Turkey, the "Sick Man" of Europe.
[=The "Sick Man" of Europe=]
Among the most interesting phases of nineteenth-century history is that
of the conflict between Russia and Turkey, a struggle for dominion
that came down from the preceding centuries, and still seems only
temporarily laid aside for final settlement in the years to come. In
the eighteenth century the Turks proved quite able to hold their own
against all the power of Russia and all the armies of Catharine the
Great, and they entered the nineteenth century with their ancient
dominion largely intact. But they were declining in strength while
Russia was growing, and long before 1900 the empire of the Sultan would
have become the prey of the Czar had not the other powers of Europe
come to the rescue. The Czar Nicholas designated the Sultan as "the
sick man" of Europe, and such he and his empire have truly become.
[=The Result of the War of 1829=]
The ambitious designs of Russia found abundant warrant in the cruel
treatment of the Christian people of Turkey. A number of Christian
kingdoms lay under the Sultan's rule, in the south inhabited by Greeks,
in the north by Slavs; their people treated always with harshness and
tyranny; their every attempt at revolt repressed with savage cruelty.
We have seen how the Greeks rebelled against their oppressors in 1821,
and, with the aid of Europe, won their freedom in 1829. Stirred by this
struggle, Russia declared war against Turkey in 1828, and in the treaty
of peace signed at Adrianople in 1829 secured not only the independence
of Greece, but a large degree of home-rule for the northern
principalities of Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia. Turkey was forced in
a measure to loosen her grip on Christian Europe. But the Russians were
not satisfied with this. They had got next to nothing for themselves.
England and the other Western powers, fearful of seeing Russia in
possession of Constantinople, had forced her to release the fruits of
her victory. It was the first step in that jealous watchfulness of
England over Constantinople which was to have a more decided outcome in
later years. The newborn idea of maintaining the balance of power in
Europe stood in Russia's way, the nations of the West viewing in alarm
the threatening growth of the great Muscovite Empire.
[=Oppression of the Christians of Turkey=]
The ambitious Czar Nicholas looked upon Turkey as his destined prey,
and waited with impatience a sufficient excuse to send his armies
again to the Balkan Peninsula, whose mountain barrier formed the great
natural bulwark of Turkey in the north. Though the Turkish government
at this time avoided direct oppression of its Christian subjects, the
fanatical Mohammedans were difficult to restrain, and the robbery and
murder of Christians was of common occurrence. A source of hostility
at length arose from the question of protecting these ill-treated
peoples. By favor of old treaties the czar claimed a certain right to
protect the Christians of the Greek faith. France assumed a similar
protectorate over the Roman Catholics of Palestine, but the greater
number of Greek Christians in the Holy Land, and the powerful support
of the czar, gave those the advantage in the frequent quarrels which
arose in Jerusalem between the pilgrims from the East and the West.
[=The Balance of Power in Europe=]
Nicholas, instigated by his advantage in this quarter, determined to
declare himself the protector of all the Christians in the Turkish
Empire, a claim which the sultan dared not admit if he wished to hold
control over his Mohammedan subjects. War was in the air, and England
and France, resolute to preserve the "balance of power," sent their
fleets to the Dardanelles as useful lookers-on.
[=The Sultan Declares War Against Russia=]
The sultan had already rejected the Russian demand, and Nicholas lost
no time in sending an army, led by Prince Gortchakoff, with orders to
cross the Pruth and take possession of the Turkish provinces on the
Danube. The gauntlet had been thrown down. War was inevitable. The
English newspapers demanded of their government a vigorous policy. The
old Turkish party in Constantinople was equally urgent in its demand
for hostilities. At length, on October 4, 1853, the sultan declared
war against Russia unless the Danubian principalities were at once
evacuated. Instead of doing so, Nicholas ordered his generals to invade
the Balkan territory, and on the other hand France and England entered
into alliance with the Porte and sent their fleets to the Bosporus.
Shortly afterwards the Russian Admiral Nachimoff surprised a Turkish
squadron in the harbor of Sinope, attacked it, and--though the Turks
fought with the greatest courage--the fleet was destroyed and nearly
the whole of its crews were slain.
This turned the tide in England and France, which declared war in
March, 1854, while Prussia and Austria maintained a waiting attitude.
No event of special importance took place early in the war. In April
Lord Raglan, with an English army of 20,000 men, landed in Turkey and
the siege of the Russian city of Odessa was begun. Meanwhile the
Russians, who had crossed the Danube, found it advisable to retreat and
withdraw across the Pruth, on a threat of hostilities from Austria and
Prussia unless the principalities were evacuated.
[=England and France Come to the Aid of Turkey=]
The French had met with heavy losses in an advance from Varna, and the
British fleet had made an expedition against St. Petersburg, but had
been checked before the powerful fortress of Cronstadt. Such was the
state of affairs in the summer of 1854, when the allies determined to
carry the war into the enemy's territory, attack the maritime city of
Sebastopol in the Crimea, and seek to destroy the Russian naval power
in the Black Sea.
[=The War in the Crimea=]
Of the allied armies 15,000 men had already perished. With the
remaining forces, rather more than 50,000 British and French and 6,000
Turks, the fleet set sail in September across the Black Sea, and landed
near Eupatoria on the west coast of the Crimean peninsula, on the 4th
of September, 1854. Southwards of Eupatoria the sea forms a bay, into
which, near the ruins of the old town of Inkermann, the little river
Tschernaja pours itself. On its southern side lies the fortified town
of Sebastopol, on its northern side strong fortifications were raised
for the defence of the fleet of war which lay at anchor in the bay.
Farther north the western mountain range is intersected by the river
Alma, over which Prince Menzikoff, governor of the Crimea, garrisoned
the heights with an army of 30,000 men. Against the latter the allies
first directed their attack, and, in spite of the strong position of
the Russians on the rocky slopes, Menzikoff was compelled to retreat,
owing his escape from entire destruction only to the want of cavalry
in the army of the allies. This dearly bought and bloody battle on the
Alma gave rise to hopes of a speedy termination of the campaign; but
the allies, weakened and wearied by the fearful struggle, delayed a
further attack, and Menzikoff gained time to strengthen his garrison,
and to surround Sebastopol with strong fortifications. When the allies
approached the town they were soon convinced that any attack on such
formidable defences would be fruitless, and that they mast await the
arrival of fresh reinforcements and ammunition. The English took up
their position on the Bay of Balaklava, and the French to the west, on
the Kamiesch.
[Illustration: THE SULTAN OF TURKEY
THE SHAH OF IRAN
POTENTATES OF THE EAST]
[Illustration: LANDING IN THE CRIMEA AND THE BATTLE OF ALMA
On the landing of the allied British, French and Turks
in the Crimea in September, 1854, Prince Menshikoff
occupied the adjacent heights with an army of 30,000
men. He was attacked by the allies and driven from his
position in the battle of Alma. From that point the
invaders marched to the siege of Sebastopol.]
[=The Battle of Balaklava=]
There now commenced a siege such as has seldom occurred in the history
of the world. The first attempt to storm by a united attack of the land
army and the fleet showed the resistance to be much more formidable
than had been expected by the allies. Eight days later the English
were surprised in their strong position near Balaklava by General
Liprandi. The battle of Balaklava was decided in favor of the
allies, and on the 5th of November, when Menzikoff had obtained fresh
reinforcements, the murderous battle of Inkermann was fought under the
eyes of the two Grand Princes Nicholas and Michael, and after a mighty
struggle was won by the allied armies. Fighting in the ranks were two
other princely personages, the Duke of Cambridge and Prince Napoleon,
son of Jerome, former King of Westphalia.
Of the engagements here named there is only one to which special
attention need be directed, the battle of Balaklava, in which occurred
that mad but heroic "Charge of the Light Brigade," which has become
famous in song and story. The purpose of this conflict on the part of
the Russians was to cut the line of communication of the allies, by
capturing the redoubts that guarded them, and thus to enforce a retreat
by depriving the enemy of supplies.
[=The Highlanders' "Thin, Red Line"=]
The day began with a defeat of the Turks and the capture by the
Russians of several of the redoubts. Then a great body of Russian
cavalry, 3,000 strong, charged upon the 93d Highlanders, who were drawn
up in line to receive them. There was comparatively but a handful of
these gallant Scotchmen, 550 all told, but they have made themselves
famous in history as the invincible "thin, red line."
Sir Colin Campbell, their noble leader, said to them: "Remember, lads,
there is no retreat from here. You must die where you stand."
"Ay, ay, Sir Colin," shouted the sturdy Highlanders, "we will do just
that."
They did not need to. The murderous fire from their "thin, red line"
was more than the Russians cared to endure, and they were driven back
in disorder.
The British cavalry completed the work of the infantry. On the serried
mass of Russian horsemen charged Scarlett's Heavy Brigade, vastly
inferior to them in number, but inspired with a spirit and courage
that carried its bold horsemen through the Russian columns with such
resistless energy that the great body of Muscovite cavalry broke and
fled--3,000 completely routed by 800 gallant dragoons.
And now came the unfortunate but world-famous event of the day. It
was due to a mistaken order. Lord Raglan, thinking that the Russians
intended to carry off the guns captured in the Turkish redoubts, sent
an order to the brigade of light cavalry to "advance rapidly to the
front and prevent the enemy from carrying off the guns."
[=Captain Nolan and the Order to Charge=]
Lord Lucan, to whom the command was brought, did not understand it.
Apparently, Captain Nolan, who conveyed the order, did not clearly
explain its purport.
"Lord Raglan orders that the cavalry shall attack immediately," he
said, impatient at Lucan's hesitation.
"Attack, sir; attack what?" asked Lucan.
"There, my lord, is your enemy; there are your guns," said Nolan, with
a wave of his hand towards the hostile lines.
The guns he appeared to indicate were those of a Russian battery at the
end of the valley, to attack which by an unsupported cavalry charge was
sheer madness. Lucan rode to Lord Cardigan, in command of the cavalry,
and repeated the order.
"But there is a battery in front of us and guns and riflemen on either
flank," said Cardigan.
"I know it," answered Lucan. "But Lord Raglan will have it. We have no
choice but to obey."
"The brigade will advance," said Cardigan, without further hesitation.
In a moment more the "gallant six hundred" were in motion--going in the
wrong direction, as Captain Nolan is thought to have perceived. At all
events he spurred his horse across the front of the brigade, waving his
sword as if with the intention to set them right. But no one understood
him, and at that instant a fragment of shell struck him and hurled him
dead to the earth. There was no further hope of stopping the mad charge.
[=The Charge of the Light Brigade=]
On and on went the devoted Light Brigade, their pace increasing at
every stride, headed straight for the Russian battery half a league
away. As they went fire was opened on them from the guns in flank. Soon
they came within range of the guns in front, which also opened a raking
fire. They were enveloped in "a zone of fire, and the air was filled
with the rush of shot, the bursting of shells, and the moan of bullets,
while amidst the infernal din the work of death went on, and men and
horses were incessantly dashed to the ground."
But no thought of retreat seems to have entered the minds of those
brave dragoons and their gallant leader. Their pace increased; they
reached the battery and dashed in among the guns; the gunners were cut
down as they served their pieces. Masses of Russian cavalry standing
near were charged and forced back. The men fought madly in the face of
death until the word came to retreat.
[=The Sad End of a Deed of Glory=]
Then, emerging from the smoke of the battle, a feeble remnant of the
"gallant six hundred" appeared upon the plain, comprising one or two
large groups, though the most of them were in scattered parties of
two or three. One group of about seventy men cut their way through
three squadrons of Russian lancers. Another party of equal strength
broke through a second intercepting force. Out of some 647 men in all,
247 were killed and wounded, and nearly all the horses were slain.
Lord Cardigan, the first to enter the battery, was one of those who
came back alive. The whole affair had occupied no more than twenty
minutes. But it was a twenty minutes of which the British nation has
ever since been proud, and which Tennyson has made famous by one of the
most spirit-stirring of his odes. The French General Bosquet fairly
characterized it by his often quoted remark: "C'est magnifique, mais ce
n'est pas la guerre." (It is magnificent, but it is not war.)
These battles in the field brought no changes in the state of affairs.
The siege of Sebastopol went on through the winter of 1854-55, during
which the allied army suffered the utmost misery and privation, partly
the effect of climate, largely the result of fraud and incompetency at
home. Sisters of Mercy and self-sacrificing English ladies--chief among
them the noble Florence Nightingale--strove to assuage the sufferings
brought on the soldiers by cold, hunger, and disease, but these enemies
proved more fatal than the sword.
In the year 1855 the war was carried on with increased energy. Sardinia
joined the allies and sent them an army of 15,000 men. Austria broke
with Russia and began preparations for war. And in March the obstinate
czar Nicholas died and his milder son Alexander took his place. Peace
was demanded in Russia, yet 25,000 of her sons had fallen and the honor
of the nation seemed involved. The war went on, both sides increasing
their forces. Month by month the allies more closely invested the
besieged city. After the middle of August the assault became almost
incessant, cannon balls dropping like an unceasing storm of hail in
forts and streets.
[=The Assault on and Capture of Sebastopol=]
On the 5th of September began a terrific bombardment, continuing day
and night for three days, and sweeping down more than 5,000 Russians on
the ramparts. At length, as the hour of noon struck on September 8th,
the attack of which this play of artillery was the prelude began, the
French assailing the Malakoff, the British the Redan, these being the
most formidable of the defensive works of the town. The French assault
was successful and Sebastopol became untenable. That night the Russians
blew up their remaining forts, sunk their ships of war, and marched
out of the town, leaving it as the prize of victory to the allies.
Soon after Russia gained a success by capturing the Turkish fortress
of Kars, in Asia Minor, and, her honor satisfied with this success, a
treaty of peace was concluded. In this treaty the Black Sea was made
neutral and all ships of war were excluded from its waters, while the
safety of the Christians of Wallachia, Moldavia and Servia was assured
by making these principalities practically independent, under the
protection of the powers of Europe.
[=The Revolt in Bosnia=]
Turkey came out of the war weakened and shorn of territory. But the
Turkish idea of government remained unchanged, and in twenty years'
time Russia was fairly goaded into another war. In 1875 Bosnia
rebelled in consequence of the insufferable oppression of the Turkish
tax-collectors. The brave Bosnians maintained themselves so sturdily in
their mountain fastnesses that the Turks almost despaired of subduing
them, and the Christian subjects of the Sultan in all quarters became
so stirred up that a general revolt was threatened.
The Turks undertook to prevent this in their usual fashion. Irregular
troops were sent into Christian Bulgaria with orders to kill all they
met. It was an order to the Mohammedan taste. The defenceless villages
of Bulgaria were entered and their inhabitants slaughtered in cold
blood, till thousands of men, women, and children had been slain.
[=The "Bulgarian Horror" and Its Effect=]
When tidings of these atrocities reached Europe the nations were filled
with horror. The Sultan made smooth excuses, and diplomacy sought to
settle the affair, but it became evident that a massacre so terrible as
this could not be condoned so easily. Disraeli, then prime minister of
Great Britain, sought to dispose of these reports as matters for jest;
but Gladstone, at that time in retirement, arose in his might, and by
his pamphlet on the "Bulgarian Horrors" so aroused public sentiment in
England that the government dared not back up Turkey in the coming war.
Hostilities were soon proclaimed. The Russians, of the same race and
religious sect as the Bulgarians, were excited beyond control, and in
April, 1877, Alexander II. declared war against Turkey. The outrages of
the Turks had been so flagrant that no allies came to their aid, while
the rottenness of their empire was shown by the rapid advance of the
Russian armies.
They crossed the Danube in June. In a month later they had occupied
the principal passes of the Balkan mountains and were in position to
descend on the broad plain that led to Constantinople. But at this
point in their career they met with a serious check. Osman Pasha, the
single Turkish commander of ability that the war developed, occupied
the town of Plevna with such forces as he could gather, fortified it as
strongly as possible, and from behind its walls defied the Russians.
[=Osman Pacha and the Defence of Plevna=]
They dared not advance and leave this stronghold in their rear. For
five months all the power of Russia and the skill of its generals
were held in check by this brave man and his few followers, until
Europe and America alike looked on with admiration at his remarkable
defence, in view of which the cause of the war was almost forgotten.
The Russian general Krüdener was repulsed with the loss of 8,000 men.
The daring Skobeleff strove in vain to launch his troops over Osman's
walls. At length General Todleben undertook the siege, adopting the
slow but safe method of starving out the defenders. Osman Pacha now
showed his courage, as he had already shown his endurance. When hunger
and disease began to reduce the strength of his men, he resolve on a
final desperate effort. At the head of his brave garrison the "Lion of
Plevna" sallied from the city, and fought with desperate courage to
break through the circle of his foes. He was finally driven back into
the city and compelled to surrender.
[=The Total Defeat of the Turks=]
Osman had won glory, and his fall was the fall of the Turkish cause.
The Russians crossed the Balkan, capturing in the Schipka Pass a
Turkish army of 30,000 men. Adrianople was taken, and the Turkish line
of retreat cut off. The Russians marched to the Bosporus, and the
Sultan was compelled to sue for peace to save his capital from falling
into the hands of the Christians, as it had fallen into those of the
Turks four centuries before.
Russia had won the game for which she had made so long a struggle.
The treaty of San Stefano practically decreed the dissolution of the
Turkish Empire. But at this juncture the other nations of Europe took
part. They were not content to see the balance of power destroyed by
Russia becoming master of Constantinople, and England demanded that the
treaty should be revised by the European powers. Russia protested, but
Disraeli threatened war, and the czar gave way.
[=The Congress of Berlin=]
The Congress of Berlin, to which the treaty was referred, settled the
question in the following manner: Montenegro, Roumania, and Servia were
declared independent, and Bulgaria became free, except that it had to
pay an annual tribute to the sultan. The part of old Bulgaria that lay
south of the Balkan Mountains was named East Roumelia and given its own
civil government, but was left under the military control of Turkey.
Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the control of Austria. All
that Russia obtained for her victories were some provinces in Asia
Minor. Turkey was terribly shorn, and since then her power has been
further reduced, for East Roumelia has broken loose from her control
and united itself again to Bulgaria.
[=The Turks in Armenia and Crete=]
Another twenty years passed, and Turkey found itself at war again. It
was the old story, the oppression of the Christians. This time the
trouble began in Armenia, a part of Turkey in Asia, where in 1895 and
1896 terrible massacres took place. Indignation reigned in Europe, but
fears of a general war kept them from using force, and the sultan paid
no heed to the reforms he promised to make.
In 1896 the Christians of the island of Crete broke out in revolt
against the oppression and tyranny of Turkish rule. Of all the powers
of Europe little Greece was the only one that came to their aid, and
the great nations, still inspired with the fear of a general war,
sent their fleet and threatened Greece with blockade unless she would
withdraw her troops.
[=The War Between Turkey and Greece=]
The result was one scarcely expected. Greece was persistent, and
gathered a threatening army on the frontier of Turkey, and war broke
out in 1897 between the two states. The Turks now, under an able
commander, showed much of their ancient valor and intrepidity, crossing
the frontier, defeating the Greeks in a rapid series of engagements,
and occupying Thessaly, while the Greek army was driven back in a
state of utter demoralization. At this juncture, when Greece lay at
the mercy of Turkey, as Turkey had lain at that of Russia twenty years
before, the powers, which had refused to aid Greece in her generous but
hopeless effort, stepped in to save her from ruin. Turkey was bidden
to call a halt, and the sultan reluctantly stopped the march of his
army. He demanded the whole of Thessaly and a large indemnity in money.
The former the powers refused to grant, and reduced the indemnity to
a sum within the power of Greece to pay. Thus the affair ended, and
such is the status of the Eastern Question to-day. But it may be merely
a question of time when Russia shall accomplish her long-cherished
design, and become master of Constantinople; possibly by the way of
Asia, in which her power is now so rapidly and widely extending.