THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA - ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND edition, published in ten volumes, 1777-1784.
THIRD edition, published in eighteen volumes, 1788-1797.
FOURTH edition, published in twenty volumes, 1801-1810.
FIFTH edition, published in twenty volumes, 1815-1817.
SIXTH edition, published in twenty volumes, 1823-1824.
SEVENTH edition, published in twenty-one volumes, 1830-1842.
EIGHTH edition, published in twenty-two volumes, 1853-1860.
NINTH edition, published in twenty-five volumes, 1875-1889.
TENTH edition, ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH edition, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II
ANDROS to AUSTRIA
[E-Text Edition of Volume II - Part 01 of 16 - ANDROS to ANISE]
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
[Note: Listing adjusted to E-Text Edition of Volume II, Part 01. The
full list of contributors appear in the complete E-text Edition of
Volume II. A complete list of all contributors to the encyclopaedia,
appears in the final volume.]
A.B.R. - ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R S F.L.S. D.Sc. Keeper of the
Department of Botany, British Museum.
- ANGIOSPERMS
C.Pl. - REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. Fellow of Corpus Christi College,
Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of _Life and Times of Alfred the
Great_; &c.
- ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE
E.O. - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. Consulting Surgeon
to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities
of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.
- ANEURYSM
H.M.C. - HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare
College, Cambridge. Author of _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.
- ANGLI; ANGLO-SAXONS
H.Sm. - HUGH SHERINGHAM. Angling Editor of _The Field_ (London).
- ANGLING
I.B.B. - ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR, F.R.S., M.D. King's Botanist in
Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Professor
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of Botany
in the University of Glasgow, 1879-1884. Sherardian Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford, 1884-1888.
- ANGIOSPERMS (_in part_).
J.G.C.A. - JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. Student, Censor and Tutor
of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. Formerly Fellow of
Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of _Studica Pontica_.
- ANGORA
L.J.S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Department of Mineralogy,
British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.
- ANHYDRITE
L.M.Br. - LOUIS MAURICE BRANDIN, M.A. Fielden Professor of French and
of Romance Philology in the University of London.
- ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE
N.W.T. - NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist
to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe
d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought Transference_; _Kinship
and Marriage in Australia_; &c.
- ANIMAL-WORSHIP, ANIMISM
P.C.M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor
at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital,
1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal
College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903. Examiner in Zoology to
the University of London, 1903.
- ANIMAL
P.C.Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
- ANGLESEY, 1st EARL OF
P.Vi. - PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and
Harvard). Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of
Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Honorary Professor of History
in the University of Moscow. Author of _Villainage in England_;
_English Society in the 11th Century_; &c.
- ANGLO-SAXON LAW
T.Ba. - SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme
Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Author of _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; &c. M.P.
for Blackburn, 1910.
- ANGARY
W.H.Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.
- ANGEL
W.H.Di. - WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S.
- ANEMOMETER
W.M.R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article:
ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
- ANGELICO, FRA
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Anglican Communion.
Angola.
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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II, PART I
[v.02 p.0001]
ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America,
was born in London on the 6th of December 1637, son of Amice Andros,
an adherent of Charles I., and the royal bailiff of the island of
Guernsey. He served for a short time in the army of Prince Henry of
Nassau, and in 1660-1662 was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of
Bohemia (Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then
served against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in
what is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke of York
(later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys, though his
jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until his recall in
1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty and favouritism in
the collection of the revenues, he proved himself to be a capable
administrator, whose imperious disposition, however, rendered him
somewhat unpopular among the colonists. During a visit to England in
1678 he was knighted. In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his
capital, of the "Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts
(including Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was extended
over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious interference with
colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest resentment, and on the
18th of April 1689, soon after news of the arrival of William, prince
of Orange, in England reached Boston, the colonists deposed and
arrested him. In New York his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon
afterwards deposed by Jacob Leisler (q.v.); and the inter-colonial
union was dissolved. Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but
was immediately released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698
he was governor of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of
Commissary James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694
he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was governor
of Guernsey. He died in London in February 1714 and was buried at
St. Anne's, Soho.
See _The Andros Tracts_ (3 vols., Boston, 1869-1872).
ANDROS, or ANDRO, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most
northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about 2 m. N.
of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom of Greece. It is
nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 10 m. Its surface is
for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered
valleys. Andros, the capital, on the east coast, contains about 2000
inhabitants. The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the
west coast; the town possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus.
The island has about 18,000 inhabitants.
The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population, perhaps
with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally dependent on
Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become sufficiently prosperous
to send out several colonies to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageirus,
Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships to Xerxes and was
subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian
League it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 447 had to be
coerced by the settlement of a cleruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its
freedom and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the
second Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for as a
frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea, Macedonia and
Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308
it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed
again to Macedonia after a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it
was captured by a combined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and
remained a possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that
kingdom in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
A.D. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva under
Venetian protection.
ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a contemporary
of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the speech of
Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality in proposing
the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five Hundred at the
expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled several important
posts, and during the Social War was appointed extraordinary
commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes. Both Demosthenes
and Aristotle (_Rhet._ iii. 4) speak favourably of his powers as an
orator. He is said to have gone into exile at Megara, and to have
composed an _Atthis_, or annalistic account of Attica from the
earliest times to his own days (Pausanias vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed
whether the annalist and orator are identical, but an Androtion
who wrote on agriculture is certainly a different person. Professor
Gaetano de Sanctis (in _L'Attide di Androzione e un papiro
di Oxyrhynchos_, Turin, 1908) attributes to Androtion, the
atthidographer, a 4th-century historical fragment, discovered by
B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v.). Strong
arguments against this view are set forth by E.M. Walker in the
_Classical Review_, May 1908.
[v.02 p.0002]
ANDÚJAR (the anc. _Slilurgi_), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Jaén; on the right bank of the river Guadalquivir and the
Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 16,302. Andújar is widely known
for its porous earthenware jars, called _alcarrazas_, which keep water
cool in the hottest weather, and are manufactured from a whitish clay
found in the neighbourhood.
ANECDOTE (from [Greek: an]-, privative, and [Greek: ekdidomi], to give
out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It
has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not
published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret
histories--Procopius, _e.g._, gives this as one of the titles of his
secret history of Justinian's court--or portions of ancient writers
which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first
time. Of such _anecdota_ there are many collections; the earliest was
probably L.A. Muratori's, in 1709. In the more general and popular
acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of
detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections
are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by
T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the
_Percy Anecdotes_ (1820-1823).
ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1679-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse
about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as
surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at
Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he
was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he
was practising in Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his
successful surgical treatment of _fistula lacrymalis_, and while
at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the
fine-pointed syringe still known by his name.
ANEMOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind, and [Greek: metron],
a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the
pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1)
those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure
of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the
pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will
give information about both these quantities.
Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1)
those which do not require a wind vane or weathercock, (2) those
which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. Thomas Romney
Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally
used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists
of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of
horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a
cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the
centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of
turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any
given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated.
The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is
easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented
to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also
faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence
a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round
providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer
are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand
it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual
velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but
violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first
designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the
cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third
of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by
some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for
it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly
called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very
largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost
any value between two and a little over three. The result has been
that wind velocities published in many official publications have
often been in error by nearly 50%.
The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging
to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation
is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must
be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal.
Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to
follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil
the same purpose must be employed. This type of instrument is very
little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In
cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as
in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these
anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give
most satisfactory results.
Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate
and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a
good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists
of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind
vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the
wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring
determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate,
and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in
the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved
by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long
series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding
60 lb per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values
are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the
anemometer.
The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while
the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the
force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for
following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make
matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often
connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A
violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by
its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the
same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen
it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion,
and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its
position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act
the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be
indicated on the chart.
A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate
being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by
hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back
farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples
of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the
winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has
not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lb are extremely
rare.
Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a
sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing
to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small
light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing
cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over
a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has
given satisfactory results.
Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid
with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is
perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument
has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an
increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in
all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication.
If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it
causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical
use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on
the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis,
the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great
variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1)
utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube
facing the wind, and the decrease of pressure caused inside when the
wind blows over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of
a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure
differences on which the action depends are very small, and special
means are required to register them, but in the ordinary form of
recording anemometer (fig. 2), any wind capable of turning the vane
which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of
registration.
[v.02 p.0003]
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the
exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling
or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any
convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two
connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as
though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on
which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of
the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be
considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the
air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are
carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an
effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the
opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may
entirely alter the registration.
[Illustration: FIG. 1 & FIG. 2 Anemometers.]
The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is
one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on
engineering give the relation P=.005 _v_^2 when P is the pressure in
lb per sq. ft. and _v_ the velocity in miles per hour. The history
of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the
18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating
that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the
qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received
general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions
of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by .003, for many
independent authorities using different methods have found values very
close to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure
is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed.
Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter
of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and
for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the
relation P=.003 _v_^2 is fairly correct.
In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is
measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale.
In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a
high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an
allowance must be made. Approximately 1-1/2% should be added to the
velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it
stands above sea-level.
(W.H. Di.)
ANEMONE, or WIND-FLOWER (from the Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind), a
genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety
species in the north and south temperate zones. _Anemone nemorosa_,
wood anemone, and _A. Pulsatilla_, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain;
the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone pastures in some of
the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs
with an underground rootstock, and radical, more or less deeply cut,
leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white,
red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three
leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles
which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the species are
favourite garden plants; among the best known is _Anemone coronaria_,
often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with
parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on
stalks of from 6 to 9-in. high; the flowers are of various colours,
but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There
are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the
centre are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden
favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They
grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which
should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October,
and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected
by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in
May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into
a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the
seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a
flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of
handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as
the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively
spring-blooming plants, of which _A. hortensis_ and _A. fulgens_ have
less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers;
they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by _A.
Pulsatilla_, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer
surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid _A.
japonica_, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the
latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy
perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 2-1/2 to 3 ft.
in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf
species, represented by the native British _A. nemorosa_ and _A.
apennina_, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for
planting in woods and shady places.
The genus _Hepatica_ is now generally included in anemone as a
subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and are
varieties of the common South European _A. Hepatica_; they are
charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.
ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century
he is treated in the catalogues as two persons--Anacletus and Cletus.
According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve
years (c. 77-88).
ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman
masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about
1560, studied under G.M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as
composer to the papal chapel. Several masses and motets of his are
printed in Proske's _Musica Divina_ and other modern anthologies, and
it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy
of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as
1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems
to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his
numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if
we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement,
which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference,
that "he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its
subdivisions" is incomprehensible. Quavers were common property in
all musical countries quite early in the 16th century, and semiquavers
appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers
are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music
as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation to
indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt
from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of
preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism.
They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and
hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their
own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The
12-part _Stabat Mater_ in the seventh volume of Palestrina's complete
works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.
[v.02 p.0004]
ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir,
situated between the rivers Eure and Vègre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by
rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent
castle, built in the middle of the 16th century by Henry II. for Diana
of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated
the armies of the League in 1590.
ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh)
bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor
and translator of Aneurin's principal epic poem _Gododin_, for a
son of Gildas, the historian. _Gododin_ is an account of the British
defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by Stephens with
Dawstane in Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have been taken
prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently interpreted.
It was translated and edited by W.F. Skene in his _Four Ancient
Books of Wales_ (1866), and Stephens' version was published by the
Cymmrodorion Society in 1888. See CELT: _Literature_ (Welsh).
ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. [Greek: aneurisma], a dilatation), a
cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of an artery and
contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the
dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation
of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or
injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflammation of the inner coats
of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass in the hand is apt to
cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial)
and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually
followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound
in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape in
to the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to
condense and form the sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased,
may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed
tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac.
The division, of aneurysms into two classes, _true_ and _false_, is
unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false is not
an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal tender. A better
classification is into _spontaneous_ and _traumatic_. The man who has
chronic inflammation of a large artery, the result, for instance, of
gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney-disease, and whose artery
yields under cardiac pressure, has a _spontaneous_ aneurysm; the
barman or window-cleaner who has cut his radial artery, the soldier
whose brachial or femoral artery has been bruised by a rifle bullet
or grazed by a bayonet, and the boy whose naked foot is pierced by
a sharp nail, are apt to be the subjects of _traumatic_ aneurysm.
In those aneurysms which are a _saccular_ bulging on one side of the
artery the blood may be induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit
layer upon layer of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This
laminar coagulation by constant additions gradually fills the
aneurysmal cavity and the pulsation in the sac then ceases;
contraction of the sac and its contents gradually takes place and
the aneurysm is cured. But in those aneurysms which are _fusiform_
dilatations of the vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for
the blood sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or
laminated fibrine.
In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood
pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely
effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted
to more promptly and securely than was previously the case.
Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment
by compression, or the application of an india rubber bandage, the
surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the artery, and
applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience
has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has
none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it.
Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or
other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by
dissecting out the aneurysm. Popliteal, carotid and other aneurysms,
which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this
plan, which is the old "Method of Antyllus" with modern aseptic
conditions. Speaking generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with
surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic
measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and
disappointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be
dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a
pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so
that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase
the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac.
(E.O.)
ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. _anfractuosus_, winding), twisting and
turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to
denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea,
mountains, or the fissures (_sulci_) separating the convolutions of
the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.
ANGARIA (from [Greek: aggaros], the Greek form of a Babylonian word
adopted in Persian for "mounted courier"), a sort of postal system
adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians,
among whom, according to Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 6; cf. Herodotus
viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback
were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the empire, for
the transmission of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers.
In the Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was a
compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant exemption.
The word, which in the 4th century was used for the heavy transport
vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the animals by which
they were drawn, came to mean generally "compulsory service." So
_angaria_, _angariare_, in medieval Latin, and the rare English
derivatives "angariate," "angariation," came to mean any service which
was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general.
ANGARY (Lat. _jus angariae_; Fr. _droit d'angarie_; Ger. _Angarie_;
from the Gr. [Greek: aggareia], the office of an [Greek: aggaros],
courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to
seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from
doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including
that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art.
53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land,
annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides
that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other
ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though
belonging to companies or private persons, _may be used_ for military
operations, but "must be restored at the conclusion of peace _and_
indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that "the plant of
railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those
states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them
as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of
angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both
belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however,
that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the
"necessity of war" can be made to cover.
(T. BA.)
ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in
monotheistic religions, _e.g._. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in
allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of
superhuman beings are continuous; but in monotheism there is a sharp
distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand,
and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the
"angels."
"Angel" is a transcription of the Gr. [Greek: angelos], messenger.
[Greek: angelos] in the New Testament, and the corresponding _mal'akh_
in the Old Testament, sometimes mean "messenger," and sometimes
"angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English
Versions. "Angel" is also used in the English Version for [Hebrew:]
_'Abbir_, Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for [Hebrew:]
_'Elohim_, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure [Hebrew:] _shin'an_,
in Ps. lxviii. 17.
[v.02 p.0005]
In the later development of the religion of Israel, _'Elohim_ is
almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times
_'Elohim_ (gods), _bn[=e] 'Elohim, bn[=e] Elim_ (sons of gods,
_i.e._ members of the class of divine beings) were general terms
for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of
superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and therefore inferior,
and ultimately subordinate.[1] So, too, the angels are styled "holy
ones,"[2] and "watchers,"[3] and are spoken of as the "host of
heaven"[4] or of "Yahweh."[5] The "hosts," [Hebrew:] _Sebaoth_ in
the title _Yahweh Sebaoth_, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time
identified with the angels.[6] The New Testament often speaks of
"spirits," [Greek: pneumata].[7] In the earlier periods of the
religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally
stated, so that the idea of "angel" in the modern sense does not
occur, but we find the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, Angel of the Lord, or
_Mal'akh Elohim_, Angel of God. The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ is an appearance
or manifestation of _Yahweh_ in the form of a man, and the term
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii.
2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the _Mal'akh
Yahweh_ say they have seen God.[8] The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ (or _Elohim_)
appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the
Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.[9] The phrase _Mal'akh Yahweh_ may
have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King;
but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and
later on, when the angels were classified, the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ came
to mean an angel of distinguished rank.[10] The identification of the
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ with the _Logos_, or Second Person of the Trinity, is
not indicated by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea
of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct
from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish
persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine
of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.
In the earlier literature the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_ is almost
the only _mal'akh_ ("angel") mentioned. There are, however, a few
passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_. There are the cherubim who guard Eden.
In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and
Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but
possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone.[11]
At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder,[12] and later
on they appear to him at Mahanaim.[13] In all these cases the
angels, like the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, are connected with or represent a
theophany. Similarly the "man" who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel is
identified with God.[14] In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman
beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus the
pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say about
angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations
of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly mention angels.[15]
Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular religion of ancient
Israel had much to say of superhuman beings other than Yahweh, but
that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed references to them as
unedifying. Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.
The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period
immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy[16] and
Isaiah;[17] and at the same time we find angels prominent in Ezekiel
who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the
hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and
perhaps even by the angelology of Zoroastrianism.[18] Ezekiel gives
elaborate descriptions of cherubim;[19] and in one of his visions he
sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem.[20] As
in Genesis they are styled "men," _mal'akh_ for "angel" does not occur
in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels play
a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as "men," sometimes as
_mal'akh_, and the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ seems to hold a certain primacy
among them.[21] Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the
High Priest before the divine tribunal.[22] Similarly in Job the _bne
Elohim_, sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them
Satan, still in his rôle of public prosecutor, the defendant being
Job.[23] Occasional references to "angels" occur in the Psalter;[24]
they appear as ministers of God.
In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the "evil angels" of A.V. conveys a false
impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., _i.e._ angels who
inflict chastisement as ministers of God.
The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of
Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by
Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels,[25]
parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas (Amesha Spenta), or
seven great spirits of the Persian mythology, but the connexion is
doubtful.
In the Priestly Code, _c._ 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels
apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in Genesis
i. 26.
During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent
a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences.
In Daniel, _c._ 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as "men" or
"princes," appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are
implied, there are "princes" and "chief" or "great princes"; and
the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is
pre-eminent,[26] he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading
part is played by Raphael, "one of the seven holy angels."[27]
In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the
canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers
of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as
subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The
statement[28] that God "charged His angels with folly" applies to
all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen
nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we
find Asmodaeus the evil demon, [Greek: to poneros daimonion], who
strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to "a devil
or evil spirit," [Greek: pneuma].[29] The Fall of the Angels is not
properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as
interpreted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the _bn[=e] Elohim_
of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but
they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism
and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the
_bne Elohim_ suffered any loss of status through their act.
The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the
gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process
by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton
in _Paradise Lost_. The development of the doctrine of an organized
hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period 200
B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination
ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as
the various books of Enoch and the _Ascension of Isaiah_ supply much
information on this subject.
[v.02 p.0006]
In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God
and the agents of revelation;[30] and Our Lord speaks of angels
as fulfilling such functions,[31] implying in one saying that they
neither marry nor are given in marriage.[32] Naturally angels are most
prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest
in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the
doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we
have names, Gabriel,[33] and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon,[34]
Beelzebub.[35] and Satan;[36] ranks are implied, archangels,[37]
principalities and powers,[38] thrones and dominions.[39] Angels
occur in groups of four or seven.[40] In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with
the "Angels" of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably
guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that
the "princes" in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the "angels"
are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
"angels" are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or
chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use
of "angel," and it is doubtful whether the monarchical government of
churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written.
Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the
angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important
part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Midrashim and the Kabbala.
Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much
influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the
_De Hierarchia Celesti_, written in the 5th century in the name
of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and
confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and
modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings,
or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain
knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
existence of beings intermediate between man and God.
The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the
_Book of Jubilees_ and the Slavonic _Enoch_ describe their creation;
and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in, unto and
through Christ.
Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels.
It is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the cherubim and Isaiah's
account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual
beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions.
Angels are constantly spoken of as "men," and, including even the
Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions
of human life; they eat and drink,[41] walk[42] and speak.[43] Putting
aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having
wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish,[44] exercise
miraculous powers,[45] and fly.[46] Seeing that the anthropomorphic
language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the
Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in
either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and
elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies,[47] and the
elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c.[48] The angels are
infinitely numerous.[49]
The _function_ of the angels is that of the supernatural servants of
God. His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as we have
seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the _bne Elohim_ and
the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike the court and the
army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers. In his dealings with
men, the angels, as their name implies, are specially His messengers,
declaring His will and executing His commissions. Through them he
controls nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations;
and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels.[50].
Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels.[51]
According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by angels.
Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated the Jewish and
Christian ideas as to angels.