1. THE LUTHERAN PERIOD.--With the sixteenth century we enter upon the
modern history and modern literature of Germany. The language now becomes
settled, and the literature for a time becomes national. Luther and the
Reformers belonged to the people, who, through them, now for the first
time claimed an equality with the old estates of the realm, the two
representatives of which, the emperor and the pope, were never more
powerful than at this period. The armies of the emperor were recruited
from Spain, Austria, Naples, Sicily, and Burgundy while the pope, armed
with the weapons of the Inquisition, and the thunderbolts of
excommunication, levied his armies of priests and monks from all parts of
the Christian world. Against these formidable powers a poor Augustine monk
came forth from his study in the small university of Wittenberg, with no
armies, no treasures, with no weapon in his hand but the Bible, and in his
clear manly voice defied both emperor and pope, clergy and nobility. There
never was a more memorable spectacle.
After the Reformation nearly all eminent men in Germany, poets,
philosophers, and historians, belonged to the Protestant party, and
resided chiefly in the universities, which were what the monasteries had
been under Charlemagne, and the castles under Frederic Barbarossa--the
centres of gravitation for the intellectual and political life of the
country. A new aristocracy now arose, founded on intellectual preëminence,
which counted among its members princes, nobles, divines, soldiers,
lawyers, and artists. But the danger which threatens all aristocracies was
not averted from the intellectual nobility of Germany; the spirit of
caste, which soon pervaded all their institutions, deprived the second
generation of that power which men like Luther had gained at the beginning
of the Reformation. The moral influence of the universities was great, but
it would have been far greater if the intellectual leaders of the realm
had not separated themselves from the ranks whence they themselves had
risen, and to which alone they owed their influence. This intellectual
aristocracy manifested a disregard of the real wants of the people, a
contempt of all knowledge which did not wear the academic garb, and the
same exclusive spirit of caste that characterizes all aristocracies. Latin
continued to be the literary medium of scholars, and at the close of the
seventeenth century German was only beginning to assert its capabilities
as a vehicle of elegant and refined literature.
The sixteenth century may be called the Lutheran period, for Martin Luther
(1483-1546) was the most prominent character in the general literature as
well as in the theology of Germany. He was the exponent of the national
feeling, he gave shape and utterance to thoughts and sentiments which had
been before only obscurely expressed, and his influence was felt in almost
every department of life and literature. The remodeling of the German
tongue may be said to have gone hand in hand with the Reformation, and it
is to Luther more than to any other that it owes its rapid progress. His
translation of the Bible was the great work of the period, and gives to
him the deserved title of creator of German prose. The Scriptures were now
familiarly read by all classes, and never has their beautiful simplicity
been more admirably rendered. The hymns of Luther are no less remarkable
for their vigor of style, than for their high devotional feeling. His
prose works consist chiefly of twenty volumes of sermons, and eight
volumes of polemical writings, besides his "Letters" and "Table Talk,"
which give us a view of the singular mixture of qualities which formed the
character of the great Reformer.
The literature of that period also owes much to Melanchthon (1497-1560),
the author of the "Confession of Augsburg," who by his classical learning,
natural sagacity, simplicity and clearness of style, and above all by his
moderation and mildness, greatly contributed to the progress of the
Reformation. He devoted himself to the improvement of schools and the
diffusion of learning, and through his influence the Protestant princes of
Germany patronized native literature, established public libraries, and
promoted the general education of the people.
The earnest polemical writings of the age must be passed over, as they
belong rather to ecclesiastical and political than to literary history.
Yet these are the most characteristic productions of the times, and
display the effects of controversy in a very unfavorable light. The
license, personality, acrimony, and grossness of the invectives published
by the controversial writers, particularly of the sixteenth century, can
hardly be imagined by a modern reader who has not read the originals. The
better specimens of this style of writing are found in the remains of
Manuel and Zwingle. Manuel (1484-1530), a native of Switzerland, is an
instance of the versatility of talent, which was not uncommon at this
time; he was a soldier, a poet, a painter, a sculptor, and a wood-
engraver. The boldness and license of his satires are far beyond modern
toleration. Zwingle (1484-1531), the leading reformer of Switzerland, was
a statesman, a theologian, a musician, and a soldier. His principal work
is the "Exposition of the Christian Faith." A celebrated writer of prose
satire was Fischart (1530-1590), whose numerous works, under the most
extravagant titles, are distinguished by wit and extensive learning. His
"Prophetic Almanac" was the selling book at all the fairs and markets of
the day, and was read with an excitement far exceeding that produced by
any modern novels. In his "Garagantua," he borrowed some of his
descriptions from Rabelais; and this extravagant, satirical, and humorous
book, though full of the uncouth and far-fetched combinations of words
found in his other writings, contains many ludicrous caricatures of the
follies of society in his age.
Franck (fl. 1533), one of the best writers of German prose on history and
theology during the sixteenth century, was the representative of the
mystic school, and opposed Luther, whom he called the new pope. His
religious views in many respects correspond with those of the Society of
Friends. Rejecting all ecclesiastical authority, he maintained that there
is an internal light in man which is better fitted than even the
Scriptures to guide him aright in religious matters. He wrote with
bitterness and severity, though he seldom used the coarse style of
invective common to his age.
Arnd (1555-1621) may be classed among the best theological writers of the
period. His treatise "On True Christianity" is still read and esteemed. He
belonged to the mystic school, and the pious and practical character of
his work made it a favorite among religious men of various sects.
Jacob Boehm (1575-1624) was a poor shoemaker, who, without the advantages
of education, devoted his mind to the most abstruse studies, and professed
that his doctrines were derived from immediate revelation; his works
contain many profound and lofty ideas mingled with many confused notions.
2. POETRY, SATIRE, AND DEMONOLOGY.--In the sixteenth century the old
poetry of Germany was in a great measure forgotten; the Nibelungen Lied
and the Heldenbuch were despised by the learned as relics of barbarian
life; classical studies engaged the attention of all who loved elegant
literature, and while Horace was admired, the title of German poet was
generally applied as a badge of ridicule. A propensity to satire of the
most violent and personal description seems to have been almost universal
in these excited times. Hutten (1488-1523) shared the general excitement
of the age, and warmly defended the views of Luther. He addressed many
satirical pamphlets in prose and verse to the people, and was compelled to
flee from one city to another, his life being always in danger from the
numerous enemies excited by his severity. Next to invectives and satires,
comic stories and fables were the characteristic productions of these
times. Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the most distinguished of the Mastersingers
of the sixteenth century, excelled in that kind of poetry as well as in
all other styles of composition, and following his business as shoemaker,
he made verses with equal assiduity. He employed his pen chiefly in
writing innumerable tales and fables containing common morality for common
people. In one of these he represents the Apostle St. Peter as being
greatly perplexed by the disorder and injustice prevailing in the world.
Peter longs to have the reins of government in his own hand, and believes
that he could soon reduce the world to order. While he is thinking thus, a
peasant girl comes to him and complains that she has to do a day's work in
the field, and at the same time to keep within bounds a frolicsome young
goat. Peter kindly takes the goat into custody, but it escapes into the
wood, and the apostle is so much fatigued by his efforts to recover the
animal that he is led to this conclusion: "If I am not competent to keep
even one young goat in my care, it cannot be my proper business to perplex
myself about the management of the whole world."
The best lyrical poetry was devoted to the service of the church. Its
merit consists in its simple, energetic language. Hymns were the favorite
literature of the people; they were the cradle songs which lulled the
children to sleep, they were sung by mechanics and maid-servants engaged
in their work; and they were heard in the streets and market-places
instead of ballads. Luther, who loved music and psalmody, encouraged the
people to take a more prominent part in public worship, and wrote for them
several German hymns and psalms.
The belief in demonology and witchcraft, which was universally diffused
through Europe in the Middle Ages, raged in Germany with fearful intensity
and fury. While in other countries persecution was limited to the old, the
ugly, and the poor, here neither rank nor age offered any exemption from
suspicion and torture. While this persecution was at its height, from 1580
to 1680, more than one hundred thousand individuals, mostly women, were
consigned to the flames, or otherwise sacrificed to this blood-thirsty
insanity. Luther himself was a devout believer in witchcraft, and in the
bodily presence of the Spirit of Evil upon the earth; all his harassing
doubts and mental struggles he ascribes to his visible agency. Germany,
indeed, seemed to live and breathe in an atmosphere of mysticism.
Among the mystic philosophers and speculators on natural history and the
occult sciences who flourished in this period are Paracelsus (1493-1546),
and Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1539). Camerarius was distinguished in the
classics and philosophy; Gesner in botany, zoölogy, and the classics;
Fuchs in botany and medicine; and Agricola in mineralogy.
Among the legends of the period, that of Faust, or Dr. Faustus, has
obtained the most lasting popularity. There are good reasons for believing
that the hero of this tale was a real personage, who lived in Suabia in
the early part of the sixteenth century. He is frequently mentioned as a
well-known character who gained his celebrity by the profession of magic.
In the "History of Dr. Faustus," first published 1587, he is represented
as a magician, who gained by unlawful arts a mastery over nature. The
legend rapidly spread; It was versified by the English dramatist Marlowe,
it became the foundation of innumerable tales and dramas, until,
transformed by the genius of Goethe, it has acquired a prominent place in
German literature.
At the conclusion of the sixteenth century, owing to the disturbed state
of religious, social, and political life, and to the fact that the best
minds of the age were occupied in Latin writings on theology, while a few,
devoted to quiet study, cultivated only the classics, the hopes which had
been raised of a national poetry and literature were blighted, and a
scholastic and polemical theology continued to prevail. The native tongue
was again neglected for the Latin; the national poems were translated into
Latin to induce the learned to read them; native poets composed their
verses in Latin, and all lectures at the universities were delivered in
that tongue. The work of Luther was undone: ambitious princes and
quarrelsome divines continued the rulers of Germany, and everything seemed
drifting back into the Middle Ages. Then came the Thirty Years' War (1618-
1648), with all its disastrous consequences. At the close of that war the
public mind was somewhat awakened, literary societies were organized, and
literature was fostered; but the nation was so completely demoralized that
it hardly cared for the liberty sanctioned by the treaty of Westphalia, or
for the efforts of a few princes and scholars to better its intellectual
condition. The population of Germany was reduced by one half; thousands of
villages and towns had been burnt to the ground; the schools, the
churches, the universities, were deserted; and a whole generation had
grown up during the war, particularly among the lower classes, with no
education at all. The once wealthy merchants were reduced to small
traders. The Hanse League was broken up; commerce was suspended, and
intellectual activity paralyzed. Where any national feeling was left, it
was a feeling of shame and despair.
3. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--During the seventeenth century the German
language was regarded by comparatively few writers as a fit vehicle for
polite literature, and was reserved almost exclusively for satires,
novels, and religious discourses.
Opitz (1597-1639) attempted to introduce the use of his native tongue,
and, in a work on German poetry, explained the laws of poetic composition
and the mechanism of versification.
Several scholars at length directed their attention to the grammar of the
language, which, through their influence, now began to be used in the
treatment of scientific subjects. Meantime great mathematical and physical
discoveries were made through the Academy of Berlin, which was founded
under the auspices of Leibnitz, and scientific and literary associations
were everywhere established. Books became a vast branch of commerce and
great philologists and archaeologists devoted themselves to the study of
classical antiquity. Puffendorf expounded his theories of political
history, Kepler, of astronomy, Arnold, of ecclesiastical history; and
Leibnitz laid a basis for the scientific study of philosophy in Germany.
Wolf shaped the views of Leibnitz into a comprehensive system, and
popularized them by publishing his works in the German language.
Thomasius, the able jurist and pietistic philosopher, was the first, in
1688, to substitute in the universities the German for the Latin language
as the medium of instruction.
Satirical novels form a prominent feature in the prose literature of the
time, and took the place of the invectives and satires of the sixteenth
century. No work of fiction, however, produced such an excitement as the
translation of Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe." Soon after its publication more
than forty imitations appeared.
During this century the Mastersingers went on composing, according to the
rules of their guilds, but we look in vain for the raciness and simplicity
of Hans Sachs. Some poets wrote plays in the style of Terence, or after
English models; and fables in the style of Phaedrus became fashionable.
But there was no trace anywhere of originality, truth, taste, or feeling,
except in sacred poetry. Paul Gerhard (1606-1696) is yet without an equal
in his sacred songs; many of the best hymns which are still heard in the
churches of Germany date from the age of this poet. Soon, however, even
this class of poetry degenerated on one side into dry theological
phraseology, on the other into sentimental affectation.
This century saw the rise and the fall of the _first and the second
Silesian schools_. The first is represented by Opitz (1597-1639), Paul
Flemming, a writer of hymns (1609-1640), and a number of less gifted
poets. Its character is pseudo-classical. All these poets endeavored to
write correctly, sedately, and eloquently. Some of them aimed at a certain
simplicity and sincerity, particularly Flemming. But it would be difficult
to find in all their writings one single thought or expression that had
not been used before; although the works of Opitz and of his followers
were marked by a servile imitation of French and Dutch poets, they exerted
an influence on the literary taste of their country, enriched the German
language with new words and phrases, and established the rules of prosody.
The second Silesian school is represented by Hoffmanswaldan (1618-1679)
and Lohenstein (1635-1683), who undertook to introduce into the German
poetry the bad taste of Marini which at that time so corrupted the
literature of Italy. Their compositions are bombastic and full of
metaphors,--the poetry of adjectives, without substance, truth, or taste.
Dramatic writing rose little above the level of the first period, The
Mysteries and Moralities still continued popular, and some of them were
altered to suit the new doctrines. Opitz wrote some operas in imitation of
the Italian, and Gryphius acquired popularity by his translations from
Marini and his introduction of the pastoral drama. The theatrical
productions of Lohenstein, characterized by pedantry and bad taste,
together with the multitude of others belonging to this age, are curious
instances of the folly and degradation to which the stage may be reduced.