Haida Demi-Gods
There is a curious Haida story told of the origin of certain
supernatural people, who are supposed to speak through the _shamans_,
or medicine-men, and of how they got their names.
Ten brothers went out to hunt with their dogs. While they were
climbing a steep rocky mountain a thick mist enveloped them, and they
were compelled to remain on the heights. By and by they made a fire,
and the youngest, who was full of mischief, cast his bow in it. When
the bow was burnt the hunters were astonished to see it on the level
ground below. The mischievous brother thereupon announced his
intention of following his weapon, and by the same means. Though the
others tried hard to dissuade him, he threw himself on the blazing
fire, and was quickly consumed. His brothers then beheld him on the
plain vigorously exhorting them to follow his example. One by one they
did so, some boldly, some timorously, but all found themselves at last
on the level ground.
As the brothers travelled on they heard a wren chirping, and they saw
that one of their number had a blue hole in his heart. Farther on they
found a hawk's feather, which they tied in the hair of the youngest.
They came at length to a deserted village on the shores of an inlet,
and took possession of one of the huts. For food they ate some
mussels, and having satisfied their hunger they set out to explore the
settlement. Nothing rewarded their search but an old canoe, moss-grown
and covered with nettles. When they had removed the weeds and scraped
off the moss they {313} repaired it, and the mischievous one who had
led them into the fire made a bark bailer for it, on which he carved
the representation of a bird. Another, who had in his hair a bunch of
feathers, took a pole and jumped into the canoe. The rest followed,
and the canoe slid away from the shore. Soon they came in sight of a
village where a _shaman_ was performing.
Attracted by the noise and the glow of the fire, the warrior at the bow
stepped ashore and advanced to see what was going on. "Now," he heard
the _shaman_ say, "the chief Supernatural-being-who-keeps-the-bow-off
is coming ashore." The Indian was ashamed to hear himself thus
mistakenly, as he thought, referred to as a supernatural being, and
returned to the canoe. The next one advanced to the village. "Chief
Hawk-hole is coming ashore," said the _shaman_. The Indian saw the
blue hole at his heart, and he also was ashamed, and returned to his
brothers. The third was named
Supernatural-being-on-whom-the-daylight-rests, the fourth
Supernatural-being-on-the-water-on-whom-is-sunshine, the fifth
Supernatural-puffin-on-the-water, the sixth
Hawk-with-one-feather-sticking-out-of-the-water, the seventh
Wearing-clouds-around-his-neck, the eighth
Supernatural-being-with-the-big-eyes, the ninth
Supernatural-being-lying-on-his-back-in-the-canoe, and the eldest, and
last, Supernatural-being-half-of-whose-words-are-raven. Each as he
heard his name pronounced returned to the canoe. When they had all
heard the _shaman_, and were assembled once more, the eldest brother
said, "We have indeed become supernatural people," which was quite
true, for by burning themselves in the fire they had reached the Land
of Souls.[1]
[1] This myth would appear to explain the fancied resemblance between
smoke and the shadowy or vaporous substance of which spirits or ghosts
are supposed to be composed.
{314}
The Supernatural Sister
The ten brothers floated round the coast till they reached another
village. Here they took on board a woman whose arms had been
accidentally burned by her husband, who mistook them for the arms of
some one embracing his wife. The woman was severely burned and was in
great distress. The supernatural brothers made a crack in the bottom
of the canoe and told the woman to place her hands in it. Her wounds
were immediately healed. They called her their sister, and seated her
in the canoe to bail out the water. When they came to the Dj[=u], the
stream near which dwelt Fine-weather-woman,[2] the latter came and
talked to them, repeating the names which the _shaman_ had given them,
and calling their sister Supernatural-woman-who-does-the-bailing.
[2] See page 316.
"Paddle to the island you see in the distance," she added. "The wizard
who lives there is he who paints those who are to become supernatural
beings. Go to him and he will paint you. Dance four nights in your
canoe and you will be finished."
They did as she bade them, and the wizard dressed them in a manner
becoming to their position as supernatural beings. He gave them
dancing hats, dancing skirts, and puffin-beak rattles, and drew a cloud
over the outside of their canoe.
The Birth of Sîñ
The Haida of British Columbia and the Queen Charlotte Islands possess a
striking myth relating to the incarnation of the Sky-god, their
principal deity. The daughter of a certain chief went one day to dig
in the beach. After she had worked some time she dug {315} up a
cockle-shell. She was about to throw it to one side when she thought
she heard a sound coming from it like that of a child crying.
Examining the shell, she found a small baby inside. She carried it
home and wrapped it in a warm covering, and tended it so carefully that
it grew rapidly and soon began to walk.
She was sitting beside the child one day when he made a movement with
his hand as if imitating the drawing of a bowstring, so to please him
she took a copper bracelet from her arm and hammered it into the shape
of a bow, which she strung and gave him along with two arrows. He was
delighted with the tiny weapon, and immediately set out to hunt small
game with it. Every day he returned to his foster-mother with some
trophy of his skill. One day it was a goose, another a woodpecker, and
another a blue jay.
One morning he awoke to find himself and his mother in a fine new
house, with gorgeous door-posts splendidly carved and illuminated in
rich reds, blues, and greens. The carpenter who had raised this fine
building married his mother, and was very kind to him. He took the boy
down to the sea-shore, and caused him to sit with his face looking
toward the expanse of the Pacific. And so long as the lad looked
across the boundless blue there was fair weather.
His father used to go fishing, and one day Sîñ--for such was the boy's
name--expressed a wish to accompany him. They obtained devil-fish for
bait, and proceeded to the fishing-ground, where the lad instructed his
father to pronounce certain magical formulæ, the result of which was
that their fishing-line was violently agitated and their canoe pulled
round an adjacent island three times. When the disturbance stopped at
last they pulled in the line and dragged out a monster covered with
piles of halibut.
{316}
One day Sîñ went out wearing a wren-skin. His mother beheld him rise
in stature until he soared above her and brooded like a bank of shining
clouds over the ocean. Then he descended and donned the skin of a blue
jay. Again he rose over the sea, and shone resplendently. Once more
he soared upward, wearing the skin of a woodpecker, and the waves
reflected a colour as of fire.
Then he said: "Mother, I shall see you no more. I am going away from
you. When the sky looks like my face painted by my father there will
be no wind. Then the fishing will be good."
His mother bade him farewell, sadly, yet with the proud knowledge that
she had nurtured a divinity. But her sorrow increased when her husband
intimated that it was time for him to depart as well. Her supernatural
son and husband, however, left her a portion of their power. For when
she sits by the inlet and loosens her robe the wind scurries down
between the banks and the waves are ruffled with tempest; and the more
she loosens the garment the greater is the storm. They call her in the
Indian tongue Fine-weather-woman. But she dwells mostly in the winds,
and when the cold morning airs draw up from the sea landward she makes
an offering of feathers to her glorious son. The feathers are flakes
of snow, and they serve to remind him that the world is weary for a
glimpse of his golden face.
Master-Carpenter and Southeast
A Haida myth relates how Master-carpenter, a supernatural being, went
to war with South-east (the south-east wind) at Sqa-i, the town lying
farthest south on the Queen Charlotte Islands. The south-east wind is
particularly rude and boisterous on that coast, and it {317} was with
the intention of punishing him for his violence that Master-carpenter
challenged him. First of all, however, he set about building a canoe
for himself. The first one he made split, and he was obliged to throw
it away. The second also split, notwithstanding the fact that he had
made it stouter than the other. Another and another he built, making
each one stronger than the last, but every attempt ended in failure,
and at last, exceedingly vexed at his unskilfulness, he was on the
point of giving the task up. He would have done so, indeed, but for
the intervention of Greatest Fool. Hitherto Master-carpenter had been
trying to form two canoes from one log by means of wedges. Greatest
Fool stood watching him for a time, amused at his clumsiness, and
finally showed him that he ought to use bent wedges. And though he was
perhaps the last person from whom Master-carpenter might expect to
learn anything, the unsuccessful builder of canoes adopted the
suggestion, with the happiest results. When at length he was satisfied
that he had made a good canoe he let it down into the water, and sailed
off in search of South-east.
[Illustration: "He seized hold of the hair"]
By and by he floated right down to his enemy's abode, and when he
judged himself to be above it he rose in the canoe and flung out a
challenge. There was no reply. Again he called, and this time a rapid
current began to float past him, bearing on its surface a quantity of
seaweed. The shrewd Master-carpenter fancied he saw the matted hair of
his enemy floating among the seaweed. He seized hold of it, and after
it came South-east. The latter in a great passion began to call on his
nephews to help him. The first to be summoned was Red-storm-cloud.
Immediately a deep red suffused the sky. Then the stormy tints died
away, and the wind rose with a harsh murmur. {318} When this wind had
reached its full strength another was summoned,
Taker-off-of-the-tree-tops. The blast increased to a hurricane, and
the tree-tops were blown off and carried away and fell thickly about
the canoe, where Master-carpenter was making use of his magic arts to
protect himself. Again another wind was called up, Pebble-rattler, who
set the stones and sand flying about as he shrieked in answer to the
summons. Maker-of-the-thick-sea-mist came next, the spirit of the fog
which strikes terror into the hearts of those at sea, and he was
followed by a numerous band of other nephews, each more to be dreaded
than the last. Finally Tidal-wave came and covered Master-carpenter
with water, so that he was obliged to give in. Relinquishing his hold
on South-east, he managed to struggle to the shore. It was said by
some that South-east died, but the _shamans_, who ought to know, say
that he returned to his own place.
South-east's mother was named To-morrow, and the Indians say that if
they utter that word they will have bad weather, for South-east does
not like to hear his mother's name used by any one else.
The Beaver and the Porcupine
This is the tale of a feud between the beavers and the porcupines.
Beaver had laid in a plentiful store of food, but Porcupine had failed
to do so, and one day when the former was out hunting the latter went
to his lodge and stole his provision. When Beaver returned he found
that his food was gone, and he questioned Porcupine about the matter.
"Did you steal my food?" he asked.
"No," answered Porcupine. "One cannot steal food from supernatural
beings, and you and I both possess supernatural powers."
{319}
Of course this was mere bluff on the part of Porcupine, and it in
nowise deceived his companion.
"You stole my food!" said Beaver angrily, and he tried to seize
Porcupine with his teeth. But the sharp spines of the latter
disconcerted him, though he was not easily repulsed. For a time he
fought furiously, but at length he was forced to retreat, with his face
covered with quills from his spiny adversary. His friends and
relatives greeted him sympathetically. His father summoned all the
Beaver People, told them of the injuries his son had received, and bade
them avenge the honour of their clan. The people at once repaired to
the abode of Porcupine, who, from the fancied security of his lodge,
heaped insults and abuse on them. The indignant Beaver People pulled
his house down about his ears, seized him, and carried him, in spite of
his threats and protests, to a desolate island, where they left him to
starve.
It seemed to Porcupine that he had not long to live. Nothing grew on
the island save two trees, neither of which was edible, and there was
no other food within reach. He called loudly to his friends to come to
his assistance, but there was no answer. In vain he summoned all the
animals who were related to him. His cries never reached them.
When he had quite given up hope he fancied he heard something whisper
to him: "Call upon Cold-weather, call upon North-wind." At first he
did not understand, but thought his imagination must be playing tricks
with him. Again the voice whispered to him: "Sing North songs, and you
will be saved." Wondering much, but with hope rising in his breast,
Porcupine did as he was bidden, and raised his voice in the North
songs. "Let the cold weather come," he sang, "let the water be smooth."
{320}
The Finding of Porcupine
After a time the weather became very cold, a strong wind blew from the
north, and the water became smooth with a layer of ice. When it was
sufficiently frozen to bear the weight of the Porcupine People they
crossed over to the island in search of their brother. They were
greatly rejoiced to see him, but found him so weak that he could hardly
walk, and he had to be carried to his father's lodge.
When they wanted to know why Beaver had treated him so cruelly he
replied that it was because he had eaten Beaver's food. The Porcupine
People, thinking this a small excuse, were greatly incensed against the
beavers, and immediately declared war on them. But the latter were
generally victorious, and the war by and by came to an inglorious end
for the porcupines. The spiny tribe still, however, imagined that they
had a grievance against Beaver, and plotted to take his life. They
carried him to the top of a tall tree, thinking that as the beavers
could not climb he would be in the same plight as their brother had
been on the island. But by the simple expedient of eating the tree
downward from the top Beaver was enabled to return to his home.
The Devil-Fish's Daughter
A Haida Indian was sailing in his canoe with his two children and his
wife at low tide. They had been paddling for some time, when they came
to a place where some devil-fish stones lay, and they could discern the
devil-fish's tracks and see where its food was lying piled up. The
man, who was a _shaman_, landed upon the rocks with the intention of
finding and killing the devil-fish, but while he was searching {321}
for it the monster suddenly emerged from its hole and dragged him
through the aperture into its den. His wife and children, believing
him to be dead, paddled away.
The monster which had seized the man was a female devil-fish, and she
dragged him far below into the precincts of the town where dwelt her
father, the devil-fish chief, and there he married the devil-fish which
had captured him. Many years passed, and at length the man became
home-sick and greatly desired to see his wife and family once more. He
begged the chief to let him go, and after some demur his request was
granted.
The _shaman_ departed in one canoe, and his wife, the devil-fish's
daughter, in another. The canoes were magical, and sped along of
themselves. Soon they reached his father's town by the aid of the
enchanted craft. He had brought much wealth with him from the
devil-fish kingdom, and with this he traded and became a great chief.
Then his children found him and came to him. They were grown up, and
to celebrate his home-coming he held a great feast. Five great feasts
he held, one after another, and at each of them his children and his
human wife were present.
But the devil-fish wife began to pine for the sea-life. One day while
her husband and she sat in his father's house he began to melt. At the
same time the devil-fish wife disappeared betwixt the planks of the
flooring. Her husband then assumed the devil-fish form, and a second
soft, slimy body followed the first through the planks. The devil-fish
wife and her husband had returned to her father's realm.
This myth, of course, approximates to those of the seal-wives who
escape from their mortal husbands, and the swan- and other bird-brides
who, pining for their {322} natural environment, take wing one fine day
and leave their earth-mates.
Chinook Tales
The Chinooks formerly dwelt on Columbia River, from the Dalles to its
mouth, and on the Lower Willamette. With the exception of a few
individuals, they are now extinct, but their myths have been
successfully collected and preserved. They were the natives of the
north-west coast, cunning in bargaining, yet dwelling on a communal
plan. Their chief physical characteristic was a high and narrow
forehead artificially flattened. Concerning this people Professor
Daniel Wilson says:
"The Chinooks are among the most remarkable of the flat-headed Indians,
and carry the process of cranial distortion to the greatest excess.
They are in some respects a superior race, making slaves of other
tribes, and evincing considerable skill in such arts as are required in
their wild forest and coast life. Their chief war-implements are bows
and arrows, the former made from the yew-tree, and the latter feathered
and pointed with bone. Their canoes are hollowed out of the trunk of
the cedar-tree, which attains to a great size in that region, and are
frequently ornamented with much taste and skill. In such a canoe the
dead Chinook chief is deposited, surrounded with all the requisites for
war, or the favourite occupations of life: presenting a correspondence
in his sepulchral rites to the ancient pagan viking, who, as appears
alike from the contents of the Scandinavian _Skibssaetninger_ and from
the narratives of the sagas, was interred or consumed in his
war-galley, and the form of that favourite scene of ocean triumphs
perpetuated in the earth-work that covered his ashes."
{323}
The Story of Blue Jay and Ioi
The Chinooks tell many stories of Blue Jay, the tricky, mischievous
totem-bird, and among these tales there are three which are concerned
with his sister Ioi. Blue Jay, whose disposition resembled that of the
bird he symbolized, delighted in tormenting Ioi by deliberately
misinterpreting her commands, and by repeating at every opportunity his
favourite phrase, "Ioi is always telling lies."
In the first of the trilogy Ioi requested her brother to take a wife
from among the dead, to help her with her work in house and field. To
this Blue Jay readily assented, and he took for his spouse a
chieftain's daughter who had been recently buried. But Ioi's request
that his wife should be an old one he disregarded.
"Take her to the Land of the Supernatural People," said Ioi, when she
had seen her brother's bride, "and they will restore her to life."
Blue Jay set out on his errand, and after a day's journey arrived with
his wife at a town inhabited by the Supernatural Folk.
"How long has she been dead?" they asked him, when he stated his
purpose in visiting them.
"A day," he replied.
The Supernatural People shook their heads.
"We cannot help you," said they. "You must travel to the town where
people are restored who have been dead for a day."
Blue Jay obediently resumed his journey, and at the end of another day
he reached the town to which he had been directed, and told its
inhabitants why he had come.
"How long has she been dead?" they asked.
{324}
"Two days," said he.
"Then we can do nothing," replied the Supernatural Folk, "for we can
only restore people who have been dead one day. However, you can go to
the town where those are brought to life who have been dead two days."
Another day's journey brought Blue Jay and his wife to the third town.
Again he found himself a day late, and was directed to a fourth town,
and from that one to yet another. At the fifth town, however, the
Supernatural People took pity on him, and recovered his wife from
death. Blue Jay they made a chieftain among them, and conferred many
honours upon him.
After a time he got tired of living in state among the Supernatural
People, and returned home.
When he was once more among his kindred his young brother-in-law, the
chief's son, learnt that his sister was alive and married to Blue Jay.
Hastily the boy carried the news to his father, the old chief, who sent
a message to Blue Jay demanding his hair in payment for his wife. The
messenger received no reply, and the angry chief gathered his people
round him and led them to Blue Jay's lodge. On their approach Blue Jay
turned himself into a bird and flew away, while his wife swooned. All
the efforts of her kindred could not bring the woman round, and they
called on her husband to return. It was in vain, however: Blue Jay
would not come back, and his wife journeyed finally to the Land of
Souls.
The Marriage of Ioi
The second portion of the trilogy relates how the Ghost-people, setting
out one night from the Shadowland to buy a wife, took Ioi, the sister
of Blue Jay, who disappeared before morning. After a year had elapsed
{325} her brother decided to go in search of her. But though he
inquired the way to the Ghost-country from all manner of birds and
beasts, he got a satisfactory answer from none of them, and would never
have arrived at his destination at all had he not been carried thither
at last by supernatural means.
In the Ghost-country he found his sister, surrounded by heaps of bones,
which she introduced to him as his relatives by marriage. At certain
times these relics would attain a semblance of humanity, but instantly
became bones again at the sound of a loud voice.
A Fishing Expedition in Shadow-land
At his sister's request Blue Jay went fishing with his young
brother-in-law. Finding that when he spoke in a loud tone he caused
the boy to become a heap of bones in the canoe, Blue Jay took a
malicious pleasure in reducing him to that condition. It was just the
sort of trick he loved to play.
[Illustration: A Fishing Expedition in Shadow-land]
The fish they caught were nothing more than leaves and branches, and
Blue Jay, in disgust, threw them back into the water. But, to his
chagrin, when he returned his sister told him that they were really
fish, and that he ought not to have flung them away. However, he
consoled himself with the reflection, "Ioi is always telling lies."
Besides teasing Ioi, he played many pranks on the inoffensive Ghosts.
Sometimes he would put the skull of a child on the shoulders of a man,
and vice versa, and take a mischievous delight in the ludicrous result
when they came 'alive.'
On one occasion, when the prairies were on fire, Ioi bade her brother
extinguish the flames. For this purpose she gave him five buckets of
water, warning him that he must not pour it on the burning prairies
{326} until he came to the fourth of them. Blue Jay disobeyed her, as
he was wont to do, and with dire results, for when he reached the fifth
prairie he found he had no water to pour on it. While endeavouring to
beat out the flames he was so seriously burned that he died, and
returned to the Ghosts as one of themselves, but without losing his
mischievous propensities.
Blue Jay and Ioi Go Visiting
The third tale of the trilogy tells how Blue Jay and Ioi went to visit
their friends. The Magpie was the first to receive the visitors, and
by means of magic he provided food for them. Putting a salmon egg into
a kettle of boiling water, he placed the kettle on the fire, and
immediately it was full of salmon eggs, so that when they had eaten
enough Blue Jay and Ioi were able to carry a number away.
On the following day the Magpie called for the kettle they had
borrowed. Blue Jay tried to entertain his visitor in the same magical
fashion as the latter had entertained him. But his attempt was so
ludicrous that the Magpie could not help laughing at him.
The pair's next visit was to the Duck, who obtained food for them by
making her children dive for trout. Again there was twice as much as
they could eat, and Blue Jay and Ioi carried away the remainder on a
mat. During the return visit of the Duck Blue Jay tried to emulate
this feat also, using Ioi's children instead of the ducklings. His
attempt was again unsuccessful.
The two visited in turn the Black Bear, the Beaver, and the Seal, all
of whom similarly supplied refreshment for them in a magical manner.
But Blue Jay's attempts at imitating these creatures were futile.
{327}
A visit to the Shadows concluded the round, and the adventurers
returned home.
The Heaven-sought Bride
A brother and sister left destitute by the death of their father, a
chief of the Chinooks, were forced to go hunting sea-otters every day
to obtain a livelihood. As they hunted the mists came down, and with
them the Supernatural People, one of whom became enamoured of the girl.
The ghostly husband sent his wife gifts of stranded timber and
whale-meat, so that when her son was born she might want for nothing.
The mischievous Blue Jay, hearing of the abundance of meat in the young
chief's house, apprised his own chief of the circumstance and brought
all the village to share it. The Supernatural People, annoyed that
their bounty should be thus misused, abducted the young chief's sister,
along with her child.
The woman's aunt, the Crow, gathered many potentilla and other roots,
placed them in her canoe, and put out to sea. She came to the country
of the Supernatural Folk, and when they saw her approaching they all
ran down to the beach to greet her. They greedily snatched at the
roots she had brought with her and devoured them, eating the most
succulent and throwing away those that were not so much to their taste.
The Crow soon found her niece, who laughed at her for bringing such
fare to such a land.
"Do you think they are men that you bring them potentilla roots?" she
cried. "They only eat certain of the roots you have fetched hither
because they have magical properties. The next time you come bring the
sort of roots they seized upon--and you can also bring a basket of
potentilla roots for me."
{328}
The Whale-catcher
She then called upon a dog which was gambolling close at hand.
"Take this dog," she said to the Crow. "It belongs to your
grand-nephew. When you come near the shore say, 'Catch a whale, dog,'
and see what happens."
The Crow bade farewell to her niece, and, re-entering her canoe,
steered for the world of mortals again. The dog lay quietly in the
stern. When about half-way across the Crow recollected her niece's
advice.
"Catch a whale, good dog," she cried encouragingly.
The dog arose, and at that moment a whale crossed the path of the
canoe. The dog sank his teeth in the great fish, and the frail bark
rocked violently.
"Hold him fast, good fellow!" cried the Crow excitedly. "Hold him
fast!" But the canoe tossed so dangerously and shipped so much water
that in a great fright she bade the dog let go. He did so, and lay
down in the stern again.
The Crow arrived at the world of men once more, and after landing
turned round to call her wonderful dog ashore. But no trace of him was
visible. He had disappeared.
[Illustration: "The mists came down, and with them the Supernatural
People"]
Once more the Crow gathered many roots and plants, taking especial care
to collect a good supply of the sort the Supernatural People were fond
of, and gathering only a small basket of potentilla. For the second
time she crossed over to the land of the Divine Beings, who, on espying
her succulent cargo, devoured it at once. She carried the potentilla
roots to her niece, and when in her house noticed the dog she had
received and lost. Her niece informed her that she should not have
ordered the animal to seize {329} the whale in mid-ocean, but should
have waited until she was nearer the land. The Crow departed once
more, taking the dog with her.
When they approached the land of men the Crow called to the animal to
catch a whale, but it stirred not. Then the Crow poured some water
over him, and he started up and killed a large whale, the carcass of
which drifted on to the beach, when the people came down and cut it up
for food.
The Chinooks Visit the Supernaturals
Some time after this the young chief expressed a desire to go to see
his sister, so his people manned a large canoe and set forth. The
chief of the Supernatural People, observing their approach, warned his
subjects that the mortals might do something to their disadvantage, and
by means of magic he covered the sea with ice. The air became
exceedingly cold, so cold, indeed, that Blue Jay, who had accompanied
the young chief, leapt into the water. At this one of the Supernatural
People on shore laughed and cried out: "Ha, ha! Blue Jay has drowned
himself!" At this taunt the young chief in the canoe arose, and,
taking the ice which covered the surface of the sea, cast it away. At
sight of such power the Supernatural Folk became much alarmed.
The chief and his followers now came to land, and, walking up the
beach, found it deserted. Not a single Supernatural Person was to be
seen. Espying the chief's house, however, the Chinooks approached it.
It was guarded by sea-lions, one at each side of the door. The chief
cautiously warned his people against attempting an entrance. But the
irrepressible Blue Jay tried to leap past the sea-lions, and got
severely bitten for his pains. Howling dismally, he rushed seaward.
{330} The young chief, annoyed that the Divine Beings should have cause
for laughter against any of his people, now darted forward, seized the
monsters one in each hand, and hurled them far away.
At this second feat the Supernatural Folk set up a hubbub of rage and
dismay, which was turned to loud laughter when Blue Jay claimed the
deed as his, loudly chanting his own praises. The Chinooks, taking
heart, entered the lodge. But the Supernatural Folk vanished, leaving
only the chief's sister behind.
The Chinooks had had nothing to eat since leaving their own country,
and Blue Jay, who, like most worthless folk, was always hungry,
complained loudly that he was famished. His brother Robin sullenly
ordered him to be silent. Suddenly a Supernatural Being with a long
beak emerged from under the bed, and, splitting wood with his beak,
kindled a large fire.
"Robin," said Blue Jay, "that is the spirit of our great-grandfather's
slave."
Soon the house was full of smoke, and a voice was heard calling out for
the Smoke-eater. An individual with an enormous belly made his
appearance, and swallowed all the smoke, so that the house became
light. A small dish was brought, containing only one piece of meat.
But the mysterious voice called for the Whale-meat-cutter, who
appeared, and sliced the fragment so with his beak that the plate was
full to overflowing. Then he blew upon it, and it became a large canoe
full of meat, which the Chinooks finished, much to the amazement of the
Supernatural People.
The Four Tests
After a while a messenger from the Divine People approached and asked
to be told whether the Indians would accept a challenge to a diving
contest, the {331} defeated to lose their lives. This was agreed to,
and Blue Jay was selected to dive for the Chinooks. He had taken the
precaution of placing some bushes in his canoe, which he threw into the
water before diving with his opponent, a woman. When his breath gave
out he came to the surface, concealing his head under the floating
bushes. Then he sank into the water again, and cried to his opponent:
"Where are you?" "Here I am," she replied. Four times did Blue Jay
cunningly come up for breath, hidden beneath the bushes, and on diving
for the last time he found the woman against whom he was pitted lying
at the bottom of the sea, almost unconscious. He took his club, which
he had concealed beneath his blanket, and struck her on the nape of the
neck. Then he rose and claimed the victory.
The Supernatural People, much chagrined, suggested a climbing contest,
to which Blue Jay readily agreed, but he was warned that if he was
beaten he would be dashed to pieces. He placed upright a piece of ice
which was so high that it reached the clouds. The Supernaturals
matched a chipmunk against him. When the competitors had reached a
certain height Blue Jay grew tired, so he used his wings and flew
upward. The chipmunk kept her eyes closed and did not notice the
deception. Blue Jay hit her on the neck with his club, so that she
fell, and Blue Jay was adjudged the winner.
A shooting match was next proposed by the exasperated Supernaturals, in
which the persons engaged were to shoot at one another. This the
Chinooks won by taking a beaver as their champion and tying a millstone
in front of him. A sweating match was also won by the Chinooks taking
ice with them into the superheated caves where the contest took place.
As a last effort to shame the Chinooks the Divine {332} People
suggested that the two chiefs should engage in a whale-catching
contest. This was agreed to, and the Supernatural chief's wife, after
warning them, placed Blue Jay and Robin under her armpits to keep them
quiet. As they descended to the beach, she said to her brother: "Four
whales will pass you, but do not harpoon any until the fifth appears."
Robin did as he was bid, but the woman had a hard time in keeping the
curious Blue Jay hidden. The four whales passed, but the young chief
took no heed. Then the fifth slid by. He thrust his harpoon deep into
its blubber, and cast it ashore. The Supernatural chief was
unsuccessful in his attempts, and so the Chinooks won again. On the
result being known Blue Jay could no longer be restrained, and, falling
from under the woman's arm, he was drowned.
On setting out for home the chief was advised to tie Robin's blanket to
a magical rope with which his sister provided him. When the Chinooks
were in the middle of the ocean the Supernatural People raised a great
storm to encompass their destruction. But the charm the chief's sister
had given them proved efficacious, and they reached their own land in
safety.
Blue Jay's death may be regarded as merely figurative, for he appears
in many subsequent Chinook tales.
This myth is undoubtedly one of the class which relates to the
'harrying of Hades.' See the remarks at the conclusion of the myth of
"The Thunderer's Son-in-law."
The Thunderer's Son-in-Law
There were five brothers who lived together. Four of them were
accustomed to spend their days in hunting elk, while the fifth, who was
the youngest, was always compelled to remain at the camp. They lived
amicably {333} enough, save that the youngest grumbled at never being
able to go to the hunting. One day as the youth sat brooding over his
grievance the silence was suddenly broken by a hideous din which
appeared to come from the region of the doorway. He was at a loss to
understand the cause of it, and anxiously wished for the return of his
brothers. Suddenly there appeared before him a man of gigantic size,
strangely apparelled. He demanded food, and the frightened boy,
remembering that they were well provided, hastily arose to satisfy the
stranger's desires. He brought out an ample supply of meat and tallow,
but was astonished to find that the strange being lustily called for
more. The youth, thoroughly terrified, hastened to gratify the
monster's craving, and the giant ate steadily on, hour after hour,
until the brothers returned at the end of the day to discover the
glutton devouring the fruits of their hunting. The monster appeared
not to heed the brothers, but, anxious to satisfy his enormous
appetite, he still ate. A fresh supply of meat had been secured, and
this the brothers placed before him. He continued to gorge himself
throughout the night and well into the next day. At last the meat was
at an end, and the brothers became alarmed. What next would the
insatiable creature demand? They approached him and told him that only
skins remained, but he replied: "What shall I eat, grandchildren, now
that there are only skins and you?" They did not appear to understand
him until they had questioned him several times. On realizing that the
glutton meant to devour them, they determined to escape, so, boiling
the skins, which they set before him, they fled through a hole in the
hut. Outside they placed a dog, and told him to send the giant in the
direction opposite to that which they had taken. Night fell, and the
monster {334} slept, while the dog kept a weary vigil over the exit by
which his masters had escaped. Day dawned as the giant crept through
the gap. He asked the dog: "Which way went your masters?" The animal
replied by setting his head in the direction opposite to the true one.
The giant observed the sign, and went on the road the dog indicated.
After proceeding for some distance he found that the young men could
not have gone that way, so he returned to the hut, to find the dog
still there. Again he questioned the animal, who merely repeated his
previous movement. The monster once more set out, but, unable to
discover the fugitives, he again returned. Three times he repeated
these fruitless journeys. At last he succeeded in getting on to the
right path, and shortly came within sight of the brothers.
The Thunderer
Immediately they saw their pursuer they endeavoured to outrun him, but
without avail. The giant gained ground, and soon overtook the eldest,
whom he slew. He then made for the others, and slew three more. The
youngest only was left. The lad hurried on until he came to a river,
on the bank of which was a man fishing, whose name was the Thunderer.
This person he implored to convey him to the opposite side. After much
hesitation the Thunderer agreed, and, rowing him over the stream, he
commanded the fugitive to go to his hut, and returned to his nets. By
this time the monster had gained the river, and on seeing the fisherman
he asked to be ferried over also. The Thunderer at first refused, but
was eventually persuaded by the offer of a piece of twine. Afraid that
the boat might capsize, the Thunderer stretched himself across the
river, and commanded the giant to walk over his body. {335} The
monster, unaware of treachery, readily responded, but no sooner had he
reached the Thunderer's legs than the latter set them apart, thus
precipitating him into the water. His hat also fell in after him. The
Thunderer now gained his feet, and watched the giant drifting
helplessly down the stream. He did not wish to save the monster, for
he believed him to be an evil spirit. "Okulam [Noise of Surge] will be
your name," he said. "Only when the storm is raging will you be heard.
When the weather is very bad your hat will also be heard." As he
concluded this prophecy the giant disappeared from sight. The
Thunderer then gathered his nets together and went to his hut. The
youth whom he had saved married his daughter, and continued to remain
with him. One day the youth desired to watch his father-in-law fishing
for whales. His wife warned him against doing so. He paid no heed to
her warning, however, but went to the sea, where he saw the Thunderer
struggling with a whale. His father-in-law flew into a great rage, and
a furious storm arose. The Thunderer looked toward the land, and
immediately the storm increased in fury, with thunder and lightning, so
he threw down his dip-net and departed for home, followed by his
son-in-law.
Storm-Raising
On reaching the house the young man gathered some pieces of coal and
climbed a mountain. There he blackened his face, and a high wind arose
which carried everything before it. His father-in-law's house was
blown away, and the Thunderer, seeing that it was hopeless to attempt
to save anything from the wreck, commanded his daughter to seek for her
husband. She hurried up the mountain-side, where she found him, and
told him he was the cause of all the destruction, {336} but concluded:
"Father says you may look at him to-morrow when he catches whales." He
followed his wife back to the valley and washed his face. Immediately
he had done so the storm abated. Going up to his father-in-law, he
said: "To-morrow I shall go down to the beach, and you shall see me
catching whales." Then the Thunderer and he rebuilt their hut. On the
following morning they went down to the sea-shore together. The young
man cast his net into the sea. After a little while a whale entered
the net. The youth quickly pulled the net toward him, reached for the
whale, and flung it at the feet of his father-in-law. Thunderer was
amazed, and called to him: "Ho, ho, my son-in-law, you are just as I
was when I was a young man."
The Beast Comrades
Soon after this the Thunderer's daughter gave birth to two sons. The
Thunderer sent the young man into the woods to capture two wolves with
which he used to play when a boy. The son-in-law soon returned with
the animals, and threw them at the feet of the Thunderer. But they
severely mauled the old man, who, seeing that they had forgotten him,
cried piteously to his son-in-law to carry them back to the forest.
Shortly after this he again despatched his son-in-law in search of two
bears with which he had also been friendly. The young man obeyed. But
the bears treated the old man as the wolves had done, so he likewise
returned them to their native haunts. For the third time the
son-in-law went into the forest, for two grizzly bears, and when he saw
them he called: "I come to carry you away." The bears instantly came
toward him and suffered themselves to be carried before the Thunderer.
But they also had forgotten their former {337} playmate, and
immediately set upon him, so that the young man was compelled to return
with them to the forest. Thunderer had scarcely recovered from this
last attack when he sent his son-in-law into the same forest after two
panthers, which in his younger days had also been his companions.
Without the slightest hesitation the young man arose and went into the
wood, where he met the panthers. He called to them in the same gentle
manner: "I come to take you away." The animals seemed to understand,
and followed him. But Thunderer was dismayed when he saw how wild they
had grown. They would not allow him to tame them, and after suffering
their attack he sent them back to the forest. This ended the
Thunderer's exciting pastime.
The Tests
The Thunderer then sent his son-in-law to split a log of wood. When
this had been done he put the young man's strength to the test by
placing him within the hollow trunk and closing the wood around him.
But the young man succeeded in freeing himself, and set off for the hut
carrying the log with him. On reaching his home he dropped the wood
before the door, and caused the earth to quake. The Thunderer jumped
up in alarm and ran to the door rejoicing in the might of his
son-in-law. "Oh, my son-in-law," he cried, "you are just as I was when
I was young!" The two continued to live together and the young man's
sons grew into manhood. One day the Thunderer approached his
son-in-law and said: "Go to the Supernatural Folk and bring me their
hoops."
The Spirit-land
The son-in-law obeyed. He travelled for a long distance, and
eventually reached the land of the spirits. {338} They stood in a
circle, and he saw that they played with a large hoop. He then
remembered that he must secure the hoop. But he was afraid to approach
them, as the light of the place dazzled him. He waited until darkness
had set in, and, leaving his hiding-place, dashed through the circle
and secured the hoop. The Supernatural People pursued him with
torches. Just as this was taking place his wife remembered him. She
called to her children: "Now whip your grandfather." This they did,
while the old man wept. This chastisement brought rain upon the
Supernatural People and extinguished their torches. They dared not
pursue the young man farther, so they returned to their country. The
adventurer was now left in peace to continue his homeward journey. He
handed over the hoop to Thunderer, who now sent him to capture the
targets of the Spirit Folk. The son-in-law gladly undertook the
journey, and again entered the bright region of Spirit-land. He found
the Supernaturals shooting at the targets, and when night had fallen he
picked them up and ran away. The spirits lit their torches and
followed him. His wife once more was reminded of her absent husband,
and commanded her sons to repeat the punishment upon their grandfather.
The rain recommenced and the torches of the pursuers were destroyed.
The young man returned in peace to his dwelling and placed the targets
before his father-in-law. He had not been long home before a restless
spirit took possession of him. He longed for further adventure, and at
last decided to set out in quest of it. Arraying himself in his fine
necklaces of teeth and strapping around his waist two quivers of
arrows, he bade farewell to his wife and sons. He journeyed until he
reached a large village, which consisted of five rows of houses. These
{339} he carefully inspected. The last house was very small, but he
entered it. He was met by two old women, who were known as the Mice.
Immediately they saw him they muttered to each other: "Oh, now Blue Jay
will make another chief unhappy." On the young man's arrival in the
village Blue Jay became conscious of a stranger in the midst of the
people. He straightway betook himself to the house of the Mice. He
then returned to his chief, saying that a strange chief wished to hold
a shooting match. Blue Jay's chief seemed quite willing to enter into
the contest with the stranger, so he sent Blue Jay back to the house to
inform the young chief of his willingness. Blue Jay led the stranger
down to the beach where the targets stood. Soon the old chief arrived
and the shooting match began. But the adventurer's skill could not
compare with the old chief's, who finally defeated him. Blue Jay now
saw his opportunity. He sprang upon the stranger, tore out his hair,
cut off his head, and severed the limbs from his body. He carried the
pieces to the house and hung up the head. At nightfall the Mice fed
the head and managed to keep it alive. This process of feeding went on
for many months, the old women never tiring of their task. A full year
had passed, and the unfortunate adventurer's sons began to fear for his
safety. They decided to search for him. Arming themselves, they made
their way to the large village in which their father was imprisoned.
They entered the house of the Mice, and there saw the two old women,
who asked: "Oh, chiefs, where did you come from?"
"We search for our father," they replied. But the old women warned
them of Blue Jay's treachery, and advised them to depart. The young
men would not heed the advice, and succeeded in drawing from the {340}
women the story of their father's fate. When they heard that Blue Jay
had used their father so badly they were very angry. Blue Jay,
meanwhile, had become aware of the arrival of two strangers, and he
went to the small house to smell them out. There he espied the youths,
and immediately returned to inform his chief of their presence in the
village. The chief then sent him back to invite the strangers to a
shooting match, but they ignored the invitation. Three times Blue Jay
made the journey, and at last the youths looked upon him, whereupon his
hair immediately took fire. He ran back to his chief and said: "Oh,
these strangers are more powerful than we are. They looked at me and
my hair caught fire." The chief was amazed, and went down to the beach
to await the arrival of the strangers. When the young men saw the
targets they would not shoot, and declared that they were bad. They
immediately drew them out of the ground and replaced them by their own,
the brilliance of which dazzled the sight of their opponent. The chief
was defeated. He lost his life and the people were subdued. The
youths then cast Blue Jay into the river, saying as they did so: "Green
Sturgeon shall be your name. Henceforth you shall not make chiefs
miserable. You shall sing 'Watsetsetsetsetse,' and it shall be a bad
omen." This performance over, they restored their father from his
death-slumber, and spoke kindly to the Mice, saying: "Oh, you pitiful
ones, you shall eat everything that is good. You shall eat berries."
Then, after establishing order in this strange land, they returned to
their home, accompanied by their father.
This curious story is an example of what is known in mythology as the
'harrying of Hades.' The land of the supernatural or subterranean
beings always {341} exercises a profound fascination over the minds of
barbarians, and such tales are invented by their story-tellers for the
purpose of minimizing the terrors which await them when they themselves
must enter the strange country by death. The incident of the glutton
would seem to show that two tales have been amalgamated, a not uncommon
circumstance in primitive story-telling. In these stories the evil or
supernatural power is invariably defeated, and it is touching to
observe the child-like attempts of the savage to quench the dread of
death, common to all mankind, by creating amusement at the ludicrous
appearance of the dreadful beings whom he fears. The sons of the
Thunderer are, of course, hero-gods whose effulgence confounds the
powers of darkness, and to some extent they resemble the Hun-Apu and
Xbalanque of the Central American _Popol Vuh_, who travel to the dark
kingdom of Xibalba to rescue their father and uncle, and succeed in
overthrowing its hideous denizens.[3]
[3] See the author's _Myths of Mexico and Peru_, in this series, p. 220.
The Myth of Stik[)u]a
[Transcriber's note: the "[)u]" sequence represents the Unicode u-breve
character.]
As an example of a myth as taken from the lips of the Indian by the
collector we append to this series of Chinook tales the story of
Stik[)u]a in all its pristine ingenuousness. Such a tale well
exemplifies the difference of outlook between the aboriginal and the
civilized mind, and exhibits the many difficulties with which
collectors of such myths have to contend.
Many people were living at Nakotat. Now their chief died. He had
[left] a son who was almost grown up. It was winter and the people
were hungry. They had only mussels and roots to eat. Once upon a time
a hunter said: "Make yourselves ready." All the men made themselves
ready, and went seaward in two canoes. {342} Then the hunter speared a
sea-lion. It jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. They hauled it
ashore. Blue Jay said: "Let us boil it here." They made a fire and
singed it. They cut it and boiled it. Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it
here, let us eat all of it." Then the people ate. Raven tried to hide
a piece of meat in his mat, and carried it to the canoe. [But] Blue
Jay had already seen it; he ran [after him] took it and threw it into
the fire. He burned it. Then they went home. They gathered large and
small mussels. In the evening they came home. Then Blue Jay shouted:
"Stik[)u]a, fetch your mussels." Stik[)u]a was the name of Blue Jay's
wife. Then noise of many feet [was heard], and Stik[)u]a and the other
women came running down to the beach. They went to fetch mussels. The
women came to the beach and carried the mussels to the house. Raven
took care of the chief's son. The boy said: "To-morrow I shall
accompany you." Blue Jay said to him: "What do you want to do? The
waves will carry you away, you will drift away; even I almost drifted
away."
The next morning they made themselves ready. They went into the canoe,
and the boy came down to the beach. He wanted to accompany them, and
held on to the canoe. "Go to the house, go to the house," said Blue
Jay. The boy went up, but he was very sad. Then Blue Jay said: "Let
us leave him." The people began to paddle. Then they arrived at the
sea-lion island. The hunter went ashore and speared a sea-lion. It
jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. They hauled it ashore and
pulled it up from the water. Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it here; let
us eat all of it, else our chief's son would always want to come here."
They singed it, carved it, and boiled it there. When it was done they
ate it all. Raven {343} tried to hide a piece in his hair, but Blue
Jay took it out immediately and burned it. In the evening they
gathered large and small mussels, and then they went home. When they
approached the beach Blue Jay shouted: "Stik[)u]a, fetch your mussels!"
Then noise of many feet [was heard]. Stik[)u]a and her children and
all the other women came running down to the beach and carried the
mussels up to the house. Blue Jay had told all those people: "Don't
tell our chief's son, else he will want to accompany us." In the
evening the boy said: "To-morrow I shall accompany you." But Blue Jay
said: "What do you want to do? The waves will carry you away." But
the boy replied: "I must go."
In the morning they made themselves ready for the third time. The boy
went down to the beach and took hold of the canoe. But Blue Jay pushed
him aside and said: "What do you want here? Go to the house." The boy
cried and went up to the house. [When he turned back] Blue Jay said:
"Now paddle away. We will leave him." The people began to paddle, and
soon they reached the sea-lion island. The hunter went ashore and
speared one large sea-lion. It jumped and drifted on the water [dead].
They hauled it toward the shore, landed, pulled it up and singed it.
They finished singeing it. Then they carved it and boiled it, and when
it was done they began to eat. Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it all.
Nobody must speak about it, else our chief's son will always want to
accompany us." A little [meat] was still left when they had eaten
enough. Raven tried to take a piece with him. He tied it to his leg
and said his leg was broken. Blue Jay burned all that was left over.
Then he said to Raven: "Let me see your leg." He jumped at it, untied
it, and found the piece {344} of meat at Raven's leg. He took it and
burned it. In the evening they gathered large and small mussels. Then
they went home. When they were near home Blue Jay shouted: "Stik[)u]a,
fetch your mussels!" Then noise of many feet [was heard], and
Stik[)u]a [her children and the other women] came down to the beach and
carried the mussels up to the house. The [women and children] and the
chief's son ate the mussels all night. Then that boy said: "To-morrow
I shall accompany you." Blue Jay said: "What do you want to do? You
will drift away. If I had not taken hold of the canoe I should have
drifted away twice."
On the next morning they made themselves ready for the fourth time.
The boy rose and made himself ready also. The people hauled their
canoes into the water and went aboard. The boy tried to board a canoe
also, but Blue Jay took hold of him and threw him into the water. He
stood in the water up to his waist. He held the canoe, but Blue Jay
struck his hands. There he stood. He cried, and cried, and went up to
the house. The people went; they paddled, and soon they reached the
sea-lion island. The hunter went ashore and speared a sea-lion. It
jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. Again they towed it to the
island, and pulled it ashore. They singed it. When they had finished
singeing it they carved it and boiled it. When it was done Blue Jay
said: "Let us eat it here." They ate half of it and were satiated.
They slept because they had eaten too much. Blue Jay awoke first, and
burned all that was left. In the evening they gathered large and small
mussels and went home. When they were near the shore he shouted:
"Stik[)u]a, fetch your mussels!" Noise of many feet [was heard] and
Stik[)u]a [her children and the other women] came running down to the
beach {345} and carried up the mussels. The boy said: "To-morrow I
shall accompany you." But Blue Jay said: "What do you want to do? We
might capsize and you would be drowned."
Early on the following morning the people made themselves ready. The
boy arose and made himself ready also. Blue Jay and the people hauled
their canoes down to the water. The boy tried to board, but Blue Jay
threw him into the water. He tried to hold the canoe. The water
reached up to his armpits. Blue Jay struck his hands [until he let
go]. Then the boy cried and cried. Blue Jay and the other people went
away.
After some time the boy went up from the beach. He took his arrows and
walked round a point of land. There he met a young eagle and shot it.
He skinned it and tried to put the skin on. It was too small; it
reached scarcely to his knees. Then he took it off, and went on.
After a while he met another eagle. He shot it and it fell down. It
was a white-headed eagle. He skinned it and tried the skin on, but it
was too small; it reached a little below his knees. He took it off,
left it, and went on. Soon he met a bald-headed eagle. He shot it
twice and it fell down. He skinned it and put the skin on. It was
nearly large enough for him, and he tried to fly. He could fly
downward only. He did not rise. He turned back, and now he could fly.
Now he went round the point seaward from Nakotat. When he had nearly
gone round he smelled smoke of burning fat. When he came round the
point he saw the people of his town. He alighted on top of a tree and
looked down. [He saw that] they had boiled a sea-lion and that they
ate it. When they had nearly finished eating he flew up. He thought:
"Oh, I wish Blue Jay would see me." Then Blue Jay {346} looked up [and
saw] the bird flying about. "Ah, a bird came to get food from us."
Five times the eagle circled over the fire; then it descended. Blue
Jay took a piece of blubber and said: "I will give you this to eat."
The bird came down, grasped the piece of meat, and flew away. "Ha!"
said Blue Jay, "that bird has feet like a man." When the people had
eaten enough they slept. Raven again hid a piece of meat. Toward
evening they awoke and ate again; then Blue Jay burned the rest of
their food. In the evening they gathered large and small mussels and
went home. When the boy came home he lay down at once. They
approached the village, and Blue Jay shouted: "Fetch your mussels,
Stik[)u]a!" Noise of many feet [was heard] and Stik[)u]a [and the
other women] ran down to the beach and carried up the mussels. They
tried to rouse the boy, but he did not arise.
The next morning the people made themselves ready and launched their
canoe. The chief's son stayed in bed and did not attempt to accompany
them. After sunrise he rose and called the women and children and
said: "Wash yourselves; be quick." The women obeyed and washed
themselves. He continued: "Comb your hair." Then he put down a plank,
took a piece of meat out [from under his blanket, showed it to the
women, and said]: "Every day your husbands eat this." He put two
pieces side by side on the plank, cut them to pieces, and greased the
heads of all the women and children. Then he pulled the planks forming
the walls of the houses out of the ground. He sharpened them [at one
end, and] those which were very wide he split in two. He sharpened all
of them. The last house of the village was that of the Raven. He did
not pull out its wall-planks. He put the planks on to the backs of the
women and children {347} and said: "Go down to the beach. When you go
seaward swim five times round that rock. Then go seaward. When you
see sea-lions you shall kill them. But you shall not give anything to
stingy people. I shall take these children down. They shall live on
the sea and be my relatives."
Then he split sinews. The women went into the water and began to jump
[out of the water]. They swam five times back and forth in front of
the village. Then they went seaward to the place where Blue Jay and
the men were boiling. Blue Jay said to the men: "What is that?" The
men looked and saw the girls jumping. Five times they swam round Blue
Jay's rock. Then they went seaward. After a while birds came flying
to the island. Their bills were [as red] as blood. They followed [the
fish]. "Ah!" said Blue Jay, "do you notice them? Whence come these
numerous birds?" The Raven said: "Ha, squint-eye, they are your
children; do you not recognize them?" Five times they went round the
rock. Now [the boy] threw the sinews down upon the stones and said:
"When Blue Jay comes to gather mussels they shall be fast [to the
rocks]." And he said to the women, turning toward the sea:
"Whale-Killer will be your name. When you catch a whale you will eat
it, but when you catch a sea-lion you will throw it away; but you shall
not give anything to stingy people."
Blue Jay and the people were eating. Then that hunter said: "Let us go
home. I am afraid we have seen evil spirits; we have never seen
anything like that on this rock." Now they gathered mussels and
carried along the meat which they had left over. In the evening they
came near their home. [Blue Jay shouted:] "Stik[)u]a, fetch your
mussels!" There was no sound {348} of people. Five times he called.
Now the people went ashore and [they saw that] the walls of the houses
had disappeared. The people cried. Blue Jay cried also, but somebody
said to him: "Be quiet. Blue Jay; if you had not been bad our chief's
son would not have done so." Now they all made one house. Only Raven
had one house [by himself]. He went and searched for food on the
beach. He found a sturgeon. He went again to the beach and found a
porpoise. Then Blue Jay went to the beach and tried to search for
food. [As soon as he went out] it began to hail; the hailstones were
so large [indicating]. He tried to gather mussels and wanted to break
them off, but they did not come off. He could not break them off. He
gave it up. Raven went to search on the beach and found a seal. The
others ate roots only. Thus their chief took revenge on them.
Beliefs of the Californian Tribes
The tribes of California afford a strange example of racial
conglomeration, speaking as they do a variety of languages totally
distinct from one another, and exhibiting many differences in physical
appearance and custom. Concerning their mythological beliefs Bancroft
says:
"The Californian tribes, taken as a whole, are pretty uniform in the
main features of their theogonic beliefs. They seem, without
exception, to have had a hazy conception of a lofty, almost supreme
being; for the most part referred to as a Great Man, the Old Man Above,
the One Above; attributing to him, however, as is usual in such cases,
nothing but the vaguest and most negative functions and qualities. The
real practical power that most interested them, who had most to do with
them and they with him, was a demon, {349} or body of demons, of a
tolerably pronounced character. In the face of divers assertions to
the effect that no such thing as a devil proper has ever been found in
savage mythology, we would draw attention to the following extract from
the Tomo manuscript of Mr. Powers--a gentleman who, both by his study
and by personal investigation, has made himself one of the best
qualified authorities on the belief of the native Californian, and
whose dealings have been for the most part with tribes that have never
had any friendly intercourse with white men. Of course the thin and
meagre imagination of the American savages was not equal to the
creation of Milton's magnificent imperial Satan, or of Goethe's
Mephistopheles, with his subtle intellect, his vast powers, his
malignant mirth; but in so far as the Indian fiends or devils have the
ability, they are wholly as wicked as these. They are totally bad,
they have no good thing in them, they think only evil; but they are
weak and undignified and absurd; they are as much beneath Satan as the
'Big Indians' who invent them are inferior in imagination to John
Milton.
"A definite location is generally assigned to the evil one as his
favourite residence or resort; thus the Californians in the county of
Siskiyou give over Devil's Castle, its mount and lake, to the malignant
spirits, and avoid the vicinity of these places with all possible care.
"The coast tribes of Del Norte County, California, live in constant
terror of a malignant spirit that takes the form of certain animals,
the form of a bat, of a hawk, of a tarantula, and so on, but especially
delights in and affects that of a screech-owl. The belief of the
Russian river tribes and others is practically identical with this.
"The Cahrocs have some conception of a great {350} deity called
Chareya, the Old Man Above; he is wont to appear upon earth at times to
some of the most favoured sorcerers; he is described as wearing a close
tunic, with a medicine-bag, and as having long white hair that falls
venerably about his shoulders. Practically, however, the Cahrocs, like
the majority of Californian tribes, venerate chiefly the Coyote. Great
dread is also had of certain forest-demons of nocturnal habits; these,
say the Cahrocs, take the form of bears, and shoot arrows at benighted
wayfarers.
"Between the foregoing outlines of Californian belief and those
connected with the remaining tribes, passing south, we can detect no
salient difference till we reach the Olchones, a coast tribe between
San Francisco and Monterey; the sun here begins to be connected, or
identified by name, with that great spirit, or rather, that Big Man,
who made the earth and who rules in the sky. So we find it again both
around Monterey and around San Luis Obispo; the first fruits of the
earth were offered in these neighbourhoods to the great light, and his
rising was greeted with cries of joy."
Father Gerónimo Boscana gives us the following account of the faith and
worship of the Acagchemem tribes, who inhabit the valley and
neighbourhood of San Juan Capistrano, California. We give first the
version held by the _serranos_, or highlanders, of the interior
country, three or four leagues inland from San Juan Capistrano:
"Before the material world at all existed there lived two beings,
brother and sister, of a nature that cannot be explained; the brother
living above, and his name meaning the Heavens, the sister living
below, and her name signifying Earth. From the union of these two
there sprang a numerous offspring. Earth and sand were the
first-fruits of this marriage; then were born {351} rocks and stones;
then trees, both great and small; then grass and herbs; then animals;
lastly was born a great personage called Ouiot, who was a 'grand
captain.' By some unknown mother many children of a medicine race were
born to this Ouiot. All these things happened in the north; and
afterwards when men were created they were created in the north; but as
the people multiplied they moved toward the south, the earth growing
larger also and extending itself in the same direction.
"In process of time, Ouiot becoming old, his children plotted to kill
him, alleging that the infirmities of age made him unfit any longer to
govern them or attend to their welfare. So they put a strong poison in
his drink, and when he drank of it a sore sickness came upon him; he
rose up and left his home in the mountains, and went down to what is
now the seashore, though at that time there was no sea there. His
mother, whose name is the Earth, mixed him an antidote in a large
shell, and set the potion out in the sun to brew; but the fragrance of
it attracted the attention of the Coyote, who came and overset the
shell. So Ouiot sickened to death, and though he told his children
that he would shortly return and be with them again, he has never been
seen since. All the people made a great pile of wood and burnt his
body there, and just as the ceremony began the Coyote leaped upon the
body, saying that he would burn with it; but he only tore a piece of
flesh from the stomach and ate it and escaped. After that the title of
the Coyote was changed from Eyacque, which means Sub-captain, to Eno,
that is to say, Thief and Cannibal.
"When now the funeral rites were over, a general council was held and
arrangements made for collecting animal and vegetable food; for up to
this time the {352} children and descendants of Ouiot had nothing to
eat but a kind of white clay. And while they consulted together,
behold a marvellous thing appeared before them, and they spoke to it,
saying: 'Art thou our captain, Ouiot?' But the spectre said: 'Nay, for
I am greater than Ouiot; my habitation is above, and my name is
Chinigchinich.' Then he spoke further, having been told for what they
were come together: 'I create all things, and I go now to make man,
another people like unto you; as for you, I give you power, each after
his kind, to produce all good and pleasant things. One of you shall
bring rain, and another dew, and another make the acorn grow, and
others other seeds, and yet others shall cause all kinds of game to
abound in the land; and your children shall have this power for ever,
and they shall be sorcerers to the men I go to create, and shall
receive gifts of them, that the game fail not and the harvests be
sure.' Then Chinigchinich made man; out of the clay of the lake he
formed him, male and female; and the present Californians are the
descendants of the one or more pairs there and thus created.
"So ends the known tradition of the mountaineers; we must now go back
and take up the story anew at its beginning, as told by the _playanos_,
or people of the valley of San Juan Capistrano. These say that an
invisible, all-powerful being, called Nocuma, made the world and all
that it contains of things that grow and move. He made it round like a
ball and held it in his hands, where it rolled about a good deal at
first, till he steadied it by sticking a heavy black rock called Tosaut
into it, as a kind of ballast. The sea was at this time only a little
stream running round the world, and so crowded with fish that their
twinkling fins had no longer room to move; so great was the press that
{353} some of the more foolish fry were for effecting a landing and
founding a colony upon the dry land, and it was only with the utmost
difficulty that they were persuaded by their elders that the killing
air and baneful sun and the want of feet must infallibly prove the
destruction before many days of all who took part in such a desperate
enterprise. The proper plan was evidently to improve and enlarge their
present home; and to this end, principally by the aid of one very large
fish, they broke the great rock Tosaut in two, finding a bladder in the
centre filled with a very bitter substance. The taste of it pleased
the fish, so they emptied it into the water, and instantly the water
became salt and swelled up and overflowed a great part of the old
earth, and made itself the new boundaries that remain to this day.
"Then Nocuma created a man, shaping him out of the soil of the earth,
calling him Ejoni. A woman also the great god made, presumably out of
the same material as the man, calling her Aé. Many children were born
to this first pair, and their descendants multiplied over the land.
The name of one of these last was Sirout, that is to say, Handful of
Tobacco, and the name of his wife was Ycaiut, which means Above; and to
Sirout and Ycaiut was born a son, while they lived in a place
north-east about eight leagues from San Juan Capistrano. The name of
this son was Ouiot, that is to say, Dominator; he grew a fierce and
redoubtable warrior; haughty, ambitious, tyrannous, he extended his
lordship on every side, ruling everywhere as with a rod of iron; and
the people conspired against him. It was determined that he should die
by poison; a piece of the rock Tosaut was ground up in so deadly a way
that its mere external application was sufficient to cause death.
Ouiot, notwithstanding that {354} he held himself constantly on the
alert, having been warned of his danger by a small burrowing animal
called the _cucumel_, was unable to avoid his fate; a few grains of the
cankerous mixture were dropped upon his breast while he slept, and the
strong mineral ate its way to the very springs of his life. All the
wise men of the land were called to his assistance; but there was
nothing for him save to die. His body was burned on a great pile with
songs of joy and dances, and the nation rejoiced.
"While the people were gathered to this end, it was thought advisable
to consult on the feasibility of procuring seed and flesh to eat
instead of the clay which had up to this time been the sole food of the
human family. And while they yet talked together, there appeared to
them, coming they knew not whence, one called Attajen, 'which name
implies man, or rational being.' And Attajen, understanding their
desires, chose out certain of the elders among them, and to these gave
he power; one that he might cause rain to fall, to another that he
might cause game to abound, and so with the rest, to each his power and
gift, and to the successors of each for ever. These were the first
medicine-men."
Many years having elapsed since the death of Ouiot, there appeared in
the same place one called Ouiamot, reputed son of Tacu and
Auzar--people unknown, but natives, it is thought by Boscana, of "some
distant land." This Ouiamot is better known by his great name
Chinigchinich, which means Almighty. He first manifested his powers to
the people on a day when they had met in congregation for some purpose
or other; he appeared dancing before them crowned with a kind of high
crown made of tall feathers stuck into a circlet of some kind, girt
with a {355} kind of petticoat of feathers, and having his flesh
painted black and red. Thus decorated he was called the _tobet_.
Having danced some time, Chinigchinich called out the medicine-men, or
_puplems_, as they were called, among whom it would appear the chiefs
are always numbered, and confirmed their power; telling them that he
had come from the stars to instruct them in dancing and all other
things, and commanding that in all their necessities they should array
themselves in the _tobet_, and so dance as he had danced, supplicating
him by his great name, that thus they might be granted their petitions.
He taught them how to worship him, how to build _vanquechs_, or places
of worship, and how to direct their conduct in various affairs of life.
Then he prepared to die, and the people asked him if they should bury
him; but he warned them against attempting such a thing. "If ye buried
me," he said, "ye would tread upon my grave, and for that my hand would
be heavy upon you; look to it, and to all your ways, for lo, I go up
where the high stars are, where mine eyes shall see all the ways of
men; and whosoever will not keep my commandments nor observe the things
I have taught, behold, disease shall plague all his body, and no food
shall come near his lips, the bear shall rend his flesh, and the
crooked tooth of the serpent shall sting him."
In Lower California the Pericues were divided into two _gentes_, each
of which worshipped a divinity which was hostile to the other. The
tradition explains that there was a great lord in heaven, called
Niparaya, who made earth and sea, and was almighty and invisible. His
wife was Anayicoyondi, a goddess who, though possessing no body, bore
him in a divinely mysterious manner three children, one of whom,
Quaayayp, was a real man and born on earth, on the Acaragui {356}
mountains. Very powerful this young god was, and for a long time he
lived with the ancestors of the Pericues, whom it is almost to be
inferred that he created; at any rate we are told that he was able to
make men, drawing them up out of the earth. The men at last killed
their great hero and teacher, and put a crown of thorns upon his head.
Somewhere or other he remains lying dead to this day; and he remains
constantly beautiful, neither does his body know corruption. Blood
drips constantly from his wounds; and though he can speak no more,
being dead, yet there is an owl that speaks to him.
The other god was called Wac, or Tuparan. According to the Niparaya
sect, this Wac had made war on their favourite god, and had been by him
defeated and cast forth from heaven into a cave under the earth, of
which cave the whales of the sea were the guardians. With a perverse,
though not unnatural, obstinacy, the sect that took Wac or Tuparan for
their great god persisted in holding ideas peculiar to themselves with
regard to the truth of the foregoing story, and their account of the
great war in heaven and its results differed from the other as differ
the creeds of heterodox and orthodox everywhere; they ascribe, for
example, part of the creation to other gods besides Niparaya.
Myths of the Athapascans
The great Athapascan family, who inhabit a vast extent of territory
stretching north from the fifty-fifth parallel nearly to the Arctic
Ocean, and westward to the Pacific, with cognate ramifications to the
far south, are weak in mythological conceptions. Regarding them
Bancroft says:[4]
[4] _The Native Races of the Pacific States_, vol. iii.
{357}
"They do not seem in any of their various tribes to have a single
expressed idea with regard to a supreme power. The Loucheux branch
recognize a certain personage, resident in the moon, whom they
supplicate for success in starting on a hunting expedition. This being
once lived among them as a poor ragged boy that an old woman had found
and was bringing up; and who made himself ridiculous to his fellows by
making a pair of very large snow-shoes; for the people could not see
what a starveling like him should want with shoes of such unusual size.
Times of great scarcity troubled the hunters, and they would often have
fared badly had they not invariably on such occasions come across a new
broad trail that led to a head or two of freshly killed game. They
were glad enough to get the game and without scruples as to its
appropriation; still they felt curious as to whence it came and how.
Suspicion at last pointing to the boy and his great shoes as being in
some way implicated in the affair, he was watched. It soon became
evident that he was indeed the benefactor of the Loucheux, and the
secret hunter whose quarry had so often replenished their empty pots;
yet the people were far from being adequately grateful, and continued
to treat him with little kindness or respect. On one occasion they
refused him a certain piece of fat--him who had so often saved their
lives by his timely bounty! That night the lad disappeared, leaving
only his clothes behind, hanging on a tree. He returned to them in a
month, however, appearing as a man, and dressed as a man. He told them
that he had taken up his home in the moon; that he would always look
down with a kindly eye to their success in hunting; but he added that
as a punishment for their shameless greed and ingratitude in refusing
him the piece of fat, all animals {358} should be lean the long winter
through, and fat only in summer; as has since been the case.
"According to Hearne, the Tinneh believe in a kind of spirits, or
fairies, called _nantena_, which people the earth, the sea, and the
air, and are instrumental for both good and evil. Some of them believe
in a good spirit called Tihugun, 'my old friend,' supposed to reside in
the sun and in the moon; they have also a bad spirit, Chutsain,
apparently only a personification of death, and for this reason called
bad.
"They have no regular order of _shamans_; any one when the spirit moves
him may take upon himself their duties and pretensions, though some by
happy chances, or peculiar cunning, are much more highly esteemed in
this regard than others, and are supported by voluntary contributions.
The conjurer often shuts himself in his tent and abstains from food for
days till his earthly grossness thins away, and the spirits and things
unseen are constrained to appear at his behest. The young Tinneh care
for none of these things; the strong limb and the keen eye, holding
their own well in the jostle of life, mock at the terrors of the
invisible; but as the pulses dwindle with disease or age, and the knees
strike together in the shadow of impending death, the _shaman_ is hired
to expel the evil things of which a patient is possessed. Among the
Tacullies a confession is often resorted to at this stage, on the truth
and accuracy of which depend the chances of a recovery."
Conclusion
In concluding this survey of representative myths of the Red Race of
North America, the reader will probably be chiefly impressed with the
circumstance that although many of these tales exhibit a striking {359}
resemblance to the myths of European and Asiatic peoples they have yet
an atmosphere of their own which strongly differentiates them from the
folk-tales of all other races. It is a truism in mythology that
although the tales and mythological systems of peoples dwelling widely
apart may show much likeness to one another, such a resemblance cannot
be advanced as a proof that the divergent races at some distant period
possessed a common mythology. Certain tribes in Borneo live in huts
built on piles driven into lake-beds and use blow-pipes; so do some
Indians of Guiana and contiguous countries; yet no scientist of
experience would be so rash as to advance the theory that these races
possessed a common origin. It is the same with mythological processes,
which may have been evolved separately at great distances, but yet
exhibit a marked likeness. These resemblances arise from the
circumstance that the mind of man, whether he be situated in China or
Peru, works on surprisingly similar lines. But, as has been indicated,
the best proof that the myths of North America have not been
sophisticated by those of Europe and Asia is the circumstance that the
aboriginal atmosphere they contain is so marked that even the most
superficial observer could not fail to observe its presence. In the
tales contained in this volume the facts of Indian life, peculiar and
unique, enter into every description and are inalienably interwoven
with the matter of the story.
In closing, the author desires to make a strong appeal for a reasoned
and charitable consideration of the Indian character on the part of his
readers. This noble, manly, and dignified race has in the past been
grossly maligned, chiefly by persons themselves ignorant and inspired
by hereditary dislike. The Red Man is neither a monster of inhumanity
nor a marvel {360} of cunning, but a being with like feelings and
aspirations to our own. Because his customs and habits of thought
differ from ours he has been charged with all manner of crimes and
offences with which he has, in general, nothing to do. We do not deny
that he was, till very recent times, a savage, with the habits and
outlook of a savage. But that he ever was a demon in human shape must
be strenuously denied. In the march of progress Indian men and women
are to-day taking places of honour and emolument side by side with
their white fellow-citizens, and many gifted and cultured persons of
Indian blood have done good work for the race. Let us hope that the
ancient virtues of courage and endurance which have stood the Indian
people in such good stead of old will assist their descendants in the
even more strenuous tasks of civilization to which they are now called.
[Illustration: MAP TO ILLUSTRATE LINGUISTIC FAMILIES OF NORTH AMERICAN
INDIANS]
{363}
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The annexed bibliography, although full, is far from being exhaustive,
but it is hoped that readers who desire to follow up the whole or any
separate department of study connected with the Red Race of North
America will find in it reference to many useful volumes. It is
claimed that the list represents the best of the literature upon the
subject.
ADAIR, JAMES: _The History of the American Indians_. London, 1775.
AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY: _Transactions and Collections (Archælogia
Americana)_, vols. i.-vii.; Worcester, 1820-85. _Proceedings_, various
numbers.
_American Archæologist_ (formerly _The Antiquarian_), vol. ii.,
Columbus. 1898.
AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY. _Transactions_, vols. i.-iii.; New
York, 1845-53. _Publications_, vols. i.-ii.; Leyden, 1907-9.
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. _Minutes and Proceedings: Digest_,
vol. i.; Philadelphia, 1744-1838. _Proceedings_, vols. i.-xliv.;
Philadelphia, 1838-1905. _Transactions_, vols. i.-vi.; Philadelphia,
1759-1809. _Transactions_, New Series, vols. i.-xix.; Philadelphia,
1818-98.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. _Transactions_, vols. i.-iii.
Washington, 1881-85.
ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA. _Papers_, American Series, vol.
i., Boston and London, 1881 (reprinted 1883); vol. iii., Cambridge,
1890; vol. iv., Cambridge, 1892; vol. v., Cambridge, 1890. _Annual
Report_, first to eleventh; Cambridge, 1880-90. _Bulletin_, vol. i.;
Boston, 1883.
ASHE, THOMAS: _Travels in America performed in 1806; for the purpose of
exploring the Rivers Alleghany, Monongahela, Ohio, and Mississippi, and
ascertaining the Produce and Condition of their Banks and Vicinity_.
London, 1808.
ATWATER, CALEB: _Description of the Antiquities discovered in the State
of Ohio and other Western States_. (In _Archæologia Americana_, vol.
i., 1820.)
BACON, OLMER N.: _A History of Natick, from its First Settlement in
1651 to the Present Time_. Boston, 1856.
{364}
BAEGERT, JACOB: _An Account of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the
California Peninsula_. Translated by Charles Rau. (Smithsonian Report
for 1863 and 1864; reprinted 1865 and 1875.)
BAKER, C. ALICE: _True Stories of New England Captives_. Cambridge,
1897.
BANCROFT, GEORGE: _History of the United States_. 9 vols. Boston,
1838-75.
BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE: Works. 39 vols. San Francisco, 1886-90. (vols.
i.-v., _Native Races_; vi.-vii., _Central America_; ix.-xiv., _North
Mexican States and Texas_; xvii., _Arizona and New Mexico_;
xviii.-xxiv., _California_; xxv., _Nevada, Colorado, Wyoming_; xxvi.,
_Utah_; xxvii.-xxviii., _North-west Coast_; xxix.-xxx., _Oregon_;
xxxi., _Washington, Idaho, Montana_; xxxii., _British Columbia_;
xxxiii., _Alaska_; xxxiv., _California Pastoral_; xxxv., _California
inter Pocula_; xxxvi.-xxxvii., _Popular Tribunals_; xxxviii., _Essays
and Miscellany_; xxxix., _Literary Industries_.)
BANDELIER, ADOLF F.: _Historical Introduction to Studies among the
Sedentary Indians of New Mexico_. (_Papers_ of the Archæological
Institute of America, American Series, vol. i., Boston, 1881.)
---- _Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the
South-western United States, carried on mainly in the Years from 1880
to 1885_. (_Papers_ of the Archæological Institute of America,
American Series, vol. iii., Cambridge, 1890; vol. iv., Cambridge, 1892.)
BARRATT, JOSEPH: _The Indian of New England and the North-eastern
Provinces: a Sketch of the Life of an Indian Hunter, Ancient Traditions
relating to the Etchemin Tribe_, etc. Middletown, Conn., 1851.
BARTON, BENJAMIN S.: _New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations
of America_. Philadelphia, 1797. _Ibid._, 1798.
BARTRAM, JOHN: _Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers,
Productions, Animals, and other Matters worthy of Notice made by Mr.
John Bartram, in his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego, and
the Lake Ontario in Canada, to which is annexed a Curious Account of
the Cataracts of Niagara, by Mr. Peter Kalm_. London, 1751.
BARTRAM, WILLIAM: _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia,
East and West Florida, the Cherokee Country, the Extensive Territories
of the Muscogulges or Creek Confederacy, and the Country of the
Chactaws_. Philadelphia, 1791. London, 1792.
{365}
BATTEY, THOMAS C.: _Life and Adventures of a Quaker among the Indians_.
Boston and New York, 1875. _Ibid._, 1876.
BEACH, WILLIAM W.: _The Indian Miscellany: containing Papers on the
History, Antiquities, Arts, Languages, Religions, Traditions, and
Superstitions of the American Aborigines_. Albany, 1877.
BEAUCHAMP, WILLIAM M.: _The Iroquois Trail; or, Footprints of the Six
Nations_. Fayetteville, N.Y., 1892.
BELL, A. W.: _On the Native Races of New Mexico_. (_Journal_ of the
Ethnological Society of London, New Series, vol. i., Session 1868-69;
London, 1869.)
BELL, ROBERT: _The Medicine-man; or, Indian and Eskimo Notions of
Medicine_. (_Canada Medical and Surgical Journal_, Montreal,
March-April, 1886.)
BLISS, EUGENE F. (Editor): _Diary of David Zeisberger, a Moravian
Missionary among the Indians of Ohio_. 2 vols. Cincinnati, 1885.
BOAS, FRANZ: _Songs and Dances of the Kwakiutl_. (_Journal of American
Folk-lore_, vol. i.; Boston, 1888.)
---- _Chinook Texts_. (_Bulletin 20_, Bureau of American Ethnology;
Washington, 1895.)
---- _The Mythology of the Bella Coola Indians_. (Memoirs of the
American Museum of Natural History, vol. ii., _Anthropology_, i.; New
York, 1898.)
---- _Kathlamet Texts_. {_Bulletin 26_, Bureau of American Ethnology.
Washington, 1901.)
---- _Tsimshian Texts_. (_Bulletin 27_, Bureau of American Ethnology.
Washington, 1902.)
BOLLAERT, WILLIAM: _Observations on the Indian Tribes in Texas_.
(_Journal_ of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii., 1850.)
BOLLER, HENRY A.: _Among the Indians. Eight Years in the Far West:
1858-1866_. _Embracing Sketches of Montana and Salt Lake_.
Philadelphia, 1868.
BONNELL, GEORGE W.: _Topographical Description of Texas; to which is
added an Account of the Indian Tribes_. Austin, 1840.
BOSCANA, GERONIMO: _Chinigchinich; a Historical Account of the Origin,
Customs, and Traditions of the Indians at the Missionary Establishment
{366} of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California, called the Acagchemem
Nation_. (In Alfred Robinson's _Life in California_; New York, 1846.)
BOURKE, JOHN G.: _The Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona; being a
Narrative of a Journey from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Villages of
the Moqui Indians of Arizona_. New York, 1884.
BRICKELL, JOHN: _The Natural History of North Carolina; with an Account
of the Trade, Manners, and Customs of the Christian and Indian
Inhabitants_. Dublin, 1737.
BRINTON, DANIEL G.: _Myths of the New World_. New York, 1868.
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---- _American Hero-myths: A Study in the Native Religions of the
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---- _Essays of an Americanist_. Philadelphia, 1890.
---- _The American Race_. New York, 1891.
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CARR, LUCIEN: _Food of certain American Indians_. (_Proceedings_ of
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{367}
CARR, LUCIEN: _Dress and Ornaments of certain American Indians_.
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CARVER, JONATHAN: _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America,
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---- _Three Years through the Interior Parts of North America for more
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---- _Carver's Travels in Wisconsin_. New York, 1838.
CATLIN, GEORGE: _Illustrations of the Manners and Customs and Condition
of the North American Indians_. 2 vols. London, 1841. _Ibid._,
London, 1866.
---- _Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the
North American Indians_. 2 vols. New York and London, 1844.
---- _O-kee-pa: a Religious Ceremony; and other Customs of the
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CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE: _Voyages: ou Journal des Découvertes de la
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CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE F. X. DE.: _Histoire et Description générale de la
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CLARK, W. P.: _The Indian Sign Language_. Philadelphia, 1885.
COLDEN, CADWALLADER: _The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada,
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CONANT, A. J.: _Footprints of Vanished Races in the Mississippi
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COUES, ELLIOTT (Editor): _History of the Expedition of Lewis and Clark
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CURTIN, JEREMIAH: _Creation Myths of Primitive America in relation to
the Religious History and Mental Development of Mankind_. Boston, 1898.
{368}
CURTIS, EDWARD S.: _The American Indian_. 4 vols. New York, 1907-9.
CUSHING, F. H.: _Zuñi Fetiches_. (_Second Report_, Bureau of American
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---- _Outlines of Zuñi Creation Myths_. (_Thirteenth Report_, Bureau
of American Ethnology; Washington, 1896.)
---- _Zuñi Folk-tales_. New York, 1901.
DALL, WILLIAM H.: _Tribes of the Extreme North-West_. (_Contributions
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---- _The Native Tribes of Alaska_. (_Proceedings_ of the American
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DAWSON, GEORGE M.: _Notes and Observations of the Kwakiootl People of
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---- _Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia_. (_Proceedings
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DE FOREST, JOHN W.: _History of the Indians of Connecticut from the
Earliest Known Period to 1850_. Hartford, 1851. _Ibid._, 1852, 1853.
DEANS, JAMES: _Tales from the Totems of the Hidery_. (_Archives_ of
the International Folk-lore Association, vol. ii.; Chicago, 1889.)
DELLENBAUGH, F. S.: _North Americans of Yesterday_. New York and
London, 1901.