BOCCALINI, TRAJANO (1556-1613), Italian satirist, was born at Loretto in

1556. The son of an architect, he himself adopted that profession, and

it appears that he commenced late in life to apply to literary pursuits.

Pursuing his studies at Rome, he had the honour of teaching Bentivoglio,

and acquired the friendship of the cardinals Gaetano and Borghesi, as

well as of other distinguished personages. By their influence he

obtained various posts, and was even appointed by Gregory XIII. governor

of Benevento in the states of the church. Here, however, he seems to

have acted imprudently, and he was soon recalled to Rome, where he

shortly afterwards composed his most important work, the _Ragguagli di

Parnaso_, in which Apollo is represented as receiving the complaints of

all who present themselves, and distributing justice according to the

merits of each particular case. The book is full of light and fantastic

satire on the actions and writings of his eminent contemporaries, and

some of its happier hits are among the hackneyed felicities of

literature. To escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom his

shafts had wounded, he returned to Venice, and there, according to the

register in the parochial church of Sta Maria Formosa, died of colic,

accompanied with fever, on the 16th of November 1613. It was asserted,

indeed, by contemporary writers that he had been beaten to death with

sand-bags by a band of Spanish bravadoes, but the story seems without

foundation. At the same time, it is evident from the _Pietra del

Paragone_, which appeared after his death in 1615, that whatever the

feelings of the Spaniards towards him, he cherished against them

feelings of the bitterest hostility. The only government, indeed, which

is exempt from his attacks is that of Venice, a city for which he seems

to have had a special affection.

The _Ragguagli_, first printed in 1612, has frequently been

republished. The _Pietra_ has been translated into French, German,

English and Latin; the English translator was Henry, earl of Monmouth,

his version being entitled _The Politicke Touchstone_ (London, 1674).

Another posthumous publication of Boccalini was his _Commentarii sopra

Cornelia Tacito_ (Geneva, 1669). Many of his manuscripts are preserved

still unprinted.

BOCCHERINI, LUIGI (1743-1805), Italian composer, son of an Italian

bass-player, was born at Lucca, and studied at Rome, where he became a

fine 'cellist, and soon began to compose. He returned to Lucca, where

for some years he was prominent as a player, and there he produced two

oratorios and an opera. He toured in Europe, and in 1768 was received in

Paris by Gossec and his circle with great enthusiasm, his instrumental

pieces being highly applauded; and from 1769 to 1785 he held the post of

"composer and virtuoso" to the king of Spain's brother, the infante

Luis, at Madrid. He afterwards became "chamber-composer" to King

Frederick William II. of Prussia, till 1797, when he returned to Spain.

He died at Madrid on the 28th of May 1805.

As an admirer of Haydn, and a voluminous writer of instrumental music,

chiefly for the violoncello, Boccherini represents the effect of the

rapid progress of a new art on a mind too refined to be led into

crudeness, too inventive and receptive to neglect any of the new

artistic resources within its cognizance, and too superficial to grasp

their real meaning. His mastery of the violoncello, and his advanced

sense of beauty in instrumental tone-colour, must have made even his

earlier works seem to contemporaries at least as novel and mature as any

of those experiments at which Haydn, with eight years more of age and

experience, was labouring in the development of the true new forms. Most

of Boccherini's technical resources proved useless to Haydn, and

resemblances occur only in Haydn's earliest works (e.g. most of the

slow movements of the quartets in _op_. 3 and in some as late as _op_.

17); whichever derived the characteristics of such movements from the

other, the advantage is decidedly with Boccherini. But the progress of

music did not lie in the production of novel beauties of instrumental

tone in a style in which polyphonic organization was either deliberately

abandoned or replaced by a pleasing illusion, while the form in its

larger aspects was a mere inorganic amplification of the old

suite-forms, which presupposed a genuine polyphonic organization as the

vitalizing principle of their otherwise purely decorative nature. The

true tendency of the new sonata forms was to make instrumental music

dramatic in its variety and contrasts, instead of merely decorative.

Haydn from the outset buried himself with the handling of new rhythmic

proportions; and if it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the

surprising beauty of colour in such a specimen of Boccherini's 125

string-quintets as that in E major (containing the popular minuet) is

perhaps more modern and certainly safer in performance than any special

effect Haydn ever achieved, it is nevertheless true that even this

beauty fails to justify the length and monotony of the work. Where Haydn

uses any fraction of the resources of such a style, the ultimate effect

is in proportion to a purpose of which Boccherini, with all his genuine

admiration of his elder brother in art, could form no conception.

Boccherini's works are, however, still indispensable for violoncellists,

both in their education and their concert repertories; and his position

in musical history is assured as that of the most original and, next to

Tartini, perhaps the greatest writer of music for stringed instruments

in the late Italian amplifications of the older quasi-polyphonic sonata

or suite-form that survived into the beginning of the 19th century in

the works of Nardini. Boccherini may safely be regarded as its last real

master. He was wittily characterized by the contemporary violinist Puppo

as "the wife of Haydn"; which is very true, if man and woman are two

different species; but not as true as e.g. the equally common saying

that "Schubert is the wife of Beethoven," and still less true than that

"Vittoria is the wife of Palestrina."

His life, with a _Catalogue raisonne_, was published by L. Picquot

(1851). (D. F. T.)

BOCCHUS, king of Mauretania (about 110 B.C.), and father-in-law of

Jugurtha. In 108 he vacillated between Jugurtha and the Romans, and

joined Jugurtha only on his promising him the third part of his kingdom.

The two kings were twice defeated. Bocchus again made overtures to the

Romans, and after an interview with Sulla, who was Marius's quaestor at

that time, sent ambassadors to Rome. At Rome the hope of an alliance was

encouraged, but on condition that Bocchus showed himself deserving of

it. After further negotiations with Sulla, he finally agreed to send a

message to Jugurtha requesting his presence. Jugurtha fell into the trap

and was given up to Sulla. Bocchus concluded a treaty with the Romans,

and a portion of Numidia was added to his kingdom. Further to conciliate

the Romans and especially Sulla, he sent to the Capitol a group of

Victories guarding a device in gold showing Bocchus handing over

Jugurtha to Sulla.

See JUGURTHA; also Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 80-120; Plutarch, _Marius_,

8-32, _Sulla_, 3; A.H.J. Greenidge, _History of Rome_ (London, 1904).

His son, BOCCHUS, was king of Mauretania, jointly with a younger

brother Bogud. As enemies of the senatorial party, their title was

recognized by Caesar (49 B.C.). During the African war they invaded

Numidia and conquered Cirta, the capital of the kingdom of Juba, who was

thus obliged to abandon the idea of joining Metellus Scipio against

Caesar. At the end of the war, Caesar bestowed upon Bocchus part of the

territory of Massinissa, Juba's ally, which was recovered after Caesar's

murder by Massinissa's son Arabion. Dio Cassius says that Bocchus sent

his sons to support Sextus Pompeius in Spain, while Bogud fought on the

side of Caesar, and there is no doubt that after Caesar's death Bocchus

supported Octavian, and Bogud Antony. During Bogud's absence in Spain,

his brother seized the whole of Numidia, and was confirmed sole ruler by

Octavian. After his death in 33, Numidia was made a Roman province.

_Bell. Afric._ 25; Dio Cassius xli. 42, xliii. 36, xlviii. 45; Appian,

_Bell. Civ._ ii. 96, iv. 54.

BOCHART, SAMUEL (1599-1667), French scholar, was born at Rouen on the

30th of May 1599. He was for many years a pastor of a Protestant church

at Caen, and became tutor to Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscommon. In

1646 he published his _Phaleg_ and _Chanaan_ (Caen, 1646 and 1651), the

two parts of his _Geographia Sacra_. His _Hierozoicon_, which treats of

the animals of Scripture, was printed in London (2 vols., 1663). In 1652

Christina of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where he studied the

Arabian manuscripts in the queen's possession. He was accompanied by

Pierre Daniel Huet, afterwards bishop of Avranches. On his return to

Caen he was received into the academy of that city. Bochart was a man of

profound erudition; he possessed a thorough knowledge of the principal

Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic and Arabic; and

at an advanced age he wished to learn Ethiopic. He was so absorbed in

his favourite study, that he saw Phoenician and nothing but Phoenician

in everything, even in Celtic words, and hence the number of chimerical

etymologies which swarm in his works. He died at Caen on the 16th of May

1667.

A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under the

title of _Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia_ (1675, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed., 3

vols., 1712). An _Essay on the Life and Writings of Samuel Bochart_,

by W.R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829.

BOCHOLT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, near

the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north of Wesel. It is a seat of

the cotton industry. Pop. (1900) 21,278.

BOCHUM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 m.

by rail west from Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 118,000. It is a centre of the

iron and steel industries, producing principally cast steel, cast iron,

iron pipes, wire and wire ropes, and lamps, with tin and zinc works,

coal-mining, factories for carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing,

brickworks and breweries. The Bochumer Verein fur Bergbau (mining) und

Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal trusts

in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining and a

metallurgical school.

BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST (1785-1867), German classical scholar and

antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of November 1785. He was

sent to the gymnasium of his native place, and remained there until he

left for the university of Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the

study of theology. F.A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for

classical studies; Bockh fell under the spell, passed from theology to

philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf's scholars. In 1807 he

established himself as privat-docent in the university of Heidelberg and

was shortly afterwards appointed a professor extraordinarius, becoming

professor two years later. In 1811 he removed to the new Berlin

University, having been appointed professor of eloquence and classical

literature. He remained there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867.

He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814,

and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches

contained in his _Kleine Schriften_ were delivered in this latter

capacity.

Bockh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology, and

illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion that

philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise

of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of

antiquity, historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five

parts: first, an inquiry into public acts, with a knowledge of times and

places, into civil institutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry

into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of

the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical

speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a

complete explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology

Bockh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (_Gesammelte kleine

Schriften_, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German

philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical

construction of the entire life--therefore, of all forms of culture and

all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual

tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one man; but

the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth,

and men strive because they have not attained (_ib_. ii.). An account of

Bockh's division of philology will be found in Freund's _Wie studirt man

Philologie?_

From 1806 till his death Bockh's literary activity was unceasing. His

principal works were the following:--(1) An edition of Pindar, the first

volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a

treatise, _De Metris Pindari_, in three books; and _Notae Criticae_: the

second (1819) contains the _Scholia_; and part ii. of volume ii. (1821)

contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices.

It is still the most complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was

especially the treatise on the metres which placed Bockh in the first

rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the

subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the

Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing out at the same time

the close connexion between the music and the poetry of the Greeks. He

investigated minutely the nature of Greek music as far as it can be

ascertained, as well as all the details regarding Greek musical

instruments; and he explained the statements of the ancient Greek

writers on rhythm. In this manner he laid the foundation for a

scientific treatment of Greek metres. (2) _Die Staatshaushaltung der

Athener_, 1817 (2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume _Urkunden uber

das Seewesen des attischen Staats_; 3rd ed. by Frankel, 1886),

translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828) under the

title of _The Public Economy of Athens_. In it he investigated a subject

of peculiar difficulty with profound learning. He amassed information

from the whole range of Greek literature, carefully appraised the value

of the information given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare

critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his

_Metrologische Untersuchungen uber Gewichte, Munzfusse, und Masse des

Alterthums_ (1838). (3) Bockh's third great work arose out of his

second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the Athenian state he

derived a great deal of his most trustworthy information from

inscriptions, many of which are given in his book. It was natural,

therefore, that when the Berlin Academy of Sciences projected the plan

of a _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, Bockh should be chosen as the

principal editor. This great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the

third and fourth volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A.

Kirchhoff and H. Rohl.

Bockh's activity was continually digressing into widely different

fields. He gained for himself a foremost position amongst the

investigators of ancient chronology, and his name occupies a place by

the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen. His principal works on this

subject were: _Zur Geschichte der Mondcyclen der Hellenen_ (1855);

_Epigraphisch-chronologische Studien_ (1856); _Uber die vierjahrigen

Sonnenkreise der Alten_ (1863), and several papers which he published in

the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_. Bockh also occupied himself

with philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic doctrine

of the world, _De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica_ (1809), followed

by _De Platonico Systemate Caelestium globorum et de vera Indole

Astronomiae Philolaice_ (1810), to which may be added _Manetho und die

Hundsternperiode_ (1845). In opposition to Otto Gruppe (1804-1876), he

denied that Plato affirmed the diurnal rotation of the earth

(_Untersuchungen uber das kosmische System des Platon_, 1852), and when

in opposition to him Grote published his opinions on the subject (Plato

and the Rotation of the Earth) Bockh was ready with his reply. Another

of his earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was _Commentatio

Academica de simultate quae Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur_

(1811). Other philosophical writings were _Commentatio in Platonis qui

vulgo fertur Minoem_ (1806), and _Philolaos' des Pythagoreers Lehren

nebst den Bruchstucken_ (1819), in which he endeavoured to show the

genuineness of the fragments.

Besides his edition of Pindar, Bockh published an edition of the

Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation and essays. An

early and important work on the Greek tragedians is his _Graecae

Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae supersunt et genuina omnia sint et

forma primitiva servata_ (1808).

The smaller writings of Bockh began to be collected in his lifetime.

Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after

(_Gesammelte kleine Schriften_, 1858-1874). The first two consist of

orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on

public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his

contributions to the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_, and the

seventh contains his critiques. Bockh's lectures, delivered from

1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the title of

_Encyclopadie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften_ (2nd

ed, Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set

forth in Elze, _Uber Philologie als System_ (1845), and Reichhardt,

_Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt_ (1846). His correspondence

with Ottfried Muller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse,

_Erinnerungen an August Bockh_ (1868); Stark, in the _Verhandlungen

der Wurzburger Philologensammlung_ (1868); Max Hoffmann, _August

Bockh_ (1901); and S. Reiter, in _Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische

Altertum_ (1902), p. 436.

BOCKLIN, ARNOLD (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born at Basel on the

16th of October 1827. His father, Christian Frederick Bocklin (b. 1802),

was descended from an old family of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the

silk trade. His mother, Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In

1846 he began his studies at the Dusseldorf academy under Schirmer, who

recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him to

Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the works of Flemish and Dutch

masters. Bocklin then went to Paris, worked at the Louvre, and painted

several landscapes; his "Landscape and Ruin" reveals at the same time a

strong feeling for nature and a dramatic conception of scenery. After

serving his time in the army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the

sight of the Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was

the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world. At

Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza Pascucci. In 1856 he

returned to Munich, and remained there four years. He then exhibited the

"Great Park," one of his earliest works, in which he treated ancient

mythology with the stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his

reputation. Of this period, too, are his "Nymph and Satyr," "Heroic

Landscape" (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and "Sappho" (1859). These

works, which were much discussed, together with Lenbach's

recommendation, gained him his appointment as professor at the Weimar

academy. He held the office for two years, painting the "Venus and

Love," a "Portrait of Lenbach," and a "Saint Catherine." He was again at

Rome from 1862 to 1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for

violent colour free play in his "Portrait of Mme Bocklin," now in the

Basel gallery, in "An Anchorite in the Wilderness" (1863); a "Roman

Tavern," and "Villa on the Sea-shore" (1864); this last, one of his best

pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes in the

gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, "The Magdalene with

Christ" (1868); "Anacreon's Muse" (1869); and "A Castle and Warriors"

(1871). His "Portrait of Myself," with Death playing a violin (1873),

was painted after his return again to Munich, where he exhibited his

famous "Battle of the Centaurs" (in the Basel gallery); "Landscape with

Moorish Horsemen" (in the Lucerne gallery); and "A Farm" (1875). From

1876 to 1885 Bocklin was working at Florence, and painted a "Pieta,"

"Ulysses and Calypso," "Prometheus," and the "Sacred Grove." From 1886

to 1892 he settled at Zurich. Of this period are the "Naiads at Play,"

"A Sea Idyll," and "War." After 1892 Bocklin resided at San Domenico,

near Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at Basel

from the 20th of September to the 24th of October 1897. He died on the

16th of January 1901.

His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F. Hermann,

_Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, _Arnold Bocklin,

Ein Leitfaden zum Verstandniss seiner Kunst_ (Munich, 1897); W.

Ritter, _Arnold Bocklin_ (Gand, 1895); _Katalog der Bocklin Jubilaums

Ausstellung_ (Basel, 1897). (H. Fr.)

BOCLAND, BOCKLAND or BOOKLAND (from A.S. _boc_, book), an original mode

of tenure of land, also called charter-land or deed-land. Bocland was

folk-land granted to individuals in private ownership by a document

(charter or book) in writing, with the signatures of the king and

witenagemot; at first it was rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for

religious purposes. Bocland to a certain extent resembled full ownership

in the modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime,

in the same manner as he had received it, by _boc_ or book, and also

dispose of it by will. (See also FOLKLAND.)

BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [ISTVAN] (1557-1606), prince of Transylvania, the most

eminent member of the ancient Bocskay family, son of Gyorgy Bocskay and

Krisztina Sulyok, was born at Kolozsvar, Hungary. As the chief

councillor of Prince Zsigmond Bathory, he advised his sovereign to

contract an alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk,

and rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to

Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later Bathory princes

of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates, drove him to seek

protection at the imperial court (1599); but the attempts of the emperor

Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary of her constitution and the Protestants

of their religious liberties speedily alienated Bocskay, especially

after the terrible outrages inflicted on the Transylvanians by the

imperial generals Basta and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to

save the independence of Transylvania, assisted the Turks; and in 1605,

as a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the

Hungarian diet, assembled at Modgyes, elected him prince (1605), on

which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special embassy to congratulate

him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia. Bocskay refused the

royal dignity, but made skilful use of the Turkish alliance. To save the

Austrian provinces of Hungary, the archduke Matthias, setting aside his

semi-lunatic imperial brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into

negotiations with Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was

concluded (June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the constitutional and

religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Transylvania

and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was acknowledged as

prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court, and the right of the

Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes in future was

officially recognized. The fortress of Tokaj and the counties of Bereg,

Szatmar and Ugocsa were at the same time ceded to Bocskay, with

reversion to Austria if he should die childless. Simultaneously, at

Zsitvatorok, a peace, confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded

with the Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph

only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (December 29, 1606)

by his chancellor, Mihaly Katay, who was hacked to bits by Bocskay's

adherents in the market-place of Kassa.

See _Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay_ (Hung.), edited by

Karoly Szabo (Budapest, 1882); Jeno Thury, _Stephen Bocskay's

Rebellion_ (Hung.), Budapest, 1899. (R. N. B.)

BODE, JOHANN ELERT (1747-1826), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg

on the 19th of January 1747. Devoted to astronomy from his earliest

years, he eagerly observed the heavens at a garret window with a

telescope made by himself, and at nineteen began his career with the

publication of a short work on the solar eclipse of the 5th of August

1766. This was followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled

_Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels_ (1768, 10th ed. 1844),

the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin in 1772 for the

purpose of computing ephemerides on an improved plan. There resulted the

foundation by him, in 1774, of the well-known _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_,

51 yearly volumes of which he compiled and issued. He became director of

the Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825, and

died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works were highly

effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste for astronomy. Besides

those already mentioned he wrote:--_Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln_ (3

vols., 1776); _Erlauterung der Sternkunde_ (1776, 3rd ed. 1808);

_Uranographia_ (1801), a collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a

catalogue of 17,240 stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental

essays he propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar constitution

similar to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave

currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as "Bode's Law," which

was actually announced by Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg in 1772. It

is expressed by the statement that the proportionate distances of the

several planets from the sun may be represented by adding 4 to each term

of the series; 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, &c. The irregularity will be noticed of

the first term, which should be 1-1/2 instead of 0. (See SOLAR SYSTEM.)

See J.F. Encke, _Berlin Abhandlungen_ (1827), p. xi.; H.C. Schumacher.

_Astr. Nach._ v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, _Biog. literarisches

Handworterbuch; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, iii. 1.

BODEL, JEHAN (died _c._ 1210), French _trouvere_, was born at Arras in

the second half of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life,

but in 1205 he was about to start for the crusade when he was attacked

by leprosy. In a touching poem called _Le Conge_ (pr. by Meon in

_Recueil de fabliaux et contes_, vol. i.), he bade farewell to his

friends and patrons, and begged for a nomination to a leper hospital. He

wrote _Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas_, one of the earliest miracle plays

preserved in French (printed in Monmerque and Michel's _Theatre francais

du moyen age_, 1839, and for the _Soc. des bibliophiles francais_,

1831); the _Chanson des Saisnes_ (ed. F. Michel 1839), four

_pastourelles_ (printed in K. Bartsch's _Altfranz. Romanzen und

Pastourellen_, Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight _fabliaux_

attributed to an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had

already formed the subject of the Latin _Ludus Sancti Nicholai_ of

Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in Africa,

where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and partly in a

tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle of Saint Nicholas

narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale conversion of the

African king and his subjects. The dialogue in the tavern scenes is

written in thieves' slang, and is very obscure. The _Chanson des

Saisnes_, Bodel's authorship of which has been called in question, is a

_chanson de geste_ belonging to the period of decadence, and is really a

_roman d'aventures_ based on earlier legends belonging to the

Charlemagne cycle. It relates the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons

under Guiteclin de Sassoigne (Witikind or Widukind), with the second

revolt of the Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan

Bodel makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages of

the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland at

Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is overlaid with

romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct legends--those of the

wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne's rebellious barons, and of

Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier French poems on the subject are lost,

but the substance of them is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of

the Charlemagne cycle (supposed to have been derived from English

sources) known as the _Karlamagnussaga_ (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860)

and _Keiser Karl Magnus Kronike_ (Romantisk Digtnung, ed. C.J. Brandt,

Copenhagen, 1877).

See also the article on Jehan Bodel by Paulin Paris in _Hist. litt, de

la France_, xx. pp. 605-638; Gaston Paris, _Histoire poetique de

Charlemagne_ (1865); Leon Gautier, _Les Epopees francaises_ (revised

edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), where there is a full analysis of the

_Chanson des Saisnes_ and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in _Ausgaben und

Abhandlungen aus ... der romanischen Philologie_ (Marburg, 1883), pp.

1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is

discussed.

BODENBACH (Czech _Podmokly_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 83 m. N.N.E.

of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,782, almost exclusively German. It is

situated on the left bank of the Elbe opposite Tetschen, and is an

important railway junction, containing also an Austrian and a Saxon

custom-house. Bodenbach, which in the middle of the 19th century had

only a few hundred inhabitants, has become a very important industrial

centre. Its principal manufactures include cotton and woollen goods,

earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweetmeats and

preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit trade.

BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON (1819-1892), German author, was born at

Peine, in Hanover, on the 22nd of April 1819. He studied in Gottingen,

Munich and Berlin. His career was determined by his engagement in 1841

as tutor in the family of Prince Gallitzin at Moscow, where he gained a

thorough knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as

the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took the

opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian literature, and

in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in oriental guise under

the fanciful title, _Die Lieder des Mirza Schaffy_ (English trans. by E.

d'Esterre, 1880). The success of this work can only be compared with

that of Edward FitzGerald's _Omar Khayyam_, produced in somewhat similar

circumstances, but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone

through 160 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all

literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although

Bodenstedt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald, his

view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the execution

is a model of grace. On his return from the East, Bodenstedt engaged for

a while in journalism, married the daughter of a Hessian officer

(Matilde, the _Edlitam_ of his poems), and was in 1854 appointed

professor of Slavonic at Munich. The rich stores of knowledge which

Bodenstedt brought back from the East were turned to account in two

important books, _Die Volker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheits-Kampfe

gegen die Russen_ (1848), and _Tausend und ein Tag im Orient_ (1850).

For some time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic

subjects, producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and

of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false

Demetrius, and an epic, _Ada die Lesghierin_, on a Circassian theme.

Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged his professorship

in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and published (1858-1860) a

valuable work on the English dramatists contemporary with Shakespeare,

with copious translations. In 1862 he produced a standard translation of

Shakespeare's sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete

version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867 he

undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen, and was

ennobled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively at Altona, Berlin

and Wiesbaden, where he died on the 19th of April 1892. His later works

consist of an autobiography (1888), successful translations from Hafiz

and Omar Khayyam, and lyrics and dramas which added little to his

reputation.

An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at Berlin

(1866-1869), and his _Erzahlungen und Romane_ at Jena (1871-1872). For

further biographical details, see Bodenstedt's _Erinnerungen aus

meinem Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and G. Schenck, _Friedrich

von Bodenstedt. Ein Dichterleben in seinen Briefen_ (Berlin, 1893).

BODHI VAMSA, a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritized Pali, composed by

Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon about A.D. 980. It is an

adaptation of a previously existing work in Sinhalese on the same

subject, and describes the bringing of a branch of the celebrated Bo or

Bodhi tree (i.e. Wisdom Tree, under which the Buddha had attained

wisdom) to Ceylon in the 3rd century B.C. The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses

from the Mahavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other

sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older

tradition not found in any other sources known to us.

Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong (London,

1891).

BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH (1827-1891), English educationalist, was

born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of April 1827, the daughter of

Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long M.P. for Norwich. She early showed a

force of character and catholicity of sympathy that later won her a

prominent place among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she

married an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and, although

wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the movements she had

initiated in behalf of Englishwomen. In 1869 she published her _Brief

Summary of the Laws of England concerning Women_, which had a useful

effect in helping forward the passage of the Married Women's Property

Act. In 1866, co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme

for the extension of university education to women, and the first small

experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to which Mme

Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money. With all her public

interests she found time for society and her favourite art of painting.

She studied under William H. Hunt, and her water-colours, exhibited at

the Salon, the Academy and elsewhere, showed great originality and

talent, and were admired by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon

included many of the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she

was George Eliot's most intimate friend, and, according to her, the

first to recognize the authorship of _Adam Bede_. Her personal

appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mme Bodichon died

at Robertsbridge, Sussex, on the 11th of June 1891.

BODIN, JEAN (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was born at

Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and lectured there on

jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate, but soon applied

himself to literature. In 1555 he published his first work, a

translation of Oppian's _Cynegeticon_ into Latin verse, with a

commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, complained that some of

his emendations had been appropriated without acknowledgment. In 1588,

in refutation of the views of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of

the mint, who maintained that there had been no rise of prices in France

during the three preceding centuries, he published his _Responsio ad

Paradoxa Malestretti_ (_Reponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit_), which

the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner the revolution

of prices which took place in the 16th century. Bodin showed a more

rational appreciation than many of his contemporaries of the causes of

this revolution, and the relation of the variations in money to the

market values of wares in general as well as to the wages of labour. He

saw that the amount of money in circulation did not constitute the

wealth of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the

precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities of trade.

This tract, the _Discours sur les causes de l'exterme cherte qui est

aujourdhuy en France_ (1574), and the disquisition on public revenues in

the sixth book of the _Republique_, entitle Bodin to a distinguished

position among the earlier economists.

His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers won him the

favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the duc d'Alencon; and he was

appointed king's attorney at Laon in 1576. In this year he married,

performed his most brilliant service to his country, and completed his

greatest literary work. Elected by the _tiers etat_ of Vermandois to

represent it in the states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and

boldness in extremely difficult circumstances for freedom of conscience,

justice and peace. The nobility and clergy favoured the League, and

urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic religion.

When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution being carried, he

contrived to get inserted in the petition drawn up by the states the

clause "without war," which practically rendered nugatory all its other

clauses. While he thus resisted the clergy and nobility he successfully

opposed the demand of the king to be allowed to alienate the public

lands and royal demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over

to assent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money on any

terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the duc d'Alencon when that

prince came over to England to seek the hand of Queen Elizabeth. Here he

had the pleasure of finding that the _Republique_ was studied at London

and Cambridge, although in a barbarous Latin translation. This

determined him to translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The

latter part of Bodin's life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have

persuaded to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV. five

years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was buried in the

church of the Carmelites.

With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a credulous

believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the power of the

stars, and in 1580 he published the _Demonomanie des sorciers_, a work

which shows that he was not exempt from the prejudices of the age.

Himself regarded by most of his contemporaries as a sceptic, and by some

as an atheist, he denounced all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and

urged the burning of witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone

hard with him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed

to have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who, if

properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed doing what was

wrong, and his left when he meditated doing good.

His chief work, the _Six livres de la Republique_ (Paris, 1576), which

passed through several editions in his lifetime, that of 1583 having as

an appendix _L'Apologie de Rene Herpin_ (Bodin himself), was the first

modern attempt to construct an elaborate system of political science. It

is perhaps the most important work of its kind between Aristotle and

modern writers. Though he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the

material to advantage, adding much from his own experience and

historical knowledge. In harmony with the conditions of his age, he

approved of absolute governments, though at the same time they must, he

thought, be controlled by constitutional laws. He entered into an

elaborate defence of individual property against Plato and More, rather

perhaps because the scheme of his work required the treatment of that

theme than because it was practically urgent in his day, when the

excesses of the Anabaptists had produced a strong feeling against

communistic doctrines. He was under the general influence of the

mercantilist views, and approved of energetic governmental interference

in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufactures and low

duties on raw materials and articles of food, and attached great

importance to a dense population. But he was not a blind follower of the

system; he wished for unlimited freedom of trade in many cases; and he

was in advance of his more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving

that the gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To

the public finances, which he called "the sinews of the state," he

devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the government in

respect to the right adjustment of taxation. In general he deserves the

praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims and interests of

society in connexion with the regulation and development of its material

life.

Among his other works are _Oratio de instituenda in republica juventate_

(1559); _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_ (1566);

_Universale Naturae Theatrum_ (1596, French trans. by Fougerolles,

1597), and the _Colloquium Heptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium

arcanis_, written in 1588, published first by Guhrauer (1841), and in a

complete form by L. Noack (1857). The last is a philosophy of naturalism

in the form of a conversation between seven learned men--a Jew, a

Mahommedan, a Lutheran, a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and

a Theist. The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that

they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from

further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz, who

originally regarded the _Colloquium_ as the work of a professed enemy of

Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production

(cf. M. Carriere, _Weltanschauung_, p. 317).

See H. Baudrillart, _J. Bodin et son temps_ (Paris, 1853); Ad. Franck,

_Reformateurs et publicistes de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1864); N.

Planchenault, _Etudes sur Jean Bodin_ (Angers, 1858); E. de

Barthelemy, _Etude sur J. Bodin_ (Paris, 1876); for the political

philosophy of Bodin, see P. Janet, _Hist. de la science polit._ (3rd

ed., Paris, 1887); Hancke, _B. Studien uber d. Begriff d.

Souveranitat_ (Breslau, 1894), A. Bardoux. _Les Legistes et leur

influence sur la soc. francaise_; Fournol, _Bodin predecesseur de

Montesquieu_ (Paris, 1896); for his political economy, J.K. Ingram,

_Hist. of Pol. Econ._ (London, 1888); for his ethical teaching, A.

Desjardins, _Les Moralistes francais du seizieme siecle_, ch. v.; and

for his historical views, R. Flint's _Philosophy of History in Europe_

(ed. 1893), pp. 190 foll.

BODKIN (Early Eng. _boydekin_, a dagger, a word of unknown origin,

possibly connected with the Gaelic _biodag_, a short sword), a small,

needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened knob at one

end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits or eyes, through which

cord, tape or ribbon can be passed, for threading through a hem or

series of loops. The word is also used of a small piercing instrument

for making holes in cloth, &c.

BODLE or BODDLE (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a mint-master), a

Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an English penny, first

issued under Charles II. It survives in the phrase "not to care a

bodle."

BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK (1827-1907), English architect, was the

youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his elder brother, the Rev.

W.H. Bodley, becoming a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and a

professor at Oscott. He was articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert

Scott, under whose influence he became imbued with the spirit of the

Gothic revival, and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of

14th-century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect in

England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All Angels,

Brighton (1855), and among his principal erections may be mentioned All

Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church, Hackney Wick; Clumber church;

Eccleston church; Hoar Cross church; St Augustine's, Pendlebury; Holy

Trinity, Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith's, Brentford;

Queen's College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College chapel; and

Burton church. His domestic work included the London School Board

offices, the new buildings at Magdalen, Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for

Lord Windsor). From 1872 he had for twenty years the partnership of Mr

T. Garner, who worked with him. He also designed (with his pupil James

Vaughan) the cathedral at Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at

San Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott's design for

his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the competition he

collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its erection.

Bodley began contributing to the Royal Academy in 1854, and in 1881 was

elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902. In addition to being a most

learned master of architecture, he was a beautiful draughtsman, and a

connoisseur in art; he published a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a

designer of wall-papers and chintzes for Watts & Co., of Baker Street,

London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the

Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to

improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He died on

the 21st of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford.

BODLEY, SIR THOMAS (1545-1613), English diplomatist and scholar, founder

of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at Exeter on the 2nd of March

1545. During the reign of Queen Mary, his father, John Bodley, being

obliged to leave the kingdom on account of his Protestant principles,

went to live at Geneva. In that university, in which Calvin and Beza

were then teaching divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On

the accession of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England,

and soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took his

B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In 1565 he

read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year after, and

read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1569 he was proctor,

and for some time after was deputy public orator. Quitting Oxford in

1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly after his return he became

gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth; and in 1587, apparently, he married

Ann Ball, a widow lady of considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr

Carew of Bristol. In 1584 he entered parliament as member for

Portsmouth, and represented St German's in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was

entrusted with a mission to form a league between Frederick II. of

Denmark and certain German princes to assist Henry of Navarre. He was

next despatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he was sent

to the Hague as minister, a post which demanded great diplomatic skill,

for it was in the Netherlands that the power of Spain had to be fought.

The essential difficulties of his mission were complicated by the

intrigues of the queen's ministers at home, and Bodley repeatedly begged

that he might be recalled. He was finally permitted to return to England

in 1596, but finding his preferment obstructed by the jarring interests

of Burleigh and Essex, he retired from public life. He was knighted on

the 18th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the

founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public

library in Europe (see LIBRARIES). He determined, he said, "to take his

farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at the library

door in Oxford." In 1598 his offer to restore the old library was

accepted by the university. Bodley not only used his private fortune in

his undertaking, but induced many of his friends to make valuable gifts

of books. In 1611 he began its permanent endowment, and at his death in

London on the 28th of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was

left to it. He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a

monument of black and white marble was erected to him.

Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the first

draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters to the

librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne, under the

title of _Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir Thomas

Bodley_ (London, 1703, 8vo).

BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783), Swiss-German author, was born at

Greifensee, near Zurich, on the 19th of July 1698. After first studying

theology and then trying a commercial career, he finally found his

vocation in letters. In 1725 he was appointed professor of Helvetian

history in Zurich, a chair which he held for half a century, and in 1735

became a member of the "Grosser Rat." He published (1721-1723), in

conjunction with J.J. Breitinger (1701-1774) and several others, _Die

Discourse der Mahlern_, a weekly journal after the model of the

Spectator. Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost

(1732) and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English

literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism of

Gottsched (_q.v_.) and his school, a struggle which ended in the

complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important writings are the

treatises _Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie_ (1740) and _Kritische

Betrachtungen uber die poetischen Gemalde der Dichter_ (1741), in which

he pleaded for the freedom of the imagination from the restriction

imposed upon it by French pseudo-classicism. Bodmer's epics _Die

Sundfluth_ (1751) and _Noah_ (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock's

_Messias_, and his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities.

He did valuable service to German literature by his editions of the

Minnesingers and part of the _Nibelungenlied_. He died at Zurich on the

2nd of January 1783.

See T.W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.

Cruger, _J.C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger_ (Stuttgart, 1884); F.

Braitmaier, _Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den

Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing_ (Leipzig, 1888); _Denkschrift zu

Bodmers 200. Geburtstag_ (Zurich, 1900).

BODMIN, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary

division of Cornwall, England, the county town, 30-1/2 m. W.N.W. of

Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and London & South-Western

railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It lies between two hills in a short valley

opening westward upon that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of

the high open Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly

Perpendicular, has earlier portions, and a late Norman font. East of it

there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, with a

crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the cemetery, marks the site of a

chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood. Part of the buildings of a

Franciscan friary, founded _c._ 1240, are incorporated in the

market-house, and the gateway remains in an altered form. At Bodmin are

a prison, with civil and naval departments, the county gaol and asylum,

the headquarters of the constabulary, and those of the duke of

Cornwall's Light Infantry. Cattle, sheep and horse fairs are held, and

there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under a

mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 2797 acres.

Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western part of the

parish, belonging to the first century A.D. Possibly tin-mining was

carried on here at that period. The grant of a charter by King Edred to

the prior and canons of Bodmin (Bomine, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of

lands in Devonshire appears in an _inspeximus_ of 1252. To its

ecclesiastical associations it owed its importance at the time of the

Domesday survey, when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were

sixty-eight houses and one market. To successive priors, as mesne lords,

it also owed its earliest municipal privileges. King John's charter to

the prior and convent, dated the 17th of July 1199, contained a clause

(subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by which burgesses were exempt

from being impleaded, touching any tenements in their demesne, except

before the king and his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the

Romans, confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the

pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for tin and wool. Queen Elizabeth

in 1563 constituted the town a free borough and the burgesses a body

corporate, granting at the same time two fairs and a Saturday market.

There are still held also three other fairs whose origin is uncertain.

An amended charter granted in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when

the corporation became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses.

By virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and

remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of a mayor,

four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first members for Bodmin were

summoned in 1295. Retaining both its members in 1832, losing one in 1868

and the other in 1885, it has now become merged in the south-eastern

division of the county. From 1715 to 1837 the assizes were generally

held alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have been

held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been held at Bodmin

since 1773. A festival known as "Bodmin Riding" was formerly celebrated

here on the Sunday and Monday following St Thomas's day (July 7). It is

thought by some to have been instituted in 1177 to celebrate the

recovery of the bones of St Petrock.

See _Victoria County History, Cornwall_; John Maclean, _Parochial and

Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall_ (3 vols.,

1873-1879).

BODO, a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in Nordland _amt_

(county), lat. 67 deg. 17' N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The rock-bound harbour

admits large vessels, and there is a brisk trade in fish and eider-down.

The neighbouring country has many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland

(E.) rises the great massif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with

its copper mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the

district include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the

Skjerstadfjord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands, a

remarkable cataract (Saltstrom) is formed at the turn of the tide. On

this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village.

BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA (1740-1813), Italian printer, was born in 1740 at

Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned a printing establishment.

While yet a boy he began to engrave on wood. He at length went to Rome,

and there became a compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made

himself acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled to

render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring and

accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alphabets which

had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand, afterwards duke of

Parma, having established, about 1760, a printing-house on the model of

those in Paris, Madrid and Turin, Bodoni was placed at the head of this

establishment, which he soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe.

The beauty of his typography, &c., leaves nothing further to be desired;

but the intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward

splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work; and, indeed,

his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best Greek

manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian and French

classics are all highly prized for their typographical elegance, and

some of them are not less remarkable for their accuracy. Bodoni died at

Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnificent work appeared in two volumes

quarto, entitled _Manuale Tipografico_, containing specimens of the vast

collection of types which had belonged to him.

See De Lama, _Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni_ (1816).

BODY-SNATCHING, the secret disinterring of dead bodies in churchyards in

order to sell them for the purpose of dissection. Those who practised

body-snatching were frequently called resurrectionists or

resurrection-men. Previous to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see

ANATOMY: _History_), no licence was required in Great Britain for

opening an anatomical school, and there was no provision for supplying

subjects to students for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though

body-snatching was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine

and imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the

risk of detection. Body-snatching became so prevalent that it was not

unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased person to watch the

grave for some time after burial, lest it should be violated. Iron

coffins, too, were frequently used for burial, or the graves were

protected by a framework of iron bars called _mortsafes_, well-preserved

examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars' churchyard,

Edinburgh.

For a detailed history of body-snatching, see _The Diary of a

Resurrectionist_, edited by J.B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also

contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign

countries for the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes.

BOECE (or BOYCE), HECTOR (c. 1465-c. 1536), Scottish historian, was

born at Dundee about the year 1465, being descended of a family which

for several generations had possessed the barony of Panbride in

Forfarshire. He received his early education at Dundee, and completed

his course of study in the university of Paris, where he took the degree

of B.D. He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the

college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of Erasmus, who in

two epistles has spoken of him in the highest terms. When William

Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was laying his plans for the foundation

of the university of Aberdeen (King's College) he made Boece his chief

adviser; and the latter was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull

erecting the university (1494), to be the first principal. He was in

Aberdeen about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he

appears to have been well received by the canons of the cathedral,

several of whom he has commemorated as men of learning. It was a part of

his duty as principal to read lectures on divinity.

The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed the income

of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of Tullynessle. Under the

date of 14th July 1527, we find a "grant to Maister Hector" of an annual

pension of L50, to be paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king's

casualties; and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a "precept for a

lettre to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of L50

Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100 marks

Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him by the custumars

of Aberdeen." In 1533 and 1534, one-half of his pension was, however,

paid by the king's treasurer, and the other half by the comptroller; and

as no payment subsequent to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in

the treasurer's accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice

soon after that period. This benefice was the rectorship of Tyrie.

In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece received the

degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion the magistrates voted

him a present of a tun of wine when the new wines should arrive, or,

according to his option, the sum of L20 to purchase bonnets. He appears

to have survived till the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that

year, the king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by

the death of "Mr Hector Boiss." He died at Aberdeen, and was buried

before the high altar at King's College, beside the tomb of his patron

Bishop Elphinstone.

His earliest publication, _Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium

per Hectorem Boetium Vitae_, was printed at the press of Jodocus Badius

(Paris, 1522). The notices of the early prelates are of little value,

but the portion of the book in which he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is

of enduring merit. Here we likewise find an account of the foundation

and constitution of the college, together with some notices of its

earliest members. His fame rests chiefly on his _History of Scotland_,

published in 1527 under the title _Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis

origine cum aliarum et rerum et gentium illustratione non vulgari_. This

edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing the

eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was published by

Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-five pages (Paris, 1574).

The composition of the history displays much ability; but Boece's

imagination was, however, stronger than his judgment: of the extent of

the historian's credulity, his narrative exhibits many unequivocal

proofs; and of deliberate invention or distortion of facts not a few,

though the latter are less flagrant and intentional than early

19th-century criticism has assumed. He professed to have obtained from

the monastery of Icolmkill, through the good offices of the earl of

Argyll, and his brother, John Campbell of Lundy, the treasurer, certain

original historians of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus, of whose

writings not a single vestige is now to be found. In his dedication to

the king he is pleased to state that Veremundus, a Spaniard by birth,

was archdeacon of St Andrews, and that he wrote in Latin a history of

Scotland from the origin of the nation to the reign of Malcolm III., to

whom he inscribed his work. His propensity to the marvellous was at an

early period exposed in the following verses by Leland:--

"Hectoris historici tot quot mendacia scripsit

Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi,

Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos

Et liquidi Stellas connumerare poli."

Boece's _History of Scotland_ was translated into Scottish prose by

John Bellenden, and into verse by William Stewart. _The Lives of the

Bishops_ was reprinted for the Bannatyne Club, Edin., 1825, in a

limited edition of sixty copies. A commonplace verse-rendering of the

_Life of Bishop Elphinstone_, which was written by Alexander Gardyne

in 1619, remains in MS. There is no modern edition of the history,

though the versions of Bellenden and Stewart have been edited.

BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, Bart. (1834-1890), British sculptor, was born

of Hungarian parentage on the 4th of July 1834 at Vienna, where his

father was director of the imperial mint. After studying the plastic art

in Italy and at Paris, he worked for a few years as a medallist in his

native city. After a further period of study in England, he was so

successful as an exhibitor at the Exhibition of 1862 that he determined

to abandon the execution of coins and medals, and to give his mind to

portrait busts and statuettes, chiefly equestrian. The colossal statue

of Queen Victoria, executed in marble (1869) for Windsor Castle, and the

monument of the duke of Kent in St George's chapel, were his earliest

great works, and so entirely to the taste of his royal patrons that he

rose rapidly in favour with the court. He was made A.R.A. in 1878, and

produced soon afterwards the statue of Carlyle on the Thames embankment

at Chelsea. In 1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary to the queen,

and in the ensuing year became full Academician. On the death of Dean

Stanley, Boehm was commissioned to execute his sarcophagus in

Westminster Abbey, and his achievement, a recumbent statue, has been

pronounced to be one of the best portraits in modern sculpture. Less

successful was his monument to General Gordon in St Paul's cathedral. He

executed the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington at Hyde Park

Corner, and designed the coinage for the Jubilee of Queen Victoria in

1887. Among his ideal subjects should be noted the "Herdsman and Bull."

He died suddenly in his studio at South Kensington on the 12th of

December 1890.

BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851- ), Austrian economist and statesman,

was born at Brunn on the 12th of February 1851. Entering the Austrian

department of finance in 1872, he held various posts until 1880, when he

became qualified as a teacher of political economy in the university of

Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services to the

university of Innsbruck, where he became professor in 1884. In 1889 he

became councillor in the ministry of finance, and represented the

government in the Lower House on all questions of taxation. In 1895 and

again in 1897-1898 he was minister of finance. In 1899 he was made a

member of the Upper House, and in 1900 again became minister of finance.

One of the leaders of the Austrian school of economists, he has made

notable criticisms on the theory of value in relation to cost as laid

down by the "classical school." His more important works are _Kapital

und Kapitalzins_ (Innsbruck, 1884-1889), in two parts, translated by W.

Smart, viz. _Capital and Interest_ (part i., 1890), and _The Positive

Theory of Capital_ (part ii., 1891); _Karl Marx and the Close of his

System_ (trans. A.M. Macdonald, 1898); _Recent Literature on Interest_

(trans. W.A. Scott and S. Feilbogen, 1903).

BOEHME (or BEHMEN), JAKOB (1575-1624), German mystical writer, whose

surname (of which Fechner gives eight German varieties) appears in

English literature as Beem, Behmont, &c., and notably Behmen, was born

at Altseidenberg, in Upper Lusatia, a straggling hamlet among the hills,

some 10 m. S.E. of Gorlitz. His father was a well-to-do peasant, and his

first employment was that of herd boy on the Landskrone, a hill in the

neighbourhood of Gorlitz; the only education he received was at the

town-school of Seidenberg, a mile from his home. Seidenberg, to this

day, is filled with shoemakers, and to a shoemaker Jakob was apprenticed

in his fourteenth year (1589), being judged not robust enough for

husbandry. Ten years later (1599) we find him settled at Gorlitz as

master-shoemaker, and married to Katharina, daughter of Hans

Kuntzschmann, a thriving butcher in the town. After industriously

pursuing his vocation for ten years, he bought (1610) the substantial

house, which still preserves his name, close by the bridge, in the

Neiss-Vorstadt. Two or three years later he gave up business, and did

not resume it as a shoemaker; but for some years before his death he

made and sold woollen gloves, regularly visiting Prague fair for this

purpose.

Boehme's authorship began in his 37th year (1612) with a treatise,

_Aurora, oder die Morgenrote im Aufgang_, which though unfinished was

surreptitiously copied, and eagerly circulated in MS. by Karl von Ender.

This raised him at once out of his homely sphere, and made him the

centre of a local circle of liberal thinkers, considerably above him in

station and culture. The charge of heresy was, however, soon directed

against him by Gregorius Richter, then pastor primarius of Gorlitz.

Feeling ran so high after Richter's pulpit denunciations, that, in July

1613, the municipal council, fearing a disturbance of the peace, made a

show of examining Boehme, took possession of his fragmentary quarto, and

dismissed the writer with an admonition to meddle no more with such

matters. For five years he obeyed this injunction. But in 1618 began a

second period of authorship; he poured forth, but did not publish,

treatise after treatise, expository and polemical, in the next and the

two following years. In 1622 he composed nothing but a few short pieces

on true repentance, resignation, &c., which, however, devotionally

speaking, are the most precious of all his writings. They were the only

pieces offered to the public in his lifetime and with his permission, a

fact which is evidence of the essentially religious and practical

character of his mind. Their publication at Gorlitz, on New Year's day

1624, under the title of _Der Weg zu Christo_, was the signal for

renewed clerical hostility. Boehme had by this time entered on the third

and most prolific though the shortest period (1623-1624) of his

speculation. His labours at the desk were interrupted in May 1624 by a

summons to Dresden, where his famous "colloquy" with the Upper

Consistorial court was made the occasion of a flattering but transient

ovation on the part of a new circle of admirers. Richter died in August

1624, and Boehme did not long survive his pertinacious foe. Seized with

a fever when away from home, he was with difficulty conveyed to Gorlitz.

His wife was at Dresden on business; and during the first week of his

malady he was nursed by a literary friend. He died, after receiving the

rites of the church, grudgingly administered by the authorities, on

Sunday, the 17th of November.

Boehme always professed that a direct inward opening or illumination was

the only source of his speculative power. He pretended to no other

revelation. Ecstatic raptures we should not expect, for he was

essentially a Protestant mystic. No "thus saith the Lord" was claimed as

his warrant, after the manner of Antoinette Bourignon, or Ludowick

Muggleton; no spirits or angels held converse with him as with

Swedenborg. It is needless to dwell, in the way either of acceptance or

rejection, on the very few occasions in which his outward life seemed to

him to come into contact with the invisible world. The apparition of the

pail of gold to the herd boy on the Landskrone, the visit of the

mysterious stranger to the young apprentice, the fascination of the

luminous sheen, reflected from a common pewter dish, which first, in

1600, gave an intuitive turn to his meditations, the heavenly music

which filled his ears as he lay dying--none of these matters is

connected organically with the secret of his special power. The

mysteries of which he discoursed were not reported to him: he "beheld"

them. He saw the root of all mysteries, the _Ungrund_ or _Urgrund_,

whence issue all contrasts and discordant principles, hardness and

softness, severity and mildness, sweet and bitter, love and sorrow,

heaven and hell. These he "saw" in their origin; these he attempted to

describe in their issue, and to reconcile in their eternal result. He

saw into the being of God; whence the birth or going forth of the divine

manifestation. Nature lay unveiled to him, he was at home in the heart

of things. "His own book, which he himself was," the microcosm of man,

with his threefold life, was patent to his vision. Such was his own

account of his qualification. If he failed it was in expression; he

confessed himself a poor mouthpiece, though he saw with a sure spiritual

eye.

It must not be supposed that the form in which Boehme's pneumatic

realism worked itself out in detail was shaped entirely from within. In

his writings we trace the influence of Theophr. Bombast von Hohenheim,

known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), of Kaspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561), the

first Protestant mystic, and of Valentin Weigel (1533-1588). From the

school of Paracelsus came much of his puzzling phraseology,--his _Turba_

and _Tinctur_ and so forth,--a phraseology embarrassing to himself as

well as to his readers. His friends plied him with foreign terms, which

he was delighted to receive, interpreting them by an instinct, and using

them often in a corrupted form and always in a sense of his own. Thus

the word _Idea_ called up before him the image of "a very fair,

heavenly, and chaste virgin." The title _Aurora_, by which his earliest

treatise is best known, was furnished by Dr Balthasar Walther. These,

however, were false helps, which only serve to obscure a difficult

study, like the _Flagrat_ and _Lubet_, with which his English translator

veiled Boehme's own honest _Schreck_ and _Lust_. There is danger lest

his crude science and his crude philosophical vocabulary conceal the

fertility of Boehme's ideas and the transcendent greatness of his

religious insight. Few will take the pains to follow him through the

interminable account of his seven _Quellgeister_, which remind us of

Gnosticism; or even of his three first properties of eternal nature, in

which his disciples find Newton's formulae anticipated, and which

certainly bear a marvellous resemblance to the three [Greek: archai] of

Schelling's _Theogonische Natur_. Boehme is always greatest when he

breaks away from his fancies and his trammels, and allows speech to the

voice of his heart. Then he is artless, clear and strong; and no man can

help listening to him, whether he dive deep down with the conviction

"ohne Gift und Grimm kein Leben," or rise with the belief that "the

being of all beings is a wrestling power," or soar with the persuasion

that Love "in its height is as high as God." The mystical poet of

Silesia, Angelus Silesius, discerned where Boehme's truest power lay

when he sang--

"Im Wasser lebt der Fisch, die Pflanze in der Erden,

Der Vogel in der Luft, die Sonn' am Firmament,

Der Salamander muss im Feu'r erhalten werden,

Und Gottes Herz ist Jakob Bohme's Element."

The three periods of Boehme's authorship constitute three distinct

stages in the development of his philosophy. He himself marks a

threefold division of his subject-matter:--1. PHILOSOPHIA, i.e. the

pursuit of the divine _Sophia_, a study of God in himself; this was

attempted in the _Aurora_. 2. ASTROLOGIA, i.e., in the largest sense,

cosmology, the manifestation of the divine in the structure of the world

and of man; hereto belong, with others, _Die drei Principien gottlichen

Wesens; Vom dreifachen Leben der Menschen; Von der Menschwerdung

Christi;, Von der Geburt und Bezeichnung alter Wesen_ (known as

_Signatura Rerum_). 3. THEOLOGIA, i.e., in Scougall's phrase, "the

life of God in the soul of man." Of the speculative writings under this

head the most important are _Von der Gnadenwahl; Mysterium Magnum_ (a

spiritual commentary on Genesis); _Von Christi Testamenten_ (the

Sacraments).

Although Boehme's philosophy is essentially theological, and his

theology essentially philosophical, one would hardly describe him as a

philosophical theologian; and, indeed, his position is not one in which

either the philosopher or the theologian finds it easy to make himself

completely at home. The philosopher finds no trace in Boehme of a

conception of God which rests its own validity on an accord with the

highest canons of reason or of morals; it is in the actual not in the

ideal that Boehme seeks God, whom he discovers as the spring of natural

powers and forces, rather than as the goal of advancing thought. The

theologian is staggered by a language which breaks the fixed association

of theological phrases, and strangely reversing the usual point of view,

characteristically pictures God as underneath rather than above. Nature

rises out of Him; we sink into Him. The _Ungrund_ of the unmanifested

Godhead is boldly represented in the English translations of Boehme by

the word _Abyss_, in a sense altogether unexplained by its Biblical use.

In the _Theologia Germanica_ this tendency to regard God as the

_substantia_, the underlying ground of all things, is accepted as a

foundation for piety; the same view, when offered in the colder logic of

Spinoza, is sometimes set aside as atheistical. The procession of

spiritual forces and natural phenomena out of the _Ungrund_ is described

by Boehme in terms of a threefold manifestation, commended no doubt by

the constitution of the Christian Trinity, but exhibited in a form

derived from the school of Paracelsus. From Weigel he learned a purely

idealistic explanation of the universe, according to which it is not the

resultant of material forces, but the expression of spiritual

principles. These two explanations were fused in his mind till they

issued forth as equivalent forms of one and the same thought. Further,

Schwenkfeld supplied him with the germs of a transcendental exegesis,

whereby the Christian Scriptures and the dogmata of Lutheran orthodoxy

were opened up in harmony with his new-found views. Thus equipped,

Boehme's own genius did the rest. A primary effort of Boehme's

philosophy is to show how material powers are substantially one with

moral forces. This is the object with which he draws out the dogmatic

scheme which dictates the arrangement of his seven _Quellgeister_.

Translating Boehme's thought out of the uncouth dialect of material

symbols (as to which one doubts sometimes whether he means them as

concrete instances, or as pictorial illustrations, or as a mere _memoria

technica_), we find that Boehme conceives of the correlation of two

triads of forces. Each triad consists of a thesis, an antithesis and a

synthesis; and the two are connected by an important link. In the hidden

life of the Godhead, which is at once _Nichts_ and _Alles_, exists the

original triad, viz. Attraction, Diffusion, and their resultant, the

Agony of the unmanifested Godhead. The transition is made; by an act of

will the divine Spirit comes to Light; and immediately the manifested

life appears in the triad of Love, Expression, and their resultant,

Visible Variety. As the action of contraries and their resultant are

explained the relations of soul, body and spirit; of good, evil and free

will; of the spheres of the angels, of Lucifer, and of this world. It is

a more difficult problem to account on this philosophy for the

introduction of evil. Boehme does not resort to dualism, nor has he the

smallest sympathy with a pantheistic repudiation of the fact of sin.

That the difficulty presses him is clear from the progressive changes

in his attempted solution of the problem. In the _Aurora_ nothing save

good proceeds from the _Ungrund_, though there is good that abides and

good that fall;--Christ and Lucifer. In the second stage of his writing

the antithesis is directly generated as such; good and its contrary are

coincidently given from the one creative source, as factors of life and

movement; while in the third period evil is a direct outcome of the

primary principle of divine manifestation--it is the wrath side of God.

Corresponding to this change we trace a significant variation in the

moral end contemplated by Boehme as the object of this world's life and

history. In the first stage the world is created in remedy of a decline;

in the second, for the adjustment of a balance of forces; in the third,

to exhibit the eternal victory of good over evil, of love over wrath.

Editions of Boehme's works were published by H. Betke (Amsterdam,

1675); by J.G. Gichtel (Amsterdam, 1682-1683, 10 vols.); by K.W.

Schiebler (Leipzig, 1831-1847, 7 vols.). Translations of sundry

treatises have been made into Latin (by J.A. Werdenhagen, 1632), Dutch

(complete, by W. v. Bayerland, 1634-1641), and French (by Jean Macle,

c. 1640, and L.C. de Saint-Martin, 1800-1809). Between 1644 and 1662

all Boehme's works were translated by John Ellistone (d. 1652) and

John Sparrow, assisted by Durand Hotham and Humphrey Blunden, who paid

for the undertaking. At that time regular societies of _Behmenists_,

embracing not only the cultivated but the vulgar, existed in England

and in Holland. They merged into the Quaker movement, holding already

in common with Friends that salvation is nothing short of the very

presence and life of Christ in the believer, and only kept apart by an

objective doctrine of the sacraments which exposed them to the polemic

of Quakers (e.g. J. Anderdon). Muggleton led an anthropomorphic

reaction against them, and between the two currents they were swept

away. The Philadelphian Society at the beginning of the 18th century

consisted of cultured mystics, Jane Lead, Pordage, Francis Lee,

Bromley, &c., who fed upon Boehme. William Law (1686-1761) somewhat

later recurred to the same spring, with the result, however, in those

dry times of bringing his own good sense into question rather than of

reviving the credit of his author. After Law's death the old English

translation was in great part re-edited (4 vols., 1762-1784) as a

tribute to his memory, by George Ward and Thomas Langcake, with plates

from the designs of D.A. Freher (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 5767-5794). This

forms what is commonly called Law's translation; to complete it a 5th

vol. (12mo, Dublin, 1820) is needed.

See also J. Hambetger, _Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J.

Boehmes_ (1844); Alb. Peip, _J. Boehme der deutsche Philosoph_ (1860);

von Harless, _J. Boehme und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882). For

Boehme's life see the _Memoirs_ by Abraham von Frankenberg (d. 1652)

and others, trans, by F. Okely (1870); La Motte Fouque, _J. Boehm, ein

biographischer Denkstein_ (1831); H.A. Fechner, _J. Boehme, sein Leben

und seine Schriften_ (1857); H.L. Martensen, _J. Boehme, Theosophiske

Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1881; English trans. 1885); J. Claassen, _J.

Boehme, sein Leben und seine theosophische Werke_ (Gutersloh, 1885);

P. Deussen, _J. Boehme, uber sein Leben und seine Philosophie_ (Kiel,

1897).

BOEOTIA, a district of central Greece, stretching from Phocis and Locris

in the W. and N. to Attica and Megaris in the S. between the strait of

Euboea and the Corinthian Gulf. This area, amounting in all to 1100 sq.

m., naturally falls into two main divisions. In the north the basin of

the Cephissus and Lake Copais lies between parallel mountain-walls

continuing eastward the line of Parnassus in the extensive ridge of

Helicon, the "Mountain of the Muses" (5470 ft.) and the east Locrian

range in Mts. Ptoum, Messapium and other smaller peaks. These ranges,

which mostly lie close to the seaboard, form by their projecting spurs a

narrow defile on the Phocian frontier, near the famous battlefield of

Chaeroneia, and shut in Copais closely on the south between Coronea and

Haliartus. The north-east barrier was pierced by underground passages

(_katavothra_) which carried off the overflow from Copais. The southern

portion of the land forms a plateau which slopes to Mt. Cithaeron, the

frontier range between Boeotia and Attica. Within this territory the low

ridge of Teumessus separates the plain of Ismenus and Dirce, commanded

by the citadel of Thebes, from the upland plain of the Asopus, the only

Boeotian river that finds the eastern sea. Though the Boeotian climate

suffered from the exhalations of Copais, which produced a heavy

atmosphere with foggy winters and sultry summers, its rich soil was

suited alike for crops, plantations and pasture; the Copais plain,

though able to turn into marsh when the choking of the _katavothra_

caused the lake to encroach, being among the most fertile in Greece.

The central position of Boeotia between two seas, the strategic strength

of its frontiers and the ease of communication within its extensive area

were calculated to enhance its political importance. On the other hand

the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development; and the

Boeotian nation, although it produced great men like Pindar,

Epaminondas, Pelopidas and Plutarch, was proverbially as dull as its

native air. But credit should be given to the people for their splendid

military qualities: both their cavalry and heavy infantry achieved a

glorious record.

In the mythical days Boeotia played a prominent part. Of the two great

centres of legends, Thebes with its Cadmean population figures as a

military stronghold, and Orchomenus, the home of the Minyae, as an

enterprising commercial city. The latter's prosperity is still attested

by its archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas") and the

traces of artificial conduits by which its engineers supplemented the

natural outlets. The "Boeotian" population seems to have entered the

land from the north at a date probably anterior to the Dorian invasion.

With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon

absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a

homogeneous nation. In historical times the leading city of Boeotia was

Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable

capital. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb the other

townships into a single state, just as Athens had annexed the Attic

communities. But the outlying cities successfully resisted this policy,

and only allowed the formation of a loose federation which in early

times seems to have possessed a merely religious character. While the

Boeotians, unlike the Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole

against foreign enemies, the constant struggle between the forces of

centralization and disruption perhaps went further than any other cause

to check their development into a really powerful nation. Boeotia hardly

figures in history before the late 6th century. Previous to this its

people is chiefly known as the producer of a type of geometric pottery

similar to the Dipylon ware of Athens. About 519 the resistance of

Plataea to the federating policy of Thebes led to the interference of

Athens on behalf of the former; on this occasion, and again in 507, the

Athenians defeated the Boeotian levy. During the Persian invasion of

480, while some of the cities fought whole-heartedly in the ranks of the

patriots, Thebes assisted the invaders. For a time the presidency of the

Boeotian League was taken away from Thebes, but in 457 the Spartans

reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression. Athens

retaliated by a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory of

Oenophyta brought under its power the whole country excepting the

capital. For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which

was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 the

oligarchic majority raised an insurrection, and after a victory at

Coronea regained their freedom and restored the old constitutions. In

the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians, embittered by the early conflicts

round Plataea, fought zealously against Athens. Though slightly

estranged from Sparta after the peace of Nicias, they never abated their

enmity against their neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse

and Arginusae; but their greatest achievement was the decisive victory

at Delium over the flower of the Athenian army (424), in which both

their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed unusual efficiency.

About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups of sovereign

cities and associated townships, each of which elected one Boeotarch or

minister of war and foreign affairs, contributed sixty delegates to the

federal council at Thebes, and supplied a contingent of about a thousand

foot and a hundred horse to the federal army. A safeguard against undue

encroachment on the part of the central government was provided in the

councils of the individual cities, to which all important questions of

policy had to be submitted for ratification. These local councils, to

which the propertied classes alone were eligible, were subdivided into

four sections, resembling the _prytaneis_ of the Athenian council, which

took it in turns to take previous cognizance of all new measures.[1]

Boeotia took a prominent part in the war of the Corinthian League

against Sparta, especially at Haliartus and Coronea (395-394). This

change of policy seems due mainly to the national resentment against

foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing

rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by stipulating for the complete

independence of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387). In 374

Pelopidas restored the Theban dominion. Boeotian contingents fought in

all the campaigns of Epaminondas, and in the later wars against Phocis

(356-346); while in the dealings with Philip of Macedon the federal

cities appear merely as the tools of Thebes. The federal constitution

was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now

prevalent throughout the land. The sovereign power was vested in the

popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve

in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the battle of Chaeroneia, in

which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the

land never rose again to prosperity. The destruction of Thebes by

Alexander (335) seems to have paralysed the political energy of the

Boeotians, though it led to an improvement in the federal constitution,

by which each city received an equal vote. Henceforth they never pursued

an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers.

Though the old military training and organization continued, the people

proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than

ever the "dancing-ground of Ares." Though enrolled for a short time in

the Aetolian League (about 245 B.C.) Boeotia was generally loyal to

Macedonia, and supported its later kings against Rome. In return for the

excesses of the democracies Rome dissolved the league, which, however,

was allowed to revive under Augustus, and merged with the other central

Greek federations in the Achaean synod. The death-blow to the country's

prosperity was given by the devastations during the first Mithradatic

War.

Save for a short period of prosperity under the Frankish rulers of

Athens (1205-1310), who repaired the _katavothra_ and fostered

agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by

occasional barbarian incursions. The first step towards the country's

recovery was not until 1895, when the outlets of Copais were again put

into working order. Since then the northern plain has been largely

reclaimed for agriculture, and the natural riches of the whole land are

likely to develop under the influence of the railway to Athens. Boeotia

is at present a Nomos with Livadia (the old Turkish capital) for its

centre; the other surviving townships are quite unimportant. The

population (65,816 in 1907) is largely Albanian.

AUTHORITIES.--Thuc. iv. 76-101; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii.-vii.;

Strabo, pp. 400-412; Pausanias ix.; Theopompus (or Cratippus) in the

_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. (London, 1908), No. 842, col. 12; W.M.

Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835); H.F.

Tozer, _Geography of Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 233-238; W. Rhys

Roberts, _The Ancient Boeotians_ (Cambridge, 1895); E.A. Freeman.

_Federal Government_ (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. S 2; B.V. Head,

_Historia Numorum_, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887); W. Larfeld, _Sylloge

Inscriptionum Boeoticarum_ (Berlin, 1883). (See also THEBES.)