[1] Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the "four councils of the
Boeotians," is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states.
BOER, the Dutch form of the Eng. "boor," in its original signification
of husbandman (Ger. _Bauer_), a name given to the Dutch farmers of South
Africa, and especially to the Dutch population of the Transvaal and
Orange River States. (See SOUTH AFRICA and TRANSVAAL.)
BOERHAAVE, HERMANN (1668-1738), Dutch physician and man of science, was
born at Voorhout near Leiden on the 31st of December 1668. Entering the
university of Leiden he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a
dissertation _De distinctione mentis a corpore_, in which he attacked
the doctrines of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the
study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwyck in
Guelderland. In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of
medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, _De commendando
Hippocratis studio_, he recommended to his pupils that great physician
as their model. In 1709 he became professor of botany and medicine, and
in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university,
but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the
botanic garden of Leiden, and by the publication of numerous works
descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed
rector of the university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo (1649-1713) in the
chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he had the merit of
introducing the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later
he was appointed also to the chair of chemistry. In 1728 he was elected
into the French Academy of Sciences, and two years later into the Royal
Society of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the
chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and
painful illness, on the 23rd of September 1738 at Leiden. His genius so
raised the fame of the university of Leiden, especially as a school of
medicine, that it became a resort of strangers from every part of
Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found in this
skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate
guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1715, to instruct
himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. His
reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin wrote him a
letter directed "To the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and
it reached him in due course.
His principal works are--_Institutiones medicae_ (Leiden, 1708);
_Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis_ (Leiden, 1709), on which
his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772) published a
commentary in 5 vols.; and _Elementa chemiae_ (Paris, 1724).
BOETHUS, a sculptor of the Hellenistic age, a native of Carthage (or
possibly Chalcedon). His date cannot be accurately fixed, but was
probably the 2nd century B.C. He was noted for his representations of
children, in dealing with whom earlier Greek art had not been very
successful; and especially for a group representing a boy struggling
with a goose, of which several copies survive in museums.
BOETIUS (or BOETHIUS), ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS (c. A.D. 480-524),
Roman philosopher and statesman, described by Gibbon as "the last of the
Romans whom Cato or Tully could have acknowledged for their countryman."
The historians of the day give us but imperfect records or make
unsatisfactory allusions. Later chroniclers indulged in the fictitious
and the marvellous, and it is almost exclusively from his own books that
trustworthy information can be obtained. There is considerable diversity
among authorities as to his name. One editor of his _De Consolatione_,
Bertius, thinks that he bore the praenomen of Flavius, but there is no
authority for this supposition. His father was Flavius Manlius Boetius,
and it is probable that the Flavius Boetius, the praetorian prefect who
was put to death in A.D. 455 by order of Valentinian III., was his
grandfather, but these facts do not prove that he also had the praenomen
of Flavius. Many of the earlier editions inserted the name of Torquatus,
but it is not found in any of the best manuscripts. The last name is
commonly written Boethius, from the idea that it is connected with the
Greek [Greek: Boaethos]; but the best manuscripts agree in reading
Boetius.
His boyhood was spent in Rome during the reign of Odoacer. We know
nothing of his early years. A passage in a treatise falsely ascribed to
him (_De Disciplina Scholarium_) and a misinterpretation of a passage in
Cassiodorus led early scholars to suppose that he spent some eighteen
years in Athens pursuing his studies, but there is no foundation for
this opinion. His father, consul in 487, seems to have died soon after;
for Boetius states that, when he was bereaved of his parent, men of the
highest rank took him under their charge (_De Con_. lib. ii. c. 3),
especially the senator Q. Aur. Memmius Symmachus, whose daughter
Rusticiana he married. By her he had two sons, Anicius Manlius Severinus
Boetius and Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus. He became a favourite with
Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, who ruled in Rome from 500, and was one of
his intimate friends. Boetius was consul in 510, and his sons, while
still young, held the same honour together (522). Boetius regarded it as
the height of his good fortune when he witnessed his two sons, consuls
at the same time, convoyed from their home to the senate-house amid the
enthusiasm of the masses. On that day, he tells us, while his sons
occupied the curule chairs in the senate-house, he himself had the
honour of pronouncing a panegyric on the monarch. But his good fortune
did not last, and he attributes the calamities that came upon him to the
ill-will which his bold maintenance of justice had caused, and to his
opposition to every oppressive measure. Of this he mentions particular
cases. A famine had begun to rage. The prefect of the praetorium was
determined to satisfy the soldiers, regardless altogether of the
feelings of the provincials. He accordingly issued an edict for a
_coemptio_, that is, an order compelling the provincials to sell their
corn to the government, whether they would or not. This edict would have
utterly ruined Campania. Boetius interfered. The case was brought before
the king, and Boetius succeeded in averting the _coemptio_ from the
Campanians. And he gives as a crowning instance that he exposed himself
to the hatred of the informer Cyprianus by preventing the punishment of
Albinus, a man of consular rank. He mentions in another place that when
at Verona the king was anxious to transfer the accusation of treason
brought against Albinus to the whole senate, he defended the senate at
great risk. In consequence of the ill-will that Boetius had thus roused,
he was accused of treason towards the end of the reign of Theodoric. The
charges were that he had conspired against the king, that he was anxious
to maintain the integrity of the senate, and to restore Rome to liberty,
and that for this purpose he had written to the emperor Justin. Justin
had, no doubt, special reasons for wishing to see an end to the reign of
Theodoric. Justin was orthodox, Theodoric was an Arian. The orthodox
subjects of Theodoric were suspicious of their ruler; and many would
gladly have joined in a plot to displace him. The knowledge of this fact
may have rendered Theodoric suspicious. But Boetius denied the
accusation in unequivocal terms. He did indeed wish the integrity of the
senate. He would fain have desired liberty, but all hope of it was gone.
The letters addressed by him to Justin were forgeries, and he had not
been guilty of any conspiracy. Notwithstanding his innocence he was
condemned and sent to Ticinum (Pavia) where he was thrown into prison.
It was during his confinement in this prison that he wrote his famous
work _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. His goods were confiscated, and
after an imprisonment of considerable duration he was put to death in
524. Procopius relates that Theodoric soon repented of his cruel deed,
and that his death, which took place soon after, was hastened by remorse
for the crime he had committed against his great counsellor.
Two or three centuries after the death of Boetius writers began to view
his death as a martyrdom. Several Christian books were ascribed to him,
and there was one especially on the Trinity (see below) which was
regarded as proof that he had taken an active part against the heresy of
Theodoric. It was therefore for his orthodoxy that Boetius was put to
death. And these writers delight to paint with minuteness the horrible
tortures to which he was exposed and the marvellous actions which the
saint performed at his death. He was locally regarded as a saint, but he
was not canonized. The brick tower in Pavia in which he was confined
was, and still is, an object of reverence to the country people.
Finally, in the year 996, Otho III. ordered the bones of Boetius to be
taken out of the place in which they had lain hid, and to be placed in
the church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro within a splendid tomb, for which
Gerbert, afterwards Pope Silvester II., wrote an inscription. Thence
they were subsequently removed to a tomb beneath the high altar of the
cathedral. It should be mentioned also that some have given him a
decidedly Christian wife, of the name of Elpis, who wrote hymns, two of
which are still extant (Daniel, _Thes. Hymn._ i. p. 156). This is a pure
supposition inconsistent with chronology, and based only on a
misinterpretation of a passage in the _De Consolatione_.
The contemporaries of Boetius regarded him as a man of profound
learning. Priscian the grammarian speaks of him as having attained the
summit of honesty and of all sciences. Cassiodorus, _magister
officiorum_ under Theodoric and the intimate acquaintance of the
philosopher, employs language equally strong, and Ennodius, the bishop
of Pavia, knows no bounds for his admiration. Theodoric had a profound
respect for his scientific abilities. He employed him in setting right
the coinage. When he visited Rome with Gunibald, king of the
Burgundians, he took him to Boetius, who showed them, amongst other
mechanical contrivances, a sun-dial and a water-clock. The foreign
monarch was astonished, and, at the request of Theodoric, Boetius had to
prepare others of a similar nature, which were sent as presents to
Gunibald.
The fame of Boetius increased after his death, and his influence during
the middle ages was exceedingly powerful. His circumstances peculiarly
favoured this influence. He appeared at a time when contempt for
intellectual pursuits had begun to pervade society. In his early years
he was seized with a passionate enthusiasm for Greek literature, and
this continued through life. Even amidst the cares of the consulship he
found time for commenting on the _Categories_ of Aristotle. The idea
laid hold of him of reviving the spirit of his countrymen by imbuing
them with the thoughts of the great Greek writers. He formed the
resolution to translate all the works of Aristotle and all the dialogues
of Plato, and to reconcile the philosophy of Plato with that of
Aristotle. He did not succeed in all that he designed; but he did a
great part of his work. He translated into Latin Aristotle's _Analytica
Priora et Posteriora_, the _Topica_, and _Elenchi Sophistici_; and he
wrote commentaries on Aristotle's _Categories_, on his book
[Greek: peri ermaeneias], also a commentary on the _Isagoge_ of
Porphyrius. These works formed to a large extent the source from which
the middle ages derived their knowledge of Aristotle. (See Stahr,
_Aristoteles bei den Romern_, pp. 196-234.) Boetius wrote also a
commentary on the _Topica_ of Cicero; and he was also the author of
independent works on logic:--_Introductio ad Categoricos Syllogismos_,
in one book; _De Syllogismis Categoricis_, in two books; _De Syllogismis
Hypotheticis_, in two books; _De Divisione_, in one book; _De
Definitione_, in one book; _De Differentiis Topicis_, in four books.
We see from a statement of Cassiodorus that he furnished manuals for the
quadrivium of the schools of the middle ages (the "quattuor matheseos
disciplinae," as Boetius calls them) on arithmetic, music, geometry and
astronomy. The statement of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is
rhetorical. Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his
father-in-law Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of
Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary, and that he
had introduced formulae and diagrams of his own where he thought them
useful for bringing out the meaning. His work on music also is not a
translation from Pythagoras, who left no writing behind him. But Boetius
belonged to the school of musical writers who based their science on the
method of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust
to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did practical
musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the ear, physical
experiments should be employed. The work of Boetius is in five books and
is a very complete exposition of the subject. It long remained a
text-book of music in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. It is
still very valuable as a help in ascertaining the principles of ancient
music, and gives us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on
the art. The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from
each other. One editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there are only
two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain the work of
Boetius. He published the _Ars Geometriae_, in two books, as given in
these manuscripts; but critics are generally inclined to doubt the
genuineness even of these. Professor Rand, Georgius Ernst and A.P.
McKinlay regard the _Ars_ as certainly inauthentic, while they accept
the _Interpretatio Euclidis_ (see works quoted in bibliography).
By far the most important and most famous of the works of Boetius is
his book _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. Gibbon justly describes it as
"a golden volume, not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully, but
which claims incomparable merit from the barbarism of the times and the
situation of the author." The high reputation it had in medieval times
is attested by the numerous translations, commentaries and imitations of
it which then appeared. Among others Asser, the instructor of Alfred the
Great, and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, commented on it.
Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. Versions of it appeared in
German, French, Italian, Spanish and Greek before the end of the 15th
century. Chaucer translated it into English prose before the year 1382;
and this translation was published by Caxton at Westminster, 1480.
Lydgate followed in the wake of Chaucer. It is said that, after the
invention of printing, amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and
that the work was well known to Shakespeare. It was the basis of the
earliest specimen of Provencal literature.
This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar, and is
an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, _De Nuptiis
Philologiae et Mercurii_. It is alternately in prose and verse. The
verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable
portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca. The first
book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes how his
sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. As he is thus
lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom he
recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply the
remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds that
he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he
himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his
weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius Fortune,
who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed, and after
that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that fortune
can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain. In the
third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true happiness, which is
to be found in God alone, for since God is the highest good, and the
highest good is true happiness, God is true happiness. Nor can real
evil exist, for since God is all-powerful, and since he does not wish
evil, evil must be non-existent. In the fourth book Boetius raises the
question, Why, if the governor of the universe is good, do evils
exist, and why is virtue often punished and vice rewarded? Philosophy
proceeds to show that in fact vice is never unpunished nor virtue
unrewarded. From this Philosophy passes into a discussion in regard to
the nature of providence and fate, and shows that every fortune is
good. The fifth and last book takes up the question of man's free will
and God's foreknowledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God,
attempts to show that these doctrines are not subversive of each
other; and the conclusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing
spectator of all events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision
agrees with the future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to
the good and punishments to the wicked.
Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has been
already mentioned. The _Consolatio_ affords conclusive proof that the
author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The book contains
expressions such as _daemones_, _angelica virtus_, and _purgatoria
dementia_, which have been thought to be derived from the Christian
faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are explained
sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on intimate terms
with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consolation in any Christian
belief, and Christ is never named in the work. It is not impossible,
however, that Boetius may have been brought up a Christian, and that
in his early years he may have written some Christian books. Peiper
thinks that the first three treatises are the productions of the early
years of Boetius. The first, _De Sancta Trinitate_, is addressed to
Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho), and the result of the short
discussion, which is of an abstract nature, and deals partly with the
ten categories, is that unity is predicated absolutely, or, in regard
to the substance of the Deity, trinity is predicated relatively. The
second treatise is addressed to John the deacon ("Ad Joannem
Diaconum"), and its subject is "Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus
Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur." This treatise is
shorter than the first, occupying only two or three pages, and the
conclusion of the argument is the same. The third treatise bears the
title, _Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint
substantialia bona_. It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it
contains nothing of great value; therefore its authorship is a matter
of little consequence. Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly
assign these treatises to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his;
that it is probable that Symmachus and John (who afterwards became
Pope) were the men of highest distinction who took charge of him when
he lost his father; and that these treatises are the first-fruits of
his studies, which he dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He
thinks that the variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise
which is not found in the best manuscript, are so great that the name
of Boetius could not have originally been in the title. The fourth
book is also not found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts
have no inscription. He infers, from these facts, that there is no
sure evidence for the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises.
The fifth treatise is _Contra Eutychen et Nestorium_. Both Eutyches
and Nestorius are spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in
which a letter was read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for
the first time. The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All
these circumstances point to the council of Chalcedon (451). The
treatise was therefore written before the birth of Boetius, if it be
not a forgery; but there is no reason to suppose that the treatise was
not a genuine production of the time to which it professes to belong.
The fourth treatise, _De Fide Catholica_, does not contain any
distinct chronological data; but the tone and opinions of the treatise
produce the impression that it probably belonged to the same period as
the treatise against Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions
ascribe both these treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this
statement that Peiper bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow;
and on the whole it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none
of the four Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed
to him by any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the
strongest language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to
the Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the
procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The fourth
argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one person of
Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed that Boetius
perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric, it was
natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with this
supposed fact. The works may really have been written by one Boetius,
a bishop of Africa, as Jourdain supposes, or by some Saint Severinus,
as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name may have aided the
transference of them to the heathen or neutral Boetius.
Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is
afforded by a passage in the _Anecdoton Holderi_, a fragment contained
in a 10th-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment
gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus, the
important words being "Scripsit (i.e. Boetius) librum de sancta
trinitate, et capita quaedam dogmatica, et librum contra Nestorium."
Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist's gloss, harmonizing
with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to the
text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing internal
evidence from _De Cons. Phil._
EDITIONS.--The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was
published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570); the last in J.P. Migne's
_Patrologia_, lxiii., lxiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of
the _De Consolatione_ the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena,
1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena on
the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy, and
on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes. The
text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS. up to
that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained to be
collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives the
Book of Lupus, "De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii" contained in some
MSS., "Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators,
translators and imitators of the _Consolatio_. It contains also an
account of the metres used by Boetius in the _Consolatio_, and a list
of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca.
The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian, of
which mention has been made above. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version
of the _De Consolatione_, with literal English translation, notes and
glossary, was published by S. Fox (1835) and again by W.J. Sedgefield
(1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel, 1556) was republished
by E.B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed prose and verse) by H.R. James
(1897). Queen Elizabeth's "Englishings" was reprinted in 1899; on the
style, see A. Engelbrecht in _Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der
Wissenschaften_ (1902), pp. 15-36. The _De Institutione Arithmetica,
De Institutione Musica_, and the doubtful _Geometria_ (for which see
G. Ernst, _De Geometricis illis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita
sunt quaestiones_, 1903; A.P. McKinlay in _Harvard Classical Studies_,
1907; M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i., Leipzig, 1894; G.
Friedlein, _Gerbert, die Geometric des Boethius, und die indischen
Ziffern_, Erlangen, 1861, are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867);
German translation of the _De Musica_, with explanatory notes, by O.
Paul (Leipzig, 1872), and on the sources W. Miekley, _De Boethii libri
de musica primi fontibus_ (Jena, 1899). Commentary on Aristotle's _De
Interpretatione_ [Greek: peri hermaeneias]), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig,
1877), and on Porphyry's _Isagoge_, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906).
AUTHORITIES.--On Boetius generally, see J.G. Sutterer, _Der letzte
Romer_ (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, _Anecdoton Holderi_ (Leipzig,
1877); H.F. Stewart, _Boethius: an Essay_ (Edinburgh, 1891); T.
Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896); A.
Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters_, i. (1889);
Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1900),
S478: on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in _Philologus_,
lxii. pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A.P. McKinlay, as above, with refs.:
on his "Songs," H. Huttinger, _Studia in Boetii carmina collata_
(Regensburg, 1900): on his style, G. Bednarz, _De universo orationis
colore Boethii_ (Breslau, 1883): on his theological attitude and
works, F.A.B. Nitzsch, _Das System des Boethius und die ihm
zugeschriebenen theologischen Schriften_ (Berlin, 1860), and art. in
Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897); C. Jourdain, _De l'Origine
des traditions sur le christianisme de Boece_ (1861); Gaston Boissier,
"Le Christianisme de Boece," in _Journal des Savants_ (1889), pp.
449-462; A. Hildebrand, _Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume_
(Regensburg, 1885); G. Schepps, "Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide
catholica," in _Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_, xxxviii.
(1895).
BOG (from Ir. and Gael, _bogach, bog_, soft), a tract of soft, spongy,
water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly mosses, in various
stages of decomposition. This vegetable matter when partially decomposed
forms the substance known as "peat" (q.v.). When the accumulation of
water is rapidly increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a
"bog-slide," or "bog-burst," which may obliterate the neighbouring
cultivated land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive
bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knocknageeha
Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Roscommon, 1901, and at
Kilmore, Galway, 1909.
There is a French game of cards called "bog," said to be of Italian
origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six divisions, one of
which is known by the name of the game and forms the pool. It was
fashionable during the Second Empire.
BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON (1690-1774), German hymn-writer, was born at
Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th of September 1690. At first a page
at the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels, he next studied law and theology
at Jena and Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled
at Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After living for a
time at Kostritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court of Christian Ernst,
duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made his home at the Waisenhaus
(orphanage) at Halle, where he engaged in spiritual work and in
composing hymns and sacred songs, until his death on the 15th of June
1774. Bogatzky's chief works are _Guldenes Schatzkastlein der Kinder
Gottes_ (1718), which has reached more than sixty editions; and _Ubung
der Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern_ (1750).
See Bogatzky's autobiography--_Lebenslauf von ihm selbst geschrieben_
(Halle, 1801; new ed., Berlin, 1872); and Ledderhose, _Das Leben
Bogatzky's_ (Heidelberg, 1846); also Kelly, _C.H. von Bogatzky's Life
and Work_ (London, 1889).
BOGHAZ KEUI, a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of Yuzgat in the
Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and rock-sculptures in its
vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling city of the oriental type
which flourished in the pre-Greek period; and they are generally
identified with Pteria (q.v.), a place taken by Croesus after he had
crossed the Halys (Herodotus i. 76).
BOGIE, a northern English dialect word of unknown origin, applied to a
kind of low truck or "trolly." In railway engineering it is applied to
an under-truck, most frequently with four wheels, which is often
provided at one end of a locomotive or both ends of a carriage. It is
pivoted or swivelled on the main frames, so that it can turn relatively
to the body of the vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels
readily to follow the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the
series of words, such as "bogey" or "bogy," "bogle," "boggle," "bogart"
(in Shakespeare "bug," "bugs and goblins"), which are probably connected
with the Welsh _bwg_, a spectre; hence the verb to "boggle," properly
applied to a horse which shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to
hesitate, bungle.
BOGNOR, a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary division of
Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton &
South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6180. Besides the
parish church there is a Roman Catholic priory and church. The town
possesses a pier and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous
convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to the Merchant
Taylors' Company. The church of the mother parish of South Bersted is
Norman and Early English, and retains a fresco of the 16th century.
BOGO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine
Islands, on Bogo Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in the north-east
part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The climate is hot but healthy.
The surrounding country is fertile, producing sugar, Indian corn, and
maguay in abundance; rice, cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats,
baskets, cloths and rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent;
small quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of
considerable local importance. The language is Cebu-Visayan.
BOGODUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 45 m. by
rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49 deg. 58' N. lat. and 36 deg.
9' E. long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860) 10,522; (1897) 11,928.
There seems to have been a settlement on this site as early as 1571. In
1709, at the time of the Russo-Swedish War, Bogodukhov was taken by
Menshikov and the emperor Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in
1793. Boots, caps and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and
tanning are carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and
fish.
BOGOMILS, the name of an ancient religious community which had its
origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was
taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or
Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the
whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of
_Massaliani_, the Syrian name of the sect corresponding to the Greek
Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic
documents of the 13th century. They are also known as _Pavlikeni_, i.e.
Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true character and
the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the
information that has reached us has come from the opponents. The
heretical literature has to a great extent either perished or been
completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written
form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be
gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the
12th century, and from the polemic _Against the Heretics_ written in
Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of
forbidden books of the 15th and 16th centuries also give us a clue to
the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils
employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the
doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Russia after
the 11th century.
The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the
so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were,
moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in
Russia and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some
places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been
preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed
down from the period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th
centuries the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In
1207 the _Bulgarornm heresis_ is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are
declared to be the local _Bougres_, and at the same period mention is
made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of
Bulgaria." The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists,
and in Russia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at
different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely
connected with them.
_Doctrine._--From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone
available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that the Bogomils
were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had accepted the teaching
of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was
believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from
the Dualistic principle of the Gnostics, at a later period too much
identified with the teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic
Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic
teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the
teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the 14th
century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the
Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of Christ, the
personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and Holy Ghost, and the
validity of sacraments and ceremonies. The miracles performed by Jesus
were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences;
the Church was the interior spiritual church in which all held equal
share. Baptism was only to be practised on grown men and women. The
Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to
be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by
self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp Strigolnik, who in
the 14th century preached this doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St
Paul had taught that simple-minded men should instruct one another;
therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be
their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be
said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches.
Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially
appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member
could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist."
Marriage was not a sacrament. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays
and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son
of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and
wine of the eucharist were not transformed into flesh and blood; that
the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the
images and the cross were idols and the worship of saints and relics
idolatry.
These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and
can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in
addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the
Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has
been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken
deep root in the beliefs and traditions of the Bulgarians and other
nations with whom they had come into close contact. The chief literature
of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of
apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are
directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox
dare read." Though these writings are mostly the same in origin as are
known from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent in this
case a certain modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as
to be used for the propagation of their own specific doctrines. In its
most simple and attractive form--one at the same time invested with the
authority of the reputed holy author--their account of the creation of
the world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history of
the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong,
heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles"
(Paleya[1]) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his
disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these
views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people
(Lucidaria). The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder
Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the
father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower
heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had
to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed to till
the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the
owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he
became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism
in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost (Michael) appeared in the shape of
the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a
clay tablet (_hierographon_) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now
become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished
Satanail, and deprived him of the termination _-il_ = God, in which his
power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his
machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of
the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies,
sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the
work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its
pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism.
They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon
against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits."
Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised
to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars
and were known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to
propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and conjuring the evil
spirit, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal
literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply
influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing them for
the Reformation. They sowed the seeds of a rich religious popular
literature in the East as well as in the West. The Historiated Bible,
the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the
numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kaleki
perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a
large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their
successors in other lands.
_History._--The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain chains of
central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing along the
Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, with ramifications
north and south (Germany, England and Spain). In the middle of the 8th
century the emperor Constantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian
Paulicians in Thracia. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by
the Greek Church with fire and sword. The empress Theodora killed,
drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000. In the 10th century the emperor
John Zimisces, himself of Armenian origin, transplanted no less than
200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the
neighbourhood of Philippopolis, which henceforth became the centre of a
far-reaching propaganda. Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark
against the invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon
fraternized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own views;
even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching. According to
Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a certain priest
Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time
of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source
the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated
with him by the name of Jeremiah). The Slavonic sources are unanimous on
the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year
1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri,
Stefan, Vasilie and Peter, all thoroughly Slavonic names. Zealous
missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 15
years after the introduction of Christianity into Russia, we hear of a
priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was
imprisoned by Leontie, bishop of Kiev. In 1125 the Church in the south
of Russia had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in
Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. The popes in Rome whilst
leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not forget their
counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the
heretics.
The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Servia; but at the
end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of Servia, persecuted them
and expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia,
where they were known under the name of Patarenes (q.v.) or Patareni.
From Bosnia their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The
Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but
towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country by
the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large
number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced
Islam (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: _History_). Few or no remnants of
Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by
the Bosnian Radoslavov, and published in vol. xv. of the _Starine_ of
the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the
Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F. Racki, "Bogomili i
Paternai" in _Rad_, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Dollinger,
_Beitrage zur Ketzergeschichte d. Mittelalters_, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890).
Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as _Pavlikeni_ in
their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther northward. In
1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than
fourteen villages near Nicopolis embraced Catholicism, and a colony of
_Pavlikeni_ in the village of Cioplea near Bucharest followed the
example of their brethren across the Danube.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Euthymius Zygadenus, _Narratio de Bogomilis_, ed.
Gieseler (Gottingen, 1842); J.C. Wolf, _Historia Bogomilorum_
(Wittenberg, 1712); "Slovo svyatago Kozmyi na eretiki," in Kukuljevic
Sakcinski, _Arkiv zapovyestnicu jugoslavensku_, vol. iv. pp. 69-97
(Agram, 1859); C.J. Jirecek, _Geschichte d. Bulgaren_, pp. 155,
174-175 (Prague, 1876); Korolev, "Dogmatichesko-to uchenie na
Bogomil-tie," in _Periodichesko spisanie_, vols. vii.-viii. pp. 75-106
(Braila, 1873); A. Lombard, _Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-hommes_
(Geneva, 1879); Episcopul Melchisedek, _Lipovenismul_, pp. 265 sqq.
(Bucharest, 1871); B.P. Hasdeu, _Cuvente den batrani_, vol. ii. pp.
247 sqq. (Bucharest, 1879); F.C. Conybeare, _The Key of Truth_, pp. 73
sqq. and specially pp. 138 sqq. (Oxford, 1898); M. Gaster,
_Greeko-Slavonic Literature_, pp. 17 sqq. (London, 1887); O.
Dahnhardt, _Natursagen_, vol. i. pp. 38 sqq. (Leipzig and Berlin,
1907). (M. G.)