FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME
(1700-1885.)
1. THE SAXONIC AND SWISS SCHOOLS.--In contrast to the barrenness of the
last period, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries present us with a
brilliant constellation of writers in every department of letters, whose
works form an era in the intellectual development of Germany unsurpassed
in many respects by any other in the history of literature. Gottsched and
Bodmer each succeeded in establishing schools of poetry which exerted
great influence on the literary taste of the country. Gottsched (1700-
1766), the founder of the Saxonic school, exercised the same dictatorship
as a poet and critic which Opitz had exercised at the beginning of the
seventeenth century. He was the advocate and copyist of French models in
art and poetry, and he used his widespread influence in favor of the
correct and so-called classical style. After having rendered good service
in putting down the senseless extravagance of the school of Lohenstein, he
became himself a pedantic and arrogant critic; then followed a long
literary warfare between him and Bodmer (1698-1783), the founder of the
Swiss school. Gottsched and his followers at Leipsic defended the French
and insisted on classical forms and traditional rules; Bodmer and his
friends in Switzerland defended the English style, and insisted on natural
sentiment and spontaneous expression. A paper war was carried on in their
respective journals, which at length ended favorably to the Swiss or
Bodmer's school, which, although the smaller party, obtained a splendid
victory over its antagonist.
Many of the followers of Gottsched, disgusted with his pedantry, finally
separated themselves from him and formed a new poetical union, called the
Second Saxonic School. They established at the same time a periodical,
which was at once the channel of their communications and the point around
which they centred. The principal representatives of this school were
Rabener (1714-1771), very popular for the cheerful strain of wit that runs
through his satires, and for the correctness of his language and style;
Gellert (1715-1769), whose "Fables" contain great moral truth enlivened by
vivid pictures of life, full of sprightliness and humor, and expressed in
a style of extraordinary ease and clearness; Kästner (1719-1800), a
celebrated and acute mathematician, and the author of many epigrams,
elegies, odes, and songs; John Elias Schlegel (1718-1749), distinguished
for his dramatic compositions; and Zachariae (1726-1777), endowed with a
poetical and witty invention, which he displayed in his comic epopees and
descriptive poems.
The following two poets were the most celebrated of them all: Hagedorn
(1708-1754), whose fables and poems are remarkable for their fancy and
wit; and Haller (1708-1777), who acquired an enduring fame as a poet,
anatomist, physiologist, botanist, and scholar. Of inferior powers, but
yet of great popularity, were: Gleim (1719-1803), upon whom the Germans
bestowed the title of "father," which shows at once how high he ranked
among the poets of his time; Kleist (1715-1759), whose poems are
characterized by pleasant portraitures, harmonious numbers, great ease,
and richness of thought, conciseness of expression, and a noble morality;
Ramler (1725-1798), who has been styled the German Horace, from his odes
in praise of Frederic the Great; Nicolai (1733-1811), who acquired
considerable fame, both for the promotion of literature and for the
correction of German taste particularly, through his critical reviews; and
Gessner (1730-1787), who gained a great reputation for his "Idyls," which
are distinguished by freshness of thought and grace and eloquence of
style.
2. KLOPSTOCK, LESSING, WIELAND, AND HERDER.--Klopstock (1724-1803),
inspired by the purest enthusiasm for Christianity, and by an exalted love
for his fatherland, expressed his thoughts and feelings in eloquent but
somewhat mystic strains. He was hailed as the herald of a new school of
sacred and national literature, and his "Messiah" announced him in some
respects as the rival of Milton. In comparing the Messiah with the
"Paradise Lost," Herder says: "Milton's poem Is a building resting on
mighty pillars; Klopstock's, a magic picture hovering between heaven and
earth, amid the tenderest emotions and the most moving scenes of human
nature."
Lessing (1729-1781) produced a reformation in German literature second
only to that effected by Luther in theology. He was equally eminent as a
dramatist, critic, and philosopher. His principal dramatic productions are
"Emilie Galotti" and "Nathan the Wise." As a critic he demanded creative
imagination from all who would claim the title of poet, and spared neither
friends nor foes in his efforts to maintain a high standard of literary
excellence. The writings of Lessing exerted a commanding influence on the
best minds of Germany in almost all departments of thought. They mark, and
in a great measure produced, the important change in the tone of German
literature, from the national and Christian character of Klopstock to the
cosmopolitan character which prevails in the writings of Goethe and
Schiller.
Wieland (1733-1813) was, in his youth, the friend of Klopstock, and would
tolerate nothing but religious poetry; but he suddenly turned to the
opposite extreme, and began to write epicurean romances as vehicles of his
new views of human life and happiness. Among his tales are "Agathon,"
"Musarion," and "Aristippus," which last is considered his best work. In
all these writings his purpose was to represent pleasure or utility as the
only criterion of truth. Although there is much in his prose writings to
subject him to severe censure, he maintains his place in the literature of
his native country as one of its most gay, witty, and graceful poets. His
"Oberon" is one of the most charming and attractive poems of modern times.
Herder (1741-1803) was deeply versed in almost all branches of study, and
exercised great influence, not only as a poet, but as a theologian,
philosopher, critic, and philologist. He studied philosophy under Kant,
and, after filling the offices of teacher and clergyman, he was invited to
join the circle of poets and other literary men at Weimar, under the
patronage of the Grand Duke Karl August. Here he produced a series of
works on various subjects, all marked by a kindly and noble spirit of
humanity. Among them are a treatise "On the Origin of Language," an essay
on "Hebrew Poetry," and a work entitled "Ideas for the Philosophy of
Humanity," besides poetical and critical writings. In his collection of
popular ballads from various nations he showed his power of appreciating
the various national tomes of poetry.
The most noble feature in Herder's character was his constant striving for
the highest interests of mankind. He did not employ literature as the
means of satisfying personal ambition, and the melancholy of his last days
arose from his lofty and unfulfilled aspirations.
His friend Richter said of him: "Herder was no poet,--he was something far
more sublime and better than a poet,--he was himself a poem,--an Indian
Greek Epic composed by one of the purest of the gods."
3. GOETHE AND SCHILLER.--The close of the eighteenth and the beginning of
the nineteenth century, the age of Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, was one
of remarkable intellectual excitement, and it has produced a literature
richer, more voluminous, and more important than that of all preceding
periods taken collectively.
The time extending between 1150 and 1300 has been styled the _First
Classic Period_, and that we are now entering upon is regarded as the
second. These two epochs resemble each other not only in their
productiveness, but in the failure of both to maintain a distinct national
school of poetry. In the thirteenth century the national epic appeared,
but was soon neglected for the foreign legends and sentimental verses of
the romancists and minnesingers. In the eighteenth century, when Lessing
had made a path for original genius by clearing away French pedantry and
affectation, there appeared some hope of a revival of true national
literature. But Herder directed the literary enthusiasm of his time
towards foreign poetry and universal studies, and a cosmopolitan rather
than a national style has been the result; although for thoughtfuless and
sincerity, and for the number of important ideas which it has brought into
circulation, modern German literature may justly claim the highest honor.
Goethe (1749-1832) was a man of universal genius; he was born at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and of his boyhood he gives a pleasant account in
his work entitled "Poetry and Truth." In 1773 the appearance of his "Götz
von Berlichingen," a drama founded upon the autobiography of that national
and popular hero, was regarded as the commencement of an entirely new
period in German dramatic literature. It was followed, in 1774, by the
sentimental novel, "The Sorrows of Werther," in which Goethe gave
expression to the morbid sentiments of many of his contemporaries. The
Grand Duke of Weimar invited him to his court, where he was elevated to an
honorable position. Here he produced his dramatic poems, "Iphigenia,"
"Egmont," "Tasso," and "Faust," besides many occasional poems and other
works, and continued writing until his eighty-second year, while he varied
his literary life with the pleasures of society.
As a poet, Goethe is chiefly known by his dramas, "Faust," "Tasso," and
"Egmont;" his lyrical and occasional poems, and his domestic epic,
entitled "Herman and Dorothea." The first part of "Faust" is the poem by
which the fame of this author has been most widely extended. Though
incomplete, it is remarkably original, and suggests important reflections
on human character and destiny. The narrative is partly founded on the old
legend of Faust, the magician. We are introduced to the hero at the moment
when he despairs of arriving at any valuable result, after years of
abstruse study, and is about to put the cup of poison to his lips. The
church bells of Easter Sunday recall to his mind the scenes of his
innocent childhood, and he puts aside the cup and resolves to commence a
new career of life. At this moment, his evil genius, Mephistopheles,
appears, and persuades him to abandon philosophy and to enjoy the
pleasures of the world. Faust yields to his advice, and after many
adventures ends his career in crime and in misery. Many parts of the poem
are written in a mystical vein, and intimate rather than express the
various reflections to be deduced from it. The second part of "Faust" is
remarkable for its varied and harmonious versification.
Goethe was a voluminous writer, and much devoted to the fine arts and the
natural sciences, as is attested by his remarkable work on the theory of
colors. He extended his wide sympathies over almost every department of
literature.
The great merit of Goethe lies not so much in his separate productions, as
in the philosophy of life and individual development which pervades his
works, all of which, from "Faust," his greatest achievement, to his songs,
elegies, and shorter poems, have the same peculiar character, and are
tinged with the same profound reflections. The service he rendered to the
German language was immense. The clearness and simplicity of his prose
style make the best model for the imitation of his countrymen. During his
lifetime, professors of various universities lectured on his works, and
other authors wrote commentaries on his productions, while his genius has
been amply recognized in foreign countries, especially within the last
thirty years.
Schiller (1759-1805) was born at Marbach, a town of Wurtemberg. At the age
of fourteen he was admitted to the military academy at Stuttgart, where,
in spite of its dull routine, he secretly educated himself as a poet. At
the age of twenty-two, he gave to the world his tragedy of the "Robbers"
(composed when he was only seventeen), in which his own wild longings for
intellectual liberty found a turbulent and exaggerated expression. The
public received it with great enthusiasm, as the production of a vigorous
and revolutionary genius, and Schiller soon after escaped from the academy
to try his fortune as a theatrical author. Accompanied by a young
musician, with only twenty-three florins in his pocket, he set out for
Manheim, on the night when the Grand Duke Paul of Russia paid a visit to
Stuttgart, and all the people were too full of the excitement of the royal
preparations and illuminations to observe the departure of the young poet.
The good citizens did not dream that an obscure youth was leaving the city
gate, of whom they would one day be far more proud than of the glittering
visit of the Grand Duke. Yet the royal entrance is only now remembered
because on that night young Schiller ran away; and the people of
Stuttgart, when they would show a stranger their objects of interest,
point first of all to the statue of Friedrich Schiller.
After many adventures, Schiller was appointed poet to the theatre at
Manheim. At a later period he was made Professor of History at the
University of Jena, a position for which his genius eminently fitted him,
and every prospect of happiness opened before him. But his health soon
failed, and, after a short illness, he expired at the early age of forty-
five.
The principal works of Schiller are the dramas of "Wallenstein", "Marie
Stuart", "The Maid of Orleans", "The Bride of Messina", and the celebrated
ode called the "Song of the Bell". Besides these, he wrote many ballads,
didactic poems, and lyrical pieces. The "Song of the Bell" stands alone as
a successful attempt to unite poetry with the interests of daily life and
industry. In his lyrical ballads and romances, Schiller rises above the
didactic and descriptive style, and is inspired with noble purposes. The
"Cranes of Ibycus" and the "Fight with the Dragon" may be mentioned as
instances. Schiller was so interesting as a man, a philosopher, a
historian, and critic, as well as poet, that, as Carlyle observes, in the
general praise of his labors, his particular merits have been overlooked.
His aspirations in literature were noble and benevolent. He regarded
poetry especially as something other than a trivial amusement,--as the
companion and cherisher of the best hopes and affections that can be
developed in human life.
While Goethe excels Schiller in completeness of aesthetical and
philosophical perception, and in the versatility of his world-embracing
and brilliant attainments, as a lover of his race, and as a poet who knew
how to embody that love in the most exquisite conceptions, Schiller far
surpassed him, and stands preeminent among all other poets. While Goethe
represented the actual thoughts and feelings of his age, Schiller
reflected its ideal yearnings; while the practical result of Goethe's
influence was to develop the capacities of each individual to their utmost
extent, Schiller's aim was to lead men to consecrate their gifts to _the
good, the beautiful, and the true_, the ethical trinity of the ages. The
one poet represents the majesty, and at the same time the tyranny of the
intellect; the other, the power and the loveliness of the affections; and
although Goethe will always receive the respect and admiration of the
world, Schiller will command its love.
4. THE GÖTTINGEN SCHOOL.--This association was formed at the epoch of
Goethe and Schiller, when poets such as no other times had produced
started up in quick succession. The following are among the principal
members of this school: Voss (1756-1826) is distinguished by a classical
taste and great fluency of style. His "Louise" is a masterpiece of bucolic
poetry. His "Idyls" are the best of his minor poems. Christian Stolberg
(1748-1821) was the author of two dramas, many elegiac poems and
translations from the Greek. Leopold Stolberg (1750-1817), his brother,
was still more successful as a poet, and distinguished for his acute
observation of the beautiful in nature. Hoelty (1748-1776) was a poet of
the gentler affections, the eloquent advocate of love, friendship, and
benevolence. Claudius (1743-1815), in his poetical productions, ranges
through song, elegy, romance, and fable. Bürger (1748-1794) was remarkable
as the author of wild, picturesque ballads and songs. His most celebrated
poem is "Leonore", which was at one time known by heart all over Germany.
Schubart (1739-1791), though not belonging to the Göttingen association,
may be here referred to. His songs and poems evince a warm imagination,
and his descriptions are true and beautiful. One of the most powerful
writers of this period was Klinger (1753-1831), whose highly wrought
productions reflected most vividly the vehemence of thought and feeling of
his time, and whose drama, "Storm and Stress", gave the name to that
peculiar school known as the Storm and Stress literature.
5. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.--The founders of the Romantic School, Novalis, the
two Schlegels, and Tieck, opposed the system which held up the great
masters of antiquity as exclusive models of excellence; they condemned
this theory as cold and narrow, and opposed alike to the true interests of
literature and progress. They pointed out the vast changes in religion,
morality, thought, habits, and manners which separated the ancient from
the modern world, and declared that to follow blindly the works of Virgil
and Cicero was to repress all originality and creative power. From the
times of Pericles or Augustus they turned to the Middle Ages, and,
forgetting their crimes and miseries, threw around them a halo of illusive
romance. It was not only in poetry that this reaction was visible--in art
and architecture the same tendency appeared. The stiff and quaint but
vigorous productions of the old German painters were drawn forth from the
obscurity where they had long mouldered; the glorious old cathedrals were
repaired and embellished; the lays of the minnesingers, collected by
Tieck, were on every lip, and the records of the olden times were
ransacked for historic and traditionary lore.
Although the Romantic School soon fell into extravagances which did much
to diminish its influence, the whole of Germany was to some extent
affected by it. The love for particular epochs led to researches in the
language and antiquities, as such, as in Oriental studies, and during the
calamitous period of the French invasion the national feeling was revived
and kept alive by the stirring and patriotic songs which recalled the
glories of the past.
The brothers Schlegel are more celebrated as philologists and critics than
as poets; although their metrical compositions are numerous, they are
wholly deficient in warmth, passion, and imagination. Tieck is more
distinguished as a novelist than a poet, but even his prose tales are so
pervaded by the spirit of poetry that they may be said to belong to this
department.
Among other poets, Körner and Arndt are best remembered by their patriotic
songs, which once thrilled every German heart.
Seldom in romance or history is there found a more noble or heroic
character than Theodore Körner (1791-1813). Short as was his existence, he
had already struck, with more or less success, almost every chord of the
poetic lyre. His dramas, with many faults, abound in scenes glowing with
power and passion, and prove what he might have achieved had life been
spared to him. But it is his patriotic poems, his "Lyre and Sword," which
have invested the name of Körner with the halo of fame and rendered his
memory sacred to his countrymen.
The name of Arndt (1769-1860) is also associated in every German mind with
the cause of national liberty; and his poems have incited many German
hearts to the achievement of heroic deeds. His patriotic song, "Where is
the German's fatherland," is a universal favorite. Arndt is not less
celebrated for his historical and scientific works than for his poems.
The Suabian School is represented by Uhland, Schwab, Kerner, and others
who have enriched German poetry with many original lyrics. Uhland (1787-
1862) is the most distinguished ballad writer of the present age in
Germany. The conceptions embodied in his poetry refer chiefly to the
Middle Ages, and his stories are many of them founded on well-known
legends.
Kerner (b. 1786) is more intrinsically romantic than Uhland, but he is
equally at home in other species of composition. Schwab (1792-1850) is
distinguished among the lyric poets. An epic tendency, combined with great
facility in depicting scenery and describing events, is the main feature
of his metrical romances.
Rückert (1789-1866), one of the most original lyric poets of Germany, is
distinguished for the versatility of his descriptive powers, the richness
of his imagination, and his bold, fiery spirit. He has been followed by
Daumer, Bodenstedt, and others.
The most remarkable poet whom Germany has produced in the present century
is Heinrich Heine (1800-1856), and his poems are among the most
fascinating lyrics in European literature. The delicacy, wit, and humor of
his writings, their cruel and cynical laughter, and their tender pathos,
give him a unique place in the literature of his country. A school of
writers known as _Young Germany_ was deeply influenced by Heine. Their
object was to revolutionize the political, social, and religious
institutions of the country. Börne (d. 1837), the rival of Heine in the
leadership of the party, was inferior to him in poetical power, but his
superior in earnestness, moral beauty, and elevation. Börne was the
nightmare of the German princes, at whom he darted, from his place of
exile in Paris, the arrows of his bitter satire. Some of his writings are
among the most eloquent of modern German compositions. Prominent among the
followers of Heine and Börne are Gutzkow (b. 1811), a novelist, essayist,
and dramatist; Laube (b. 1806); and Mundt (b. 1808).
From about 1830 a group of Austrian poets, more or less political in
tendency, commanded the respect of all Germans, the chief among them was
Count Auersperg, who, under the assumed name of Anastasius Grün, wrote
lyrical and other brilliant and effective poems. Of the writers who before
1848 attempted to force poetry into the service of freedom, the best known
is Herwegh, who advocated liberty with a vehemence that won for him
immense popularity. The poems of Freiligrath (1810-1876) have graphic
force, and possess merit of a high order. He has a rich imagination, great
power of language, and musical versification. Among the more distinguished
contemporary poets, Hamerling is remarkable for the boldness of his
conceptions, and the passionate vehemence of his expression.
6. THE DRAMA.--At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Gottsched and
his followers had rendered good service to the stage, not so much by their
own productions as by driving from it the bombast of Lohenstein. Lessing
followed this movement by attacking the French dramas, which had hitherto
been esteemed the highest productions of human genius, and by bringing
forward Shakspeare as the true model of dramatic style. This attack was so
successful that the influence of the French drama soon declined, and in
the reaction, Greeks, Romans, kings and princesses were replaced by
honest, tiresome burghers, with their commonplace wives and daughters, and
the toga and tunic gave way to woolen petticoats and dress-coats.
Everything like poetry, either in language or sentiment, was banished from
the stage. Such was the state of things when Goethe appeared. His rapid
glance at once discerned the poverty of dramatic art, and his flexible and
many-sided genius set itself to supply the deficiency. His "Götz von
Berlichingen" illustrated the possibility of a dramatic literature founded
upon national history and national character. His "Egmont" is a highly
poetic and eloquent dramatization of that popular hero, and of the
struggles of the Netherlands against the tyranny of Spain. His "Tasso" is
a poem of psychological interest, illustrating a favorite maxim of the
author that a poet, like every other artist, for his true development,
needs education. "A hundred times," says Goethe, "have I heard artists
boast that they owed everything to themselves, and I am often provoked to
add, 'Yes, and the result is just what might be expected.' What, let me
ask, is a man in and of himself?"
The lesson of the drama of "Tasso" is this--that the poet cannot fulfill
his duty by cultivating merely his imagination, however splendid and
powerful it may be. Like all other men who would be good and great, he
must exercise patience and moderation; must learn the value of self-
denial; must endure the hardships and contradictions of the real world;
contentedly occupy his place, with its pains and pleasures, as a part of
the great whole, and patiently wait to see the beauty and brightness which
flow from his soul, win their way through the obstacles presented by human
society. The singular merit of this dramatic poem is this: that it is the
fruit of genuine experience, adorned with the hues of a beautiful
imagination, and clothed in classical language; but it is a work written
for the few.
"Iphigenia" is a fine imitation of the ancient Greek style, but not well
suited to the stage.
In his dramatic, as in all his other works, the only end and aim of Goethe
was to carry to perfection the art in which he was so great a master.
Virtue and vice, truth and falsehood, are each portrayed with the same
graceful complacency and the same exquisite skill. His immense and wide-
spreading influence renders this singular indifference, which seems to
confound the very sense of right and wrong, doubly lamentable.
In plastic skill and variety, the dramatic creations of Schiller are
regarded, in some respects, inferior to those of Goethe, but they all glow
with the love of true goodness and greatness, and with an enthusiasm for
virtue and liberty which communicates itself, as by an electric spark, to
his readers. The violent tone of Schiller's first tragedy, the "Robbers,"
was suggested by other theatrical writers of the period, who esteemed
wildness and absurdity the chief characteristics of poetical genius.
Schiller gave to his dramatic works more movement and popular interest
than can be found in Goethe's dramas, but yielded in some instances to the
sentimental tone so prevalent in German poetry. "Fiesco" was written in a
better style than the "Robbers," though less suited to please the low
theatrical taste of the time. "Don Carlos" showed more maturity of
thought, and is pervaded by a coloring of poetic sentiment; "Wallenstein"
won for the poet a universal reputation in his native land, and was
translated into English by Coleridge. "Marie Stuart," the "Maid of
Orleans," and the "Bride of Messina," contributed still more to increase
the poet's fame. "Wilhelm Tell" was the most popular of Schiller's plays,
and is still esteemed by some as his best production. Here the love of
liberty, so wildly expressed in the "Robbers," appears in its true and
refined character.
Kotzebue (1760-1819) was one of the most successful playwrights of
Germany. He composed an almost countless number of plays, and his plots
were equally versatile and amusing; but he was entirely destitute of
poetic and moral beauty. His opposition to liberal principles caused him
to be regarded as the enemy of liberty, and to be assassinated by an
enthusiastic student named George Sand, who, on obtaining admittance to
him under the pretense of business, stabbed him to the heart.
While the influence of the Romantic School tended to invest all poetry
with a dreamy and transcendental character, in the drama it was mingled
with stormy and exciting incidents, often carried to the extreme of
exaggeration and absurdity. The Romancists dealt almost exclusively with
the perturbed elements of the human mind and the fearful secrets of the
heart. They called to their aid the mysteries of the dark side of nature,
and ransacked the supernatural world for its marvels and its horrors. The
principal of these "Power Men," as they were called, are Müllner, Werner,
Howald, and Grillparzer.
Müllner (1774-1829) displayed no common order of poetic genius; but the
elements of crime, horror, and remorse often supply the place of
originality of thought and delineation of character. Werner (1768-1823),
after a youth of alternate profligacy and remorse, embraced the Catholic
faith and became a preacher. His dramas of "Martin Luther," "Attila," and
the "Twenty-ninth of February," have rendered him one of the most popular
authors in Germany. Grillparzer (b. 1790) is the author of a drama
entitled the "Ancestress." The wildest dreams of Müllner and Werner sink
into insignificance before the extravagance of this production, both in
language and sentiment. The "Sappho" of this author displays much lyric
beauty. Iffland (1759-1814) was a fertile but dull dramatist. One of the
best national tragedies was written by Münch Bellinghausen. Charlotte
Birchpfeifer has dramatized a great number of stories. Raupach (1784-1852)
was one of the most able of recent German writers of plays, Gutzkow is
distinguished among contemporary dramatists; and Freytag and Bauernfeld
are excellent writers of comedy. Kleist (d. 1811) was also a distinguished
writer of dramas of the Romantic School. Mosenthal, the author of
"Deborah," has achieved distinction by aiming at something higher than
stage effect.
7. PHILOSOPHY.--The appearance of Kant (1724-1804) created a new era in
German philosophy. Previous to his time, the two systems most in vogue
were the sensualism of Locke and his followers and the idealism of
Leibnitz, Wolf, and others. Kant, in his endeavors to ascertain what we
can know and what we originally do know, was led to the fundamental laws
of the mind, and to investigate original or transcendental ideas, those
necessary and unchangeable forms of thought, without which we can perceive
nothing. For instance, our perceptions are submitted to the two forms of
time and space. Hence these two ideas must be within us, not in the
objects and not derived from experience, but the necessary and pure
intuitions of the internal sense. The work in which Kant endeavored to
ascertain those ideas, and the province of certain human knowledge, is
entitled the "Critique of Pure Reason," and the doctrines there expounded
have been called the Critical Philosophy and also the Transcendental. In
the "Critique of Practical Reason" the subject of morals is treated, and
that of aesthetics in the "Observations on the Sublime and Beautiful."
The advent of Kant created a host of philosophical writers and critics,
and besides Lessing and Herder there were Moses Mendelssohn, Hamann (the
Magus of the North), Reinhold, Jacobi, and many others who speculated in
various directions upon the most momentous problems of humanity and of the
human soul.
Fichte (1762-1814) carried the doctrine of Kant to its extreme point, and
represented all that the individual perceives without himself, or all that
is distinguished from the individual, as the creation of this _I_ or
_ego;_ that the life of the mind is the only real life, and that
everything else is a delusion.
Schelling (1775-1854), in his "Philosophy of Identity," argues that the
same laws prevail throughout the material and the intellectual world. His
later writings contain theories in which the doctrines of Christianity are
united with philosophical speculations. The leading principle of Schelling
is found in a supposed intuition, which he describes as superior to all
reasoning, and admitting neither doubt nor explanation. Coleridge adopted
many views of this philosopher, and some of his ideas may be found in the
contemplative poems of Wordsworth.
Hegel (1770-1831), in his numerous, profound, and abstruse writings, has
attempted to reduce all the departments of knowledge to one science,
founded on a method which is expounded in his work on Logic. The "Identity
System" of Schelling and the "Absolute Logic" of Hegel have already
produced an extensive library of philosophical controversy, and the
indirect influence of the German schools of philosophy has affected the
tone of the literature in France, England, America, Denmark, and Sweden.
The effect of German philosophy has been to develop intense intellectual
activity. The habit of searching into the hidden mysteries of being has
inclined the German mind to what is deepest, and sometimes to what is most
obscure in thought; and the tendency to rise to the absolute, which is
characteristic of this philosophy, manifests its influence not only in the
blending of poetry and metaphysics, but in every department of science,
literature, and art. The literary theory thus developed, that ideal beauty
and not the imitation of nature is the highest principle of art, is
everywhere applied even to the study of the great monuments of the past,
and in the writings of the German archaeologists new youth seems to spring
from the ruins of the ancient world. The physical sciences are also
introduced into that universal sphere of ideas where the most minute
observations, as well as the most important results, pertain to general
interests.
From 1818 to the time of his death, in 1831, the influence of Hegel
dominated the highest thought. Later, his school broke into three
divisions; Ruge, one of the most brilliant writers of the school, led the
extreme radicals; Strauss resolved the narratives of the gospel into
myths, and found the vital elements of Christianity in its spiritual
teaching; while Feuerbach urged that all religion should be replaced by a
sentiment of humanity. Ulrici and the younger Fichte exercised
considerable influence as advocates of a pantheistic doctrine which aims
to reconcile religion and science. None of these names, however, have the
importance which attaches to that of Schopenhauer (d. 1860), who, at the
present day, stirs a deeper interest than any other thinker. His main
doctrine is that Will is the foundation principle of existence, the one
reality in the universe, and all else is mere appearance. History is a
record of turmoil and wretchedness, and the world and life essentially
evil. High moral earnestness and great literary genius are shown in his
graphic and scornful pictures of the darker aspects of the world.
Van Hartmann, the most prominent leader of the Pessimistic School (1842-
1872), the latest original thinker of Germany, in his "Philosophy of the
Unconscious," follows essentially the same line of thought. He assumes
that there is in nature a blind, impersonal, unconscious, all-pervading
will and idea, a pure and spiritual activity, independent of brain and
nerve, and manifesting itself in thought, emotion, instinct, morals,
language, perception, and history. He teaches that this is the last
principle of philosophy, described by Spinoza as substance, by Fichte as
the absolute _I_, by Plato and Hegel as the absolute idea, and by
Schopenhauer as Will. He believes the world to be utterly and hopelessly
bad, and the height of wisdom to suppress the desire to live. At the same
time he believes that there is no peace for the heart and intellect until
religion, philosophy, and science are seen to be one, as root, stem, and
leaves are all organic expressions of one same living tree.
8. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS.--The best German minds of the nineteenth
century have been absorbed by severe labor in all branches of learning and
the sciences. Many memoirs of eminent persons have appeared, and many
books of travel, since the days of George Forster (1754-1794), the teacher
of Humboldt and the inaugurator of a new scientific and picturesque school
of the literature of travel. Lichtenstein has written his travels in
Southern Africa; Prince Maximilian von Wied and Martius, in Brazil;
Pöppig, in Chili, Peru, etc.; Burmeister and Tschudi, in South America;
Lepsius and Brugsch, in Egypt; and more recently, Gützlaff, in China;
Siebold, in Japan; Barth and Vogel, in Africa; Leichhardt, in Australia;
the brothers Schlagintweit, one of whom fell a victim to his zeal, in
Asia; and Ida Pfeiffer (1797-1858), a woman of rare intrepidity, who
visited, mostly on foot, the most remote regions of the globe. Another
tourist and voluminous writer is Kohl (b. 1808). Qualities rarely united
in one individual met in the character of Alexander von Humboldt (1769-
1859), an enterprising traveler, a man of extensive science, and an
accomplished writer. Accompanied by his friend Bonpland, he visited South
America, and after five years of adventurous research among the wonders of
nature, he returned, and prepared for the press the results of his
travels--the "Aspects of Nature," "Picturesque Views of the Cordilleras,"
and "Travels in the Equinoctial Regions of America." This veteran student
produced at an advanced age a remarkable work entitled "Cosmos,"
containing the results of a long life of observation and contemplation. In
the first part he gives general views of the economy of nature, while in
the second we find ingenious speculations regarding the influence of
nature on human society, in its various stages of culture.
The Chevalier Bunsen (d. 1860) celebrated by his theological and
historico-philosophical researches, has written, among other works, one on
the "Position of Egypt in the History of the World," which is a learned
dissertation on the antiquities and especially on the primitive language
of Egypt.
In the periodicals of Germany every department of letters and science is
represented, and through the book-fairs of Leipsic all the literature of
the ancient and modern world passes. They are the magazines of the
productions of all nations. Every class of contending tastes and opinions
is represented and all the contrasts of thought which have been developed
in the course of ages meet in the Leipsic book-market.
SCIENCE.--The growth of science has been one of the most powerful factors
in the recent development of Germany, and some of the best works present
in a popular form the results of scientific labor. Among these the first
place belongs to the "Cosmos" of Humboldt. Although no longer in
accordance with the best thought, it has enduring merit from the author's
power of handling vast masses of facts, his poetic feeling and purity and
nobility of style.
In chemistry Liebig (d. 1873) is widely and popularly known; DuBois-
Raymond has made great researches in animal electricity, physics, and
physiology; Virchow in biology; Helmholtz in physiological optics and
sound; Haeckel has extended the theories and investigations of Darwin, and
all have made admirable attempts to render science intelligible to
ordinary readers.
With the death of Goethe began a new era in German literature not yet
closed. The period has been one of intense political excitement, and while
much of the best of the nation has been devoted to politics there has also
been great literary activity deeply influenced by the practical struggles,
hopes, and fears of the time. There has been a tendency in German writers
hitherto to neglect the laws of expression, although their writings have
evinced great originality and power of imagination, owing doubtless to the
fact that they were addressed only to particular classes of readers. But
since the political unity of the country has been accomplished, increasing
numbers of thinkers and scholars have appealed to the whole nation, and,
in consequence, have cultivated more directness and force of style.
NOVELS, ROMANCES, AND POPULAR LEGENDS.--Poetry and prose fiction form the
general literature of a nation, and are distinguished from the literature
of the study or from special literature, which consists chiefly of books
for the use of distinct classes or parties. Fiction borders closely on the
province of history, which, in its broad and comprehensive outlines, must
necessarily leave unnoticed many of the finer lights and shades of human
life, descriptions of motives, private characters, and domestic scenes. To
supply these in the picture of humanity is the distinct office of fiction,
which, while free in many respects, should still be essentially true. The
poetry and fiction of a country should be the worthy companion to its
history. The true poet should be the interpreter and illustrator of life.
While the historian describes events and the outward lives of men, the
poet penetrates into the inner life, and portrays the spirit that moves
them. The historian records facts; the poet records feelings, thoughts,
hopes, and desires; the historian keeps in view the actual man; the poet,
the ideal man; the historian tells us what man has been; the poet reminds
us either in his dreams of the past, or in his visions of the future, what
man can be; and the true poet who fulfills such a duty is as necessary to
the development and education of mankind as the historian.
The numerous fictitious works of Germany may be arranged in four different
classes. The first, comprehending historical romances, affords few writers
who bear comparison with Scott. In the second class, containing novels
which describe characters and scenes in real life, German literature is
also comparatively poor. The third class comprises all the fictions marked
by particular tendencies respecting art, literature, or society. In the
fourth class, which includes imaginative tales, German literature is
especially rich. To this department of fiction, in which the imagination
is allowed to wander far beyond the bounds of real life and probability,
the Germans apply distinctively the term poetical. In these imaginative
and mystical fictions there is an important distinction between such tales
as convey moral truth and interest under an array of visionary adventures,
and those which are merely fantastic and almost destitute of meaning.
Goethe's novel, "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship," may be classed with
fictions intended to convey certain views of life; but its chief defect
is, that the object of the writer remains in a mist, even at the end of
the story. The "Elective Affinities," while it contains many beauties as a
work of art, is objectionable in a moral point of view.
Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825) describes human life in all its aspects of
light and shade, and his voluminous works embrace all subjects, from the
highest problems of transcendental philosophy and the most passionate
poetical delineations to "Instructions in the Art of Falling Asleep;" but
his essential character, however disguised, is that of a philosopher and
moral poet, whose study has been human nature, and whose delight is in all
that is beautiful, tender, and mysteriously sublime in the fate or history
of man. Humor is the ruling quality of his mind, the central fire that
pervades and vivifies his whole being. The chief productions of Jean Paul
(the title under which he wrote) are novels, of which "Hesperus" and
"Titan" are considered his masterpieces. These and the charming prose
idyl, "The Years of Wild Oats," keep their place as works of permanent
excellence. In his famous "Dream," in which he describes a universe
without religion, he rises to the loftiest height of imagination.
Tieck (1773-1853) was at once a novelist, poet, and critic; but his fairy
tales have perhaps rendered him most popular. His fancy was brilliant and
sportive, and his imagination varied and fantastic. The world of his
creation was peopled by demons who shed their malignant influence on
mankind, or by spirits such as the Rosicrucians had conjured up, nymphs of
the air, the woods, or waters. These airy visions he wove into form and
shape with a master hand, and he invested even the common objects of life
with a supernatural hue. At times he seems almost to have acquired a
closer intimacy with nature than that granted to common men, and to have
dived into the secret of her operations and the working of her laws. But
while Tieck is unrivaled in the world of phantasy, he becomes an ordinary
writer when he descends to that of daily life.
Hardenberg, known by the assumed name of Novalis (1772-1801), by his
unsullied character, his early death, and the mystic tone of his
productions, was long regarded with an enthusiasm which has now greatly
declined. His romance, "Henry von Ofterdingen," contains elements of
beauty, but it deals too exclusively with the shadowy, the distant, and
the unreal. His "Aphorisms" are sometimes deep and original, but often
paradoxical and unintelligible.
La Motte Fouqué (1777-1843) is best known by his charming story of
"Undine," founded on one of those traditions in which the ancient fairy
mythology of Germany abounded. Undine, a beautiful water-spirit, wins the
heart of a noble knight, and consents to be his bride. We have seen it was
only through the union with a being of mortal mould that the spirits of
air and water could obtain the gift of a soul. But before giving her hand
to her lover, Undine reminds him that the relentless laws of her race
condemn her to become herself the instrument of his destruction if he
should break his plighted vow. The knight accepts the conditions, and for
a time he remains true to his beautiful wife. But at length, weary of her
charms, he seeks the daughter of a neighboring baron for his bride, and in
the midst of the wedding festivities the faithless knight is suffocated by
an embrace from Undine, who is forced by the race of spirits thus to
destroy him. The sweetness and pathos of this tale and its dream-like
beauty have given it a place among those creations which appeal to all the
world, and do not depend for their popularity on the tendencies of any
particular age.
Chamisso (1781-1836), one of the most popular poets of Germany, was the
author of "Peter Schlemihl," a well-known tale describing the adventures
of a man who sold his shadow for a large sum of money, and found afterward
that he had made a very bad bargain. The moral it seems to indicate is
that gold is dearly obtained at the sacrifice of any part, even of the
shadow, of our humanity.
Hoffmann (1776-1822) surpassed all other imaginative writers in inventing
marvelous incidents, while he was inferior to many of them in poetical
genius. His stories mingle the circumstances of real life with grotesque
and visionary adventures.
Zschokke (1771-1847) was remarkable as a man and an author. His literary
activity extended over more than half a century, and his tales and
miscellaneous writings have had extensive popularity. His studies were
generally directed toward human improvement, as in "The Goldmaker's
Village," where he describes the progress of industry and civilization
among a degraded population.
Of the other numerous writers of fiction the names of a few only can be
mentioned.
Theresa Huber (1764-1829) was the authoress of several popular novels.
Benedicte Naubert wrote several historical romances mentioned by Scott as
having afforded him some suggestions. Caroline Pichler's "Tales" were
accounted among the best fictions of her times. Henriette Hanke produced
eighty-eight volumes of domestic narratives and other writings of a moral
character; the Countess Hahn-Hahn follows the tendencies of Madame
Dudevant (George Sand), though with less genius.
Brentano, the author of "Godiva," and Arnim, author of the "Countess
Dolores," may also be mentioned among the remarkable writers of fantastic
romances.
Bettina (1785-1859), the sister of Brentano, and the wife of Arnim, who
resembles these authors in her imaginative character, wrote a singularly
enthusiastic book, entitled, "Goethe's Correspondence with a Child."
Imaginative pictures in words, interspersed with sentiments, characterize
the writings of Bettina and many other romancists, while they show little
power in the construction of plots and the development of character.
Among the more renowned female writers are Auguste von Paalzow, Amalie
Schoppe, Johanna Schoppenhauer, Friederike Brun, Talvi (Mrs. Robinson).
Henriette Herz (1764-1841) and Rahel (1771-1844) also occupied a brilliant
position in the literary and social world. The latter was the wife of
Varnhagen von Ense (d. 1859), the most able and attractive biographical
writer of Germany. Wilhelm Häring (Wilibald Alexis) is particularly
eminent as a romance writer.
The historical novelists of the early part of this century, as Van der
Velde, Spindler, Rellstab, Storch, and Rau, have been succeeded by König,
Heller, and several others. Good French and English novels are translated
into German, almost immediately after their appearance, and the
comparative scarcity of interesting German novels is accounted for by the
taste for this foreign literature, and also by the increasing absorption
of literary talent in the periodical press. Schucking is remarkable for
his power of vividly conceiving character. Fanny Lewald is artistic in her
methods and true and keen in her observation of life; and among novelists
of simple village life Auerbach (1812-1883) takes the first place. Gustave
Freytag (b. 1816), whose "Debit and Credit" is an intensely realistic
study of commercial life, is also one of the distinguished writers of
fiction.
The popular legends of Germany are numerous and characteristic of the
country. These narratives are either legends of local interest, associated
with old castles, or other antiquities, or they are purely fabulous.
Though they are sometimes fantastic and in their incidents show little
respect to the laws of probability, they are genuine and fairly represent
the play of the popular imagination; while under their wild imagery they
often convey symbolically a deep and true meaning,
LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM.--Modern German literature is singularly
rich in this department. In the Republic of Letters, German students have
found the liberty they could not enjoy in actual life, and this cause has
promoted investigation in ancient and modern literature. Poets,
historians, philosophers, and other writers have been studied and
criticised, not merely as authors, but with especial reference to their
respective contributions to the progress of ideas and the movements of
society. Some of the most eminent German critical writers have already
been mentioned under various preceding heads. Winckelmann (1717-1768)
devoted himself with enthusiasm to the study of antique sculpture, and
wrote elegant dissertations on the grace and beauty of the works of
ancient art. His writings display true enthusiasm and refined taste. It
may be said that the school of art-criticism in Germany owes its origin to
the studies of Winckelmann. The critical writings of Herder were more
remarkable for the impulse which they gave to the studies of authors than
for their intrinsic merits. Goethe in his prose writings showed with what
grace and precision the German language might be written. The letters of
Schiller are pervaded by a lofty and ideal tone. William von Humboldt
(1762-1832) was the founder of the science of comparative philology, a
scholar of remarkable comprehensiveness and scientific knowledge, and the
author of several highly important works on language and literature. The
brothers Schlegel developed that taste for universal literature which had
been introduced by Herder. The mind of Augustus Schlegel (1767-1845) was
rather comprehensive than endowed with original and creative genius. His
poems are elegant, but not remarkable. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829),
like his brother, was opposed to the skeptical character of some of the
philosophical theories of his day, and after entering the Catholic Church
he expressed his religious and polemical opinions in his works on
literature. His lectures on "The Philosophy of History" were evidently
written with political and religious purposes. He participated with his
brother in the study of Oriental literature and language, but his lectures
on "The Literature of all Nations" have chiefly extended his fame for
great capacity, critical acumen, and extensive learning. The main purpose
of the author is to describe the development of literature in its
connection with the social and religious institutions of various nations
and periods. He thus elevates literature, and especially poetry, far above
the views of trivial and commonplace criticism, and regards it in its
highest aspect as the product of human life and genius in various stages
of cultivation. The history of the world of books is thus represented as
no dry and pedantic study, but as one intimately connected with the best
interests of humanity. In the establishment of this humanitarian style of
literature, the services of this author were of great value, although many
of his works, as well as those of others in this department, have been
written rather for the use of scholars than for the public. There still
remains in Germany that distinction between a popular and scholastic style
which characterized the Middle Ages, when the literati excluded their
thoughts from the people by writing in Latin. The literature of the past,
which is in itself too diffuse to be comprehended by men of scanty leisure
in modern times, is with most writers too often rather complicated and
extended than simplified and compressed into a readable form. If the
labors of learned historians and critics had been directed to popularize
the results of their extensive scholarship, readers without much time for
study might have acquired a fair general acquaintance with universal
literature. But while concise and masterly summaries are required, many
scholars love to wander in never-ending disquisitions, and the consequence
is that the greater number of readers acquire only a fragmentary and
accidental knowledge of books.
While the brothers Schlegel, and many other writers, followed the
tendencies of Herder in universal literature, a national school of
criticism was founded and supported by the brothers Grimm, with many able
associates. Jacob, the eldest (d. 1863), devoted his researches to the
German literature of the Middle Ages, and collected the scattered remnants
of old popular legends. In conjunction with, his brother William (d. 1860)
he published his "Children's Fables," or "Household Tales," which are
marked by great simplicity, and often convey pleasing sentiments and good
morals mingled with fantastic and supernatural adventures. Later works on
the "German Language," "Legal Antiquities," and "German Mythology," have
secured for this author the highest position among national philologists
and antiquaries. The example of these brothers gave a strong impulse to
the study of German archaeology, and the results have been received with
great enthusiasm. Many relics of old literature have been recovered, and
these remains form a considerable library of literary antiquities.
Menzel (d. 1855), well known as a critical and polemical writer of the
national school, has written the "History of German Literature," "The
Spirit of History," and other works, in which he has warmly opposed the
extreme revolutionary tendencies of recent political and social theorists.
Gervinus (d. 1871) may be considered as a historian, politician, and
critic. In his "History of the Poetical National Literature of the
Germans," he traces the development of poetry in its relations to
civilization and society. He has also written a work on Shakspeare, and a
history of the nineteenth century, which is characterized by its liberal
tendencies. His views of literature are directly opposed to those of
Frederic Schlegel.
As historians of ancient classical literature, German scholars have
maintained the highest position, and to them the world is prodigiously
indebted. Their works, however, are too comprehensive to be described
here, and too numerous even to be mentioned. The idea of classical
erudition, as maintained by them, is extended far beyond its common
limitation, and is connected with researches respecting not the language
only, but also the religion, philosophy, social economy, arts, and
sciences of ancient nations.
Karl Ottfried Müller (d. 1840) must be mentioned as an accomplished
scholar and the author of a standard work, the "History of Greek
Literature." Among the other great writers on ancient history are Böckh,
Duncker, Droysen, Mommsen, and Kortüm.
Several works on the modern literature of European nations have recently
been published in Germany; and much industry and research have been
displayed in numerous criticisms on the fine arts. The principles of
Winckelmann and Lessing have been developed by later authors who have
written excellent critical and historical works on the plastic arts,
sculpture, painting, and architecture. In general, the literary criticism
of Germany deserves the highest commendation for its candor, carefulness,
and philosophical consistency.
HISTORY AND THEOLOGY.--The extensive historical works of the modern
writers of Germany form an important feature in the literature. The
political circumstances of the country have been in many respects
favorable to the progress of these studies. Professors and students,
excluded in a great measure from political life, have explored the
histories of ancient nations, and have given opinions in the form of
historical essays, which they could not venture to apply to the
institutions of Germany. While Prussia and Austria were perilous topics
for discussion, liberal and innovating doctrines might be promulgated in
lectures on the progress and decline of liberty in the ancient world.
Accordingly, the study of universal history, to which the philosophical
views of Herder gave the impulse, has been industriously prosecuted during
the last fifty years, and learned and diligent collectors of historical
material are more numerous in Germany than in any other country.
Müller (d. 1804), a native of Switzerland, displayed true historical
genius and extended erudition in his "Lectures on Universal History."
Among other writers on the same subject are Rotteck, Becker, Böttiger,
Dittmar, and Vehse. Of the two last authors, the one wrote on this vast
subject especially in reference to Christianity, and the other describes
the progress of civilization and intellectual culture.
Schlosser's (b. 1786) "History of the Ancient World and its Culture" holds
a prominent place among historical works. His writings are the result of
laborious and conscientious researches to which he has devoted his life.
Heeren (d. 1842) opened a new vein of ancient history in his learned work
on the "Commercial Relations of Antiquity." While other historians have
been attracted by the sword of the conqueror, Heeren followed the
merchant's caravan laden with corn, wine, oils, silks, and spices. His
work is a valuable contribution to the true history of humanity.
Carl Ritter (d. 1859) has united the studies of geography and history in
his "Geography viewed in its Relations to Nature and History." This great
work, the result of a life devoted to industrious research, has
established the science of comparative geography.
Lepsius and Brugsch have rendered important services to Egyptology, and
Lachmann, K. O. Müller, Von der Hagen, Böckh, the brothers Grimm, Moritz
Haupt, and others, to ancient and German philology.
In Roman history, Niebuhr (1776-1831), stands alone as the founder of a
new school of research, by which the fictions so long mingled with the
early history of Rome, and copied from book to book, and from century to
century, have been fully exploded. Through the labors of this historian,
modern readers know the ancient Romans far better than they were known by
nations who were in close contact with them. Niebuhr made great
preparations for his work, and took care not to dissipate his powers by
appearing too soon as an author.
Besides many other histories relating to the Roman Empire, German
literature is especially rich in those relating to the Middle Ages. The
historical writings of Ranke (b. 1795) connect the events of that period
with modern times, and give valuable notices of the age of the
Reformation. "The History of Papacy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries" is highly esteemed, though Catholic critics have objected to
some of its statements. Histories of the German people, of the
Hohenstauffen Dynasty, of the Crusades; histories of nations, of cities,
of events, and of individuals, all have found their interpreters in German
genius. Schlosser (b. 1776), the vigorous and truthful historian of the
eighteenth century; Dahlmann (b. 1785) the German Guizot, and Raumer (b.
1781), the historian of the Hohenstauffens, deserve particular mention.
Nor is the department of ecclesiastical history and theology less
distinguished by its research.
No writer of his time contributed more towards the formation of an
improved prose style than Mosbeim (1694-1755); although his
"Ecclesiastical History" is now superseded by works of deeper research.
His contemporary, Reimarus, wrote in favor of natural theology, and may be
considered the founder of the Rationalistic School. Neander (d. 1850)
wrote a history of the church, in ten volumes, distinguished for its
liberal views. The sermons of Reinhard (d. 1812), in thirty-nine volumes,
display earnestness and unaffected solemnity of style. Schleiermacher (d.
1834), celebrated as a preacher at Berlin, was the author of many works,
in which he attempted to reconcile the doctrines of Protestantism with
certain philosophical speculations. De Wette, the friend of
Schleiermacher, is one of the most learned and able representatives of the
Rationalistic School. Tholuck (b. 1799) is celebrated as a learned
exegetical writer.
Mommsen (b. 1817) is the vigorous historian of ancient Rome, and Curtius
(b. 1819), the author of a history of Greece, not more remarkable for its
learning than for the clear and attractive arrangement of its material. In
histories of philosophy recent German literature is absolutely supreme.
Hegel still ranks as one of the greatest writers in this line, and
Ueberweg, Uedmann, and others are important workers in the same
department. Fischer writes the history of philosophy with sympathetic
appreciation and in a fascinating style, and Lange, in his "History of
Materialism," does full justice to the different phases of materialistic
philosophy.
Since the time of Lessing, aesthetics have formed a prominent branch of
philosophy with the Germans, and they have been no less successful as
historians of art than of metaphysics. Among the most distinguished are
Kugler, Carrière, and Lübke. Biographers and historians of literature are
numerous.