribes, if they really had one.
Shans, rather than Burmans, then became supreme in the upper Irrawadi
valley. Not until as late as the eleventh century did the Burmans
regain their supremacy, and even then the Shans continued to hold the
country north of Bhamo. In the Burman war of conquest in the south
at this time, the main object was to secure the Buddhist Scriptures,
known to be in possession of the Talaings at Thatone. These sacred
books, obtainable in no other way, were essential to the king's
purpose to reform the imperfect Buddhism of the north. There is some
evidence that Buddhism was introduced into Upper Burma from India, by
way of Manipur, several centuries before it was brought to Lower Burma
from Ceylon.
It is evident that Upper Burma did not have the Buddhist sacred books
prior to the eleventh century. Northern Buddhism was only super-added
to the existing rites of _Naga_, and spirit worship.
In the south the sacred books had already been translated from Pali
into Talaing, but not into Burmese. With the importation of the sacred
books into Upper Burma, and their translation from Talaing into
Burmese, the real history of Buddhism among the Burmese began.
It is not known when this translation was begun, nor when the Burmans,
by adopting the Talaing system, reduced their language to writing.
Some of the later translations of Pali writings into Burmese direct,
were made about the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The Burmese "Pagan Monarchy," weakened by bad government and luxurious
living, came to an untimely end in the thirteenth century, through an
invasion of the Chinese. The Shans in the north held the balance of
power, and may have agreed to the subordination of Burma to China, as
the Chinese have always claimed.
[Illustration: BUDDHIST SHRINES]
In the fourteenth century a new king, nominally Burmese, but connected
with the Shans,--came into full power, and founded Ava. But early in
the fifteenth century (1426) the Burmans lost their capital and all
the territory north of Toungoo and Prome, to the Shans. The new city
of Toungoo, built about this time, was the seat of an independent
prince. Pegu had been ruled by kings of Shan race since 1281. In
1538-9 the Toungoo Burman prince, Tabin Shwe' Htee, conquered Pegu,
in the following year Martaban, and after being proclaimed king in
Pegu, extended his sway in 1542, as far north as Pagan. Two years
later, with an allied army of Burmans, Shans and Talaings, he invaded
and conquered Arracan, but not Chittagong. But his success as king
at Pegu was short-lived. Expensive but fruitless wars, and excessive
dissipation turned the people against him. He soon became the victim
of a conspiracy and was treacherously murdered. In 1551 the Burmans
were again victorious at Pegu, pursuing and destroying the Talaing
king. Three years later they regained Ava from the Shans, but retained
the capital at Pegu. Pressing his successes, the Burman king, in
1557, conquered the Shans in the extreme north of Burma, and a little
later at Thibaw, Mone and "Zimme"; northern Siam becoming tributary
to Burma. Steps were taken to make the then non-Buddhist Shans (many
were doubtless already Buddhists), conform to the Buddhist customs of
the Burmese. The Burman ruler, Nawartha, was now what his ambition
craved,--the "King of Kings."
But before the end of the century Pegu and all the territory south to
Tavoy had been lost. Between 1600 and 1613 a Portuguese adventurer
named Philip de Brito reigned as king of Pegu, with residence at his
own fortified city of Syriam. By the marriage of his son with the
daughter of the king of Martaban, the cooperation of that section was
secured. In 1612 De Brito and the king of Martaban marched against
the prince of Toungoo, who had broken faith with De Brito by forming
an alliance with Ava. "They plundered the city, burned the palace and
retired." This high-handed aggression soon reacted on his own head.
The Burman king advanced from Ava with an immense army, laid seige to
Syriam, and starved the garrison to surrender. De Brito, who had been
guilty of many sacrilegious acts, destroying pagodas and other sacred
objects in search of plunder, could hope for no mercy at the hands of
his captors. The leading Portuguese were slaughtered. The remainder,
including the women, were carried away captive to Ava as slaves. Their
descendants may now be found throughout Burma, many of them being
Roman Catholic priests. In 1634 Ava was made the permanent capital.
An immense pagoda was built, and a costly image of Gautama cast to add
to the sacredness of the place, and to the merit of the king.
But Burman fortunes were uncertain. Ava the Great was taken and burned
by the Talaings in 1752. Not long were the Talaings allowed to hold
the Burman capital. A Burman who took the name of Alaungpra, with
wonderful vigour and ability rallied his people. Little more than a
year had passed when Alaungpra recaptured Ava. In 1755 he took his
armies southward, conquering as he went, not content until he reached
Dagon. There he founded a new city, which he designed should be the
chief port of Burma, and named it Rangon (or Yangon), the word meaning
the war ended.