Webster and Clay and the Preservation of the Union.
[=Questions of Internal Policy=]
During the first half of the nineteenth century a number of great
questions came up in American politics and pressed for solution. There
was abundance of hostilities--wars with Great Britain, the Barbary
states, Mexico and the Indians--and international difficulties of
various kinds. The most important of these we have described. We have
now to consider questions of internal policy, problems arising in the
development of the nation which threatened its peace and prosperity,
and to deal with which called for the most earnest patriotism and the
highest statesmanship in the political leaders of the commonwealth.
Among these leaders two men loomed high above their contemporaries,
Daniel Webster, the supreme orator and staunch defender of the Union,
and Henry Clay, the great peace-maker, whose hand for years stayed the
waves of the political tempest and more than once checked legislative
hostilities in their early stage. It was not until Clay had passed
from the scene that one of the national problems alluded to plunged
the country into civil war and racked the Union almost to the point of
dissolution.
[=Danger to the Union=]
Of these great political questions, danger to the Union arose from
two, the problem of the tariff and the dispute over the institution
of slavery. There were others of minor importance, prominent among
them those of internal improvement at government expense, and of state
rights, or the degree of independence of the states under the Federal
Union, but it was the first two only that threatened the existence
of the nation, and in dealing with which the noblest statesmanship
and the most fervid and convincing oratory were called into play.
The subject of slavery in particular gloomed above the nation like a
terrible thunder cloud. All other questions of domestic policy--tariff,
currency, internal improvements, state rights--were subordinate to the
main question of how to preserve the Union under this unceasing threat.
Some, like Calhoun, were ready to abandon the Union that slavery might
be saved; others, like Garrison, were ready to abandon the Union that
slavery might be destroyed. Between these extremes stood many able and
patriotic statesmen, who, to save the Union, were ready to make any
sacrifice and join in any compromise. And high among these, for more
than fifty years, stood the noble figure of Henry Clay.
[=Clay's Great Popularity=]
Not often does a man whose life is spent in purely civil affairs
become such a popular hero and idol as did Clay--especially when it is
his fate never to reach the highest place in the people's gift. "Was
there ever," says Parton, "a public man, not at the head of a state,
so beloved as he? Who ever heard such cheers, so hearty, distinct and
ringing, as those which his name evoked? Men shed tears at his defeat,
and women went to bed sick from pure sympathy with his disappointment.
He could not travel during the last thirty years of his life, but only
make _progresses_. When he left home the public seized him and bore him
along over the land, the committee of one state passing him on to the
committee of another, and the hurrahs of one town dying away as those
of the next caught his ear."
Born a poor boy, who had to make his way up from the lowest state of
frontier indigence, he was favored by nature with a kindly soul, the
finest and most effective powers of oratory, and a voice of the most
admirable character; one of deep and rich tone, wonderful volume, and
sweet and tender harmony, which invested all he said with majesty, and
swept audiences away as much by its musical and swelling cadences as by
the logic and convincing nature of his utterances.
After years of active and useful labor in Congress, it was in 1818 that
Clay first stepped into the arena for the calming of the passions of
Congress and the preservation of the Union, a duty to which he devoted
himself for the remainder of his life. In the year named a petition for
the admission of Missouri into the Union was presented in Congress, and
with it began that long and bitter struggle over slavery which did not
end until the surrender of Lee at Appomattox in 1865.
[=The Slavery Sentiment=]
For years the sentiment in favor of slavery had been growing stronger
in the South. At one time many of the wisest southern statesmen and
planters disapproved of the institution and proposed its abolition.
But the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney, in 1793, and the
subsequent great development of the cotton culture had decidedly
changed the situation. By 1800 the value of the cotton product had
advanced to $5,700,000. In 1820 it had made another great advance, and
was valued at nearly $20,000,000. There was now no thought of doing
away with the use of slaves, but a strong sentiment had arisen in the
South in favor of extending the area in which slave labor could be
employed.
[=The Admission of Missouri=]
In the North a different state of feeling existed. Slavery was believed
to be a wrong and an injury to American institutions, though no
movement for its abolition had been started. Many people thought it
ought to and would disappear in time, but there was no idea of taking
steps to enforce its disappearance. But when, in the bill for the
admission of Missouri, there was shown a purpose of extending the area
of slavery, northern sentiment became alarmed and a strong opposition
to this project developed in Congress.
It was the sudden revelation of a change of feeling in the South which
the North had not observed in its progress. "The discussion of this
Missouri question has betrayed the secret of their souls," wrote John
Quincy Adams. The slaveholders watched with apprehension the steady
growth of the free states in population, wealth and power. In 1790 the
population of the two sections had been nearly even. In 1820 there was
a difference of over 600,000 in favor of the North in a total of less
than ten millions. In 1790 the representation of the two sections in
Congress had been about evenly balanced. In 1820 the census promised to
give the North a preponderance of more than thirty votes in the House
of Representatives. If the South was to retain its political equality
in Congress, or at least in the Senate, it must have more slave states,
and there now began a vigorous struggle with this object in view. It
was determined, if possible, to have as many states as the North,
and it was with this purpose that it fought so hard to have slavery
introduced into Missouri.
[=The Missouri Compromise=]
The famous "Missouri Compromise," by which the ominous dispute of
1820 was at last settled, included the admission of one free state
(Maine) and one slave state (Missouri) at the same time, and it
was enacted that no other slave state should be formed out of any
part of the Louisiana territory north of thirty-six degrees thirty
minutes, which was the southern boundary line of Missouri. The assent
of opposing parties to this arrangement was secured largely by the
patriotic efforts of Clay, who, says Schurz, "did not confine himself
to speeches, * * * but went from man to man, expostulating, beseeching,
persuading, in his most winning way. * * * His success added greatly
to his reputation and gave new strength to his influence." The result,
says John Quincy Adams, was "to bring into full display the talents
and resources and influence of Mr. Clay." He was praised as "the great
pacificator"--a title which was confirmed by the deeds of his later
life.
Clay served as secretary of state during the administration of John
Quincy Adams, but in 1829, when Jackson, his bitter enemy, succeeded to
the presidency, he retired for a short season to private life in his
beautiful Kentucky home. But he was not long to remain there; in 1831
he was again elected to the Senate, where he remained until 1842. They
were stormy years. In South Carolina the opposition to the protective
tariff had led to the promulgation of the famous "nullification"
theory--the doctrine that any state had the power to declare a law of
the United States null and void. Jackson, whose anger was thoroughly
aroused, dealt with the revolt in summary fashion, threatening that if
any resistance to the government was attempted he would instantly have
the leaders arrested and brought to trial for treason. Nevertheless,
to allay the discontent of the South, Clay devised his Compromise
Tariff of 1833, under which the duties were to be gradually reduced,
until they should reach a minimum of twenty per cent. In 1832 he
allowed himself, very unwisely, to be a candidate for the presidency,
Jackson's re-election being a foregone conclusion. In 1836 he declined
a nomination, and Van Buren was elected. Then followed the panic of
1837, which insured the defeat of the party in power, and the election
of the Whig candidate at the following presidential election; but
the popularity of General Jackson had convinced the party managers
that success demanded a military hero as a candidate; and accordingly
General Harrison, "the hero of Tippecanoe," was elected, after the
famous "Log Cabin and Hard Cider campaign" of 1840. This slight was
deeply mortifying to Clay, who had counted with confidence upon being
the candidate of the party. "I am the most unfortunate man in the
history of parties," he truly remarked; "always run by my friends when
sure to be defeated, and now betrayed for a nomination when I, or any
one else, would be sure of an election."
[=Clay as a Presidential Candidate=]
In 1844, however, Clay's opportunity came at last. He was so obviously
the Whig candidate that there was no opposition. The convention met at
Baltimore in May, and he was nominated by acclamation, with a shout
that shook the building. Everything appeared to indicate success, and
his supporters regarded his triumphant election as certain.
[=The Contest of 1844=]
But into the politics of the time had come a new factor--the "Liberty
party." This had been hitherto considered unimportant; but the proposed
annexation of Texas, which had become a prominent question, was opposed
by many in the North who had hitherto voted with the Whig party.
Clay was a slaveholder; and though he had opposed the extension of
slavery, his record was not satisfactory to those who disapproved of
the annexation of Texas. In truth, the opposition to slavery in the
North was rapidly gaining political strength, while the question of
the annexation of Texas was looked upon as one for the extension of
the "peculiar institution," since Texas would, under the Missouri
Compromise, fall into line as a slave state, and was large enough, if
Congress should permit, to be cut up into a number of slave states.
Clay was between two fires. He was distrusted in the South; while his
competitor, Polk, was pledged to support the annexation of Texas. He
was doubted in the North as a slaveholder. His old enemy, Jackson, used
his influence strongly against him. The contest finally turned upon the
vote of New York, and that proved so close that the suspense became
painful. People did not go to bed, waiting for the delayed returns. The
contest was singularly like that of Blaine and Garfield, forty years
later, when the result again turned upon a close vote in the State of
New York. When at last the decisive news was received, and the fact of
Clay's defeat was assured, the Whigs broke out in a wail of agony all
over the land. "It was," says Nathan Sargent, "as if the first-born
of every family had been stricken down." The descriptions we have of
the grief manifested are almost incredible. Tears flowed in abundance
from the eyes of men and women. In the cities and villages the business
places were almost deserted for a day or two, people gathering together
in groups to discuss in low tones what had happened. The Whigs were
fairly stunned by their defeat, and the Democrats failed to indulge
in demonstrations of triumph, it being widely felt that a great wrong
had been done. It was the opinion of many that there would be no hope
thereafter of electing the great statesmen of the country to the
presidency, and that this high office would in future be attained only
by men of second-rate ability.
[=The Compromise of 1850=]
The last and greatest work of the life of Henry Clay was the famous
Compromise of 1850, which has been said to have postponed for ten years
the great Civil War. At that period the sentiment against slavery was
rapidly increasing in the North and had gained great strength. Though
the number of free and slave states continued equal, the former were
fast surpassing the latter in wealth and population.
It was evident that slavery must have more territory or lose its
political influence. Shut out of the northwest by the Missouri
Compromise, it was supposed that a great field for its extension had
been gained in Texas and the territory acquired from Mexico. But now
California, a part of this territory which had been counted upon for
slavery, was populated by a sudden rush of northern immigration,
attracted by the discovery of gold; and a state government was
organized with a constitution excluding slavery, thus giving the free
states a majority of one. Instead of adding to the area of slavery, the
Mexican territory seemed likely to increase the strength of freedom.
The South was both alarmed and exasperated. Threats of disunion were
freely made. It was clear that prompt measures must be taken to allay
the prevailing excitement, if disruption were to be avoided. In such
an emergency it was natural that all eyes should turn to the "great
pacificator," Henry Clay.
[=An Orator of Seventy-two=]
When, at the session of 1849-50, he appeared in the Senate to assist,
if possible, in removing the slavery question from politics, Clay was
an infirm and serious, but not sad, old man of seventy-two. He never
lost his cheerfulness or faith, but he felt deeply for his distracted
country. During that memorable session of Congress he spoke seventy
times. Often extremely sick and feeble, scarcely able, with the
assistance of a friend's arm, to climb the steps of the Capitol, he
was never absent on the days when the compromise was to be debated.
On the morning on which he began his great speech, he was accompanied
by a clerical friend, to whom he said, on reaching the long flight of
steps leading to the Capitol, "Will you lend me your arm, my friend?
for I find myself quite weak and exhausted this morning." Every few
steps he was obliged to stop and take breath. "Had you not better defer
your speech?" asked the clergyman. "My dear friend," said the dying
orator, "I consider our country in danger; and if I can be the means,
in any measure, of averting that danger, my health or life is of little
consequence." When he rose to speak it was but too evident that he
was unfit for the task he had undertaken. But as he kindled with his
subject, his cough left him, and his bent form resumed all its wonted
erectness and majesty. He may, in the prime of his strength, have
spoken with more energy, but never with so much pathos or grandeur. His
speech lasted two days; and though he lived two years longer, he never
recovered from the effects of the effort. The thermometer in the Senate
chamber marked nearly 100 degrees. Toward the close of the second
day, his friends repeatedly proposed an adjournment; but he would not
desist until he had given complete utterance to his feelings. He said
afterwards that he was not sure, if he gave way to an adjournment, that
he should ever be able to resume.
[=Clay's Tribute to the Union=]
Never was Clay's devotion to the Union displayed in such thrilling and
pathetic forms as in the course of this long debate. On one occasion
allusion was made to a South Carolina hot-head, who had publicly
proposed to raise the flag of disunion. When Clay retorted by saying,
that, if Mr. Rhett had really meant that proposition, and should follow
it up by corresponding acts, he would be a _traitor_, and added, "and
I hope he will meet a traitor's fate," thunders of applause broke
from the crowded galleries. When the chairman succeeded in restoring
silence, Mr. Clay made that celebrated declaration which was so
frequently quoted in 1861: "If Kentucky to-morrow shall unfurl the
banner of resistance unjustly, I will never fight under that banner. I
owe paramount allegiance to the whole Union, a subordinate one to my
own state." Again: "The senator speaks of Virginia being my country.
This Union, sir, is my country; the thirty states are my country;
Kentucky is my country, and Virginia, no more than any state in the
Union." And yet again: "There are those who think that the Union must
be preserved by an exclusive reliance upon love and reason. That is not
my opinion. I have some confidence in this instrumentality; but, depend
upon it, no human government can exist without the power of applying
force, and the actual application of it in extreme cases."
[=The Omnibus Bill=]
The compromise offered by Clay became known as the "Omnibus Bill,"
from the various measures it covered. It embraced the following
provisions: 1. California should be admitted as a free state. 2. New
Mexico and Utah should be formed into territories, and the question
of the admission of slavery be left for their people to decide. 3.
Texas should give up part of the territory it claimed, and be paid
$10,000,000 as a recompense. 4. The slave-trade should be prohibited in
the District of Columbia. 5. A stringent law for the return of fugitive
slaves to their masters should be enacted.
[=Effect of the Fugitive Slave Law=]
The question concerning Texas was the following: Texas claimed that
its western boundary followed the Rio Grande to its source. This
took in territory which had never been part of Texas, but the claim
was strongly pushed, and was settled in the manner above stated. The
serious question, however, in this compromise was that concerning the
return of fugitive slaves. When an effort was made to enforce the
Fugitive Slave Law great opposition was excited, on account of the
stringency of its provisions. The fugitive, when arrested, was not
permitted to testify in his own behalf or to claim trial by jury, and
all persons were required to assist the United States marshal, when
called upon for aid. To assist a fugitive to escape was an offence
punishable by fine and imprisonment. In the last two respects the law
failed; and its severe provisions added greatly to the strength of the
anti-slavery party, and thus had much to do in bringing on the Civil
War.
Side by side with Clay in the senate stood another and greater figure,
the majestic presence of Daniel Webster, one of the greatest orators
the world has ever known, a man fitted to stand on the rostrum with
Demosthenes, the renowned orator of Greece, or with Chatham, Burke, or
Gladstone of the British parliament.
[=The "Reply to Hayne"=]
In the hall of the United States Senate, on January 26, 1830, occurred
what may be considered the most memorable scene in the annals of
Congress. It was then that Daniel Webster made his famous "Reply to
Hayne,"--that renowned speech which has been declared the greatest
oration ever made in Congress, and which, in its far-reaching effect
upon the public mind, did so much to shape the future destiny of the
American Union. That speech was Webster's crowning work, and the event
of his life by which he will be best known to posterity.
Nothing in our history is more striking than the contrast between
the Union of the time of Washington and the Union of the time of
Lincoln. It was not merely that in the intervening seventy-two years
the republic had grown great and powerful; it was that the popular
sentiment toward the Union was transformed. The old feeling of distrust
and jealousy had given place to a passionate attachment. It was as
though a puny, sickly, feeble child, not expected by its parents even
to live, had come to be their strong defense and support, their joy and
pride. A weak league of states had become a strong nation; and when
in 1861 it was attacked, millions of men were ready to fight for its
defence. What brought about this great change? What was it that stirred
the larger patriotism that gave shape and purpose to this growing
feeling of national pride and unity? It was in a great degree the work
of Daniel Webster. It was he who maintained and advocated the theory
that the Federal Constitution created, not a league, but a nation; that
it welded the people into organic union, supreme and perpetual. He
it was who set forth in splendid completeness the picture of a great
nation, inseparably united, commanding the first allegiance and loyalty
of every citizen; and who so fostered and strengthened the sentiment of
union that, when the great struggle came, it had grown too strong to be
overthrown.
[=Webster's Personal Appearance=]
[=Voice and Personal Magnetism of Webster=]
No description of Daniel Webster is complete or adequate which fails
to describe his extraordinary personal appearance. In face, form and
voice nature did her utmost for him. So impressive was his presence
that men commonly spoke of this man of five feet ten inches in height
and less than two hundred pounds in weight as a giant. He seemed to
dwarf those surrounding him. His head was very large, but of noble
shape, with broad and lofty brow, and strong but finely cut features.
His eyes were remarkable. They were large and deep-set, and in the
excitement of an eloquent appeal they glowed with the deep light of
the fire of a forge. His voice was in harmony with his appearance. In
conversation it was low and musical; in debate it was high but full.
In moments of excitement it rang out like a clarion, whence it would
sink into notes of the solemn richness of organ tones, while the grace
and dignity of his manner added greatly to the impressive delivery of
his words. That wonderful quality which we call personal magnetism,
the power of impressing by one's personality every human being who
comes near, was at its height in Mr. Webster. He never punished his
children. It sufficed, when they did wrong, to send for them and look
at them in silence. The look, whether of sorrow or anger, was rebuke
and punishment enough.
[=The Question of Nullification=]
As an orator, Mr. Webster's most famous speeches were the Plymouth
Rock address, in 1820; the Bunker Hill Monument address, in 1825; and
his orations in the Senate in 1830 in reply to Hayne, and in 1850 on
Clay's Compromise Bill. Greatest among these was the speech in reply
to Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, on the 26th of January, 1830.
The Union was threatened, and Webster rose to the utmost height of
his impassioned genius in this thrilling appeal for its preservation
and endurance. The question under debate was the right of a state to
nullify the acts of Congress. Hayne, in sustaining the affirmative of
this dangerous proposition, had bitterly assailed New England, and had
attacked Mr. Webster by caustic personalities, rousing "the giant" to a
crushing reply.
"There was," says Edward Everett, "a very great excitement in
Washington, growing out of the controversies of the day, and the action
of the South; and party spirit ran uncommonly high. There seemed to
be a preconcerted action on the part of the southern members to break
down the northern men, and to destroy their force and influence by a
premeditated onslaught.
"Mr. Hayne's speech was an eloquent one, as all know who ever read it.
He was considered the foremost southerner in debate, except Calhoun,
who was vice-president and could not enter the arena. Mr. Hayne was the
champion of the southern side. Those who heard his speech felt much
alarm, for two reasons; first, on account of its eloquence and power,
and second, because of its many personalities. It was thought by many
who heard it, and by some of Mr. Webster's personal friends, that it
was impossible for him to answer the speech.
[=Hayne's Speech in the Senate=]
"I shared a little myself in that fear and apprehension," said Mr.
Everett. "I knew from what I heard concerning General Hayne's speech
that it was a very masterly effort, and delivered with a great deal
of power and with an air of triumph. I was engaged on that day in a
committee of which I was chairman, and could not be present in the
Senate. But immediately after the adjournment. I hastened to Mr.
Webster's house, with, I admit, some little trepidation, not knowing
how I should find him. But I was quite re-assured in a moment after
seeing Mr. Webster, and observing his entire calmness. He seemed to
be as much at ease and as unmoved as I ever saw him. Indeed, at first
I was a little afraid from this that he was not quite aware of the
magnitude of the contest. I said at once:
"'Mr. Hayne has made a speech?'
"'Yes, he has made a speech.'
"'You reply in the morning?'
"'Yes,' said Mr. Webster, 'I do not propose to let the case go by
default, and without saying a word.'
"'Did you take notes, Mr. Webster, of Mr. Hayne's speech?'
[=Webster Prepares for Reply=]
"Mr. Webster took from his vest pocket a piece of paper about as big as
the palm of his hand, and replied, 'I have it all: that is his speech.'
"I immediately arose," said Mr. Everett, "and remarked to him that I
would not disturb him longer; Mr. Webster desired me not to hasten, as
he had no desire to be alone; but I left."
"On the morning of the memorable day," writes Mr. Lodge, "the Senate
chamber was packed by an eager and excited crowd. Every seat on
the floor and in the galleries was occupied, and all the available
standing-room was filled. The protracted debate, conducted with so much
ability on both sides, had excited the attention of the whole country,
and had given time for the arrival of hundreds of interested spectators
from all parts of the Union, and especially from New England.
"In the midst of the hush of expectation, in that dead silence which is
so peculiarly oppressive because it is possible only when many human
beings are gathered together, Mr. Webster arose. His personal grandeur
and his majestic calm thrilled all who looked upon him. With perfect
quietness, unaffected apparently by the atmosphere of intense feeling
about him, he said, in a low, even tone:
[=The Opening of a Great Speech=]
"'Mr. President: When the mariner has been tossed for many days in
thick weather and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails himself of the
first pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his
latitude and ascertain how far the elements have driven him from his
true course. Let us imitate this prudence; and before we float farther
on the waves of this debate, refer to the point from which we departed,
that we may, at least, be able to conjecture where we are now. I ask
for the reading of the resolution before the Senate.'
"This opening sentence was a piece of consummate art. The simple
and appropriate image, the low voice, the calm manner, relieved
the strained excitement of the audience, which might have ended by
disconcerting the speaker if it had been maintained. Every one was now
at his ease; and when the monotonous reading of the resolution ceased,
Mr. Webster was master of the situation, and had his listeners in
complete control."
With breathless attention they followed him as he proceeded. The
strong, masculine sentences, the sarcasm, the pathos, the reasoning,
the burning appeals to love of state and country, flowed on unbroken.
As his feelings warmed the fire came into his eyes; there was a glow
in his swarthy cheek; his strong right arm seemed to sweep away
resistlessly the whole phalanx of his opponents, and the deep and
melodious cadences of his voice sounded like harmonious organ tones as
they filled the chamber with their music. Who that ever read or heard
it can forget the closing passage of that glorious speech?
[=A Magnificent Peroration=]
"When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun
in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored
fragments of a once glorious Union; on states dissevered, discordant,
belligerent; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be,
in fraternal blood! Let their last feeble and lingering glance behold
rather the glorious ensign of the republic, now known and honored
throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies
streaming in their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted,
not a single star obscured; bearing for its motto no such miserable
interrogatory as, _What is all this worth?_ or those other words
of delusion and folly, _Liberty first, and Union afterwards_; but
everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on
all its ample folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, that
other sentiment, dear to every true American heart,--LIBERTY AND
UNION, NOW AND FOREVER, ONE AND INSEPARABLE!"
As the last words died away into silence, those who had listened looked
wonderingly at each other, dimly conscious that they had heard one of
the grand speeches which are landmarks in the history of eloquence; and
the men of the North and of New England went forth full of the pride of
victory, for their champion had triumphed, and no assurance was needed
to prove to the world that this time no answer could be made.
[Illustration: THOMAS JEFFERSON. (1743-1826)
ANDREW JACKSON. (1767-1845)
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. (1767-1848)
ZACHARY TAYLOR. (1784-1850)]
[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY.
HENRY CLAY.
DANIEL WEBSTER.
HENRY WARD BEECHER.
JOHN B. GOUGH.
HENRY W. GRADY.
CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW.
WENDELL PHILLIPS.
EDWARD EVERETT.
GREAT AMERICAN ORATORS AND STATESMEN.]
[=Calhoun, the Advocate of Slavery=]
The great supporter of the doctrine which Hayne advocated and which
Webster tore into shreds and fragments, the indefatigable sustainer
of the institution of slavery in the United States Congress, was John
C. Calhoun. That this man was sincere in his conviction that slavery
was morally and politically right, and beneficial alike to white
and black, to North and South, no one has questioned. He was one of
the most upright of men; one devoid of pretence or concealment; a man
of pure honesty of purpose and great ability, and in consequence of
immense influence. His own state followed his lead with unquestioning
faith, and it is not too much to say that the slavery conflict was in
great measure due to the doctrines which he unceasingly advocated for a
quarter of a century.
[=The South Carolina Exposition=]
Calhoun is equally well known for his state rights championship and
in connection with the effort of South Carolina to secede from the
Union, as a consequence of the tariff bill of 1828. This measure, which
considerably increased the duties on imports, aroused bitter opposition
in the South, where it was styled the "Tariff of Abominations." On its
passage Calhoun prepared a vigorous paper called the "South Carolina
Exposition," in which he maintained that the Constitution limited the
right of Congress to exact tariff charges to the purpose of revenue;
that protective duties were, therefore, unconstitutional; and that any
state had the right to declare an unconstitutional law null and void,
and forbid its execution in that state. Such was the famous doctrine of
"nullification."
This paper was issued in 1828, Calhoun being then Vice-President under
Jackson, and as such president of the senate. In 1829, the long debate
on the question: "Does the Constitution make us one sovereign nation or
only a league of separate states?" reached its height. Its climax came
in January, 1830, in the remarkable contest between Webster and Hayne,
above described. Webster showed that an attempt to nullify the laws of
the nation was treason, and would lead to revolution, in the employment
of armed force to sustain it.
[=The Ordinance of Nullification=]
To such a revolutionary measure South Carolina proceeded. After
the presidential election of 1832, Calhoun, who had resigned the
vice-presidency, called a convention of the people of the state, which
passed the famous Ordinance of Nullification, declaring the 1828 tariff
null and void in that state.
[=Jackson and Nullification=]
The passage of the ordinance created intense excitement throughout
the states. Everywhere the dread of civil war and of the dissolution
of the Union was entertained. Fortunately there was a Jackson, and
not a Buchanan, in the presidential chair. Jackson was not a model
President under ordinary circumstances, but he was just the man for
the emergency of this character, and he dealt with it much as he had
dealt with the Spaniards in Florida. On December 10, 1832, came out
his vigorous proclamation against nullification. The governor of South
Carolina issued a counter-proclamation, and called out twelve thousand
volunteers. A crisis seemed at hand. Congress passed a "Force Bill" to
provide for the collection of the revenue in South Carolina, though
Calhoun--then in the Senate--opposed it in the most powerful of his
speeches. It is said that Jackson warned him that, if any resistance to
the government was made in South Carolina, he would be at once arrested
on a charge of treason.
[=Calhoun Seeks to Force the Issue of Slavery=]
The President made prompt preparations to suppress the threatened
revolt by force of arms, troops and naval vessels being sent to
Charleston. But at the same time Congress made concessions to South
Carolina and the crisis passed. It was through the efforts of Henry
Clay as already specified that this warcloud was dissipated. The tariff
question settled, the slavery issue grew prominent. The agitation of
this question, from 1835 to 1850, was chiefly the work of one man,
John C. Calhoun. Parton says that "the labors of Mr. Garrison and Mr.
Wendell Phillips might have borne no fruit during their lifetime, if
Calhoun had not made it his business to supply them with material. 'I
mean to force the issue on the North,' he once wrote; and he did force
it."
[=A Pen Picture of Three Great Orators=]
This chapter cannot be more fitly closed than with a quotation from
Harriet Martineau, in whose "Retrospect of Western Travel" we find the
following pen-picture of the three great statesmen above treated: "Mr.
Clay sitting upright on the sofa, with his snuff-box ever in his hand,
would discourse for many an hour in his even, soft, deliberate tone, on
any one of the great subjects of American policy which we might happen
to start, always amazing us with the moderation of estimate and speech
which so impetuous a nature has been able to attain. Mr. Webster,
leaning back at his ease, telling stories, cracking jokes, shaking the
sofa with burst after burst of laughter, or smoothly discoursing to
the perfect felicity of the logical part of one's constitution, would
illuminate an evening now and then. Mr. Calhoun, the cast-iron man, who
looks as if he had never been born and could never be extinguished,
would come in sometimes to keep our understanding on a painful stretch
for a short while, and leave us to take to pieces his close, rapid,
theoretical, illustrated talk, and see what we could make of it. We
found it usually more worth retaining as a curiosity, than as either
very just or useful.
"I know of no man who lives in such utter intellectual solitude. He
meets men and harangues by the fireside as in the Senate; he is wrought
like a piece of machinery, set going vehemently by a weight, and stops
while you answer; he either passes by what you say, or twists it into a
suitability with what is in his head, and begins to lecture again."