1. FRENCH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS.--Towards the middle of the fifth
century the Franks commenced their invasions of Gaul, which ended in the
conquest of the country, and the establishment of the French monarchy
under Clovis. The period from Clovis to Charlemagne (487-768) is the most
obscure of the Dark Ages. The principal writers, whose names have been
preserved, are St. Rémy, the archbishop of Rheims (d. 535), distinguished
for his eloquence, and Gregory of Tours (d. 595), whose contemporary
history is valuable for the good faith in which it is written, in spite of
the ignorance and credulity which it displays. The genius of Charlemagne
(r. 768-814) gave a new impulse to learning. By his liberality he
attracted the most distinguished scholars to his court, among others
Alcuin, from England, whom he chose for his instructor; he established
schools of theology and science, and appointed the most learned professors
to preside over them. But in the century succeeding his death the country
relapsed into barbarism.
In the south of France, Provence early became an independent kingdom, and
consolidating its language, laws, and manners, at the close of the
eleventh century it gave birth to the literature of the Troubadours; while
in the north, the language and literature of the Trouvères, which were the
germs of the national literature of France, were not developed until a
century later.
In the schools established by Charlemagne for the education of the clergy,
the scholastic philosophy originated, which prevailed throughout Europe in
the Middle Ages. The most distinguished schoolmen or scholastics in France
during this period are Roscellinus (fl. 1092), the originator of the
controversy between the Nominalists and Realists, which occupied so
prominent a place in the philosophy of the time; Abelard (1079-1142),
equally celebrated for his learning, and for his unfortunate love for
Héloïse; St. Bernard (1091-1153), one of the most influential
ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages; and Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274) and
Bonaventure (1221-1274), Italians who taught theology and philosophy at
Paris, and who powerfully influenced the intellect of the age.
Beginning with the Middle Ages, the literary history of France may be
divided into three periods. The first period extends from 1000 to 1500,
and includes the literature of the Troubadours, the Trouvères, and of the
fifteenth century.
The second period extends from 1500 to 1700, and includes the revival of
the study of classical literature, or the Renaissance, and the golden age
of French literature under Louis XIV.
The third period, extending from 1700 to 1885, comprises the age of
skepticism introduced into French literature by Voltaire, the
Encyclopaedists and others, the Revolutionary era, the literature of the
Empire and of the Restoration, of the Second Empire, and of the present
time.
2. THE LANGUAGE.--After the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, Latin
became the predominant language of the country; but on the overthrow of
the Western Empire it was corrupted by the intermixture of elements
derived from the northern invaders of the country, and from the general
ignorance and barbarism of the times. At length a distinction was drawn
between the language of the Gauls who called themselves Romans, and that
of the Latin writers; and the _Romance_ language arose from the former,
while the Latin was perpetuated by the latter. At the commencement of the
second race of monarchs, German was the language of Charlemagne and his
court, Latin was the written language, and the Romance, still in a state
of barbarism, was the dialect of the people. The subjects of Charlemagne
were composed of two different races, the Germans, inhabiting along and
beyond the Rhine, and the Wallons, who called themselves Romans. The name
of _Welsch_ or _Wallons_, given them by the Germans, was the same as
_Galli_, which they had received from the Latins, and as _Keltai_ or
Celts, which they themselves acknowledged. The language which they spoke
was called after them the _Romance-Wallon_, or rustic Romance, which was
at first very much the same throughout France, except that as it extended
southward the Latin prevailed, and in the north the German was more
perceptible. These differences increased, and the languages rapidly grew
more dissimilar. The people of the south called themselves _Romans-
provençaux_, while the northern tribes added to the name of Romans, which
they had assumed, that of _Wallons_, which they had received from the
neighboring people. The Provençal was called the _Langue d'oc_, and the
Wallon the _Langue d'oui_, from the affirmative word in each language, as
the Italian was then called the _Langue de sí_, and the German the _Langue
de ya_.
The invasion of the Normans, in the tenth century, supplied new elements
to the Romance Wallon. They adopted it as their language, and stamped upon
it the impress of their own genius. It thus became Norman-French. In 1066,
William the Conqueror introduced it into England, and enforced its use
among his new subjects by rigorous laws; thus the popular French became
there the language of the court and of the educated classes, while it was
still the vulgar dialect in France.
From the beginning of the twelfth century, the two dialects were known as
the _Provençal_ and the _French_. The former, though much changed, is
still the dialect of the common people in Provence, Languedoc, Catalonia,
Valencia, Majorca, and Minorca. In the thirteenth century, the northern
French dialect gained the ascendency, chiefly in consequence of Paris
becoming the centre of refinement and literature for all France. The
_Langue d'oui_ was, from its origin, deficient in that rhythm which exists
in the Italian and Spanish languages. It was formed rather by an
abbreviation than by a harmonious transformation of the Latin, and the
metrical character of the language was gradually lost. The French became
thus more accustomed to rhetorical measure than to poetical forms, and the
language led them rather to eloquence than poetry. Francis I. established
a professorship of the French language at Paris, and banished Latin from
the public documents and courts of justice. The Academy, established by
Cardinal Richelieu (1635), put an end to the arbitrary power of usage, and
fixed the standard of pure French, though at the same time it restricted
the power of genius over the language. Nothing was approved by the Academy
unless it was received at court, and nothing was tolerated by the public
that had not been sanctioned by the Academy. The language now acquired the
most admirable precision, and thus recommended itself not only as the
language of science and diplomacy, but of society, capable of conveying
the most discriminating observations on character and manners, and the
most delicate expressions of civility which involve no obligation. Hence
its adoption as the court language in so many European countries. Among
the dictionaries of the French language, that of the Academy holds the
first rank.