and placed among the acts; of which examination Leo himself thus writes to
Theodoret: 'What God had before set forth by our ministry, He hath
confirmed by the irreversible assent of the whole brotherhood, to show that
what was first put forth in form by the First See of all, and then received
by the judgment of the whole Christian world, really proceeded from Himself
(that in this too the members might agree with the Head.)'[90]
"He proceeds: 'For in order that the consent of other sees to that which
the Lord appointed to preside over all the rest should not appear flattery,
or any other adverse suspicion creep in, persons were found who doubted
concerning our judgment.... The truth, likewise, itself is both more
clearly conspicuous, and more strongly maintained, when after-examination
confirms what previous faith had taught.' Here he speaks distinctly of
examination, and that most free. 'In fine, the merit of the priestly office
shines forth very brightly, when the authority of the highest is preserved,
without the liberty of the lower seeming to be at all infringed. And the
end of the examination profits to the greater glory of God, when it has
confidence enough to exert itself so far as to prevail over the opposite
opinion. So that what is in itself proved to be heterodox may not seem
overcome, merely because it is passed over in silence,' Lastly, 'the letter
of the Apostolic See, confirmed by the assent of the whole holy
Council'[91] is proposed as a most certain and perfect rule of faith, not
again to be reconsidered. Here is what Leo considered to be irrevocable, or
rather not to be mended, which no one can be blamed for holding together
with the world and the Fathers of Chalcedon: the form is set forth by the
Apostolic See; yet it is to be examined, and that freely, and every Bishop,
the highest and the lowest, to pronounce judgment in a body concerning
decreeing it.
"They conceived no other way of removing all doubt; for after the
conclusion of the synod, the emperor thus proclaims: 'Let then all profane
contention cease, for he is indeed impious and sacrilegious, who, after the
sentence of so many priests, leaves any thing for his own opinion to
consider.' He then prohibits all discussion concerning religion; for, says
he, 'he does an injury to the judgment of the most religious Council, who
endeavours to open afresh, and publicly discuss what has been once judged,
and rightly ordered.'
"Here in the condemnation of Eutyches is the order of Ecclesiastical
judgments in questions of faith. He is judged by his proper Bishop Flavian:
the cause is reheard, reconsidered by the Pope St. Leo;" (let it be
remembered that Eutyches likewise appealed to Alexandria, Jerusalem, and
Thessalonica;) "it is decided by a declaration of the Apostolic See: after
that declaration follows the examination, inquiry, judgment of the Fathers
or Bishops, in a General Council: after the declaration has been approved
by the judgment of the Fathers no place is any longer left for doubt or
discussion.
"To the same effect Leo: 'For no longer is any refuge or excuse allowable
to any, on plea of ignorance, or difficulty of understanding, inasmuch as
for this very purpose the Council of about six hundred of our brethren and
fellow-Bishops met together hath permitted no skill in reasoning, no flow
of eloquence, to breathe against the faith built on a divine foundation.
Since, through the endeavours of our brethren and representatives, by the
help of God's grace, (their devotion in every procedure being most entire,)
it hath been fully and evidently made manifest, not only to the priests of
Christ, but to princes also, and Christian powers, and to all ranks of the
clergy and people, that this is the truly Apostolic and Catholic faith,
flowing from the fountain of Divine goodness, which we preach, and now with
the agreement of the whole world defend pure and clean from all pollution
of error.'[92]
"Thus at length supreme and infallible force is given to an Apostolic
decree, after that it is strengthened by universal inquiry, examination,
discussion, and thereupon consent and testimony."
[93]"We add a third point, important to our cause, respecting the
restitution of Theodoret to his see. After, then, by order of the Bishops,
he had openly anathematized Nestorius, 'the most illustrious magistrates
said, all doubt respecting Theodoret is now removed; for he hath both
anathematized Nestorius before you, and has been received by Leo, most holy
Archbishop of old Rome, and has willingly accepted the definition of faith
set forth by your piety, and moreover hath subscribed the epistle of the
aforesaid most holy Archbishop Leo. It is fitting, therefore, that sentence
be pronounced by your most acceptable holiness, that he may recover his
Church, as the most holy Archbishop Leo has judged.' All the most reverend
Bishops cried out, 'Theodoret is worthy of his See. Leo hath judged after
God.' So then the judgment put forth by Leo concerning his restoration to
his See would have profited Theodoret nothing, unless, after the matter had
been brought before the Council, he had both approved his faith to the
Council, and the judgment of Leo been confirmed by the same Council. This
was done in the presence of the Legates of the Apostolic See, who
afterwards pronounced that sentence on confirming Leo's judgment, which the
whole Synod approved."
Let any one of candour consider these Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, and
then say, which of these two views agrees with them, viz. that St. Leo was
first Bishop of the Church, looked up to with great reverence as the
special successor of St. Peter, and representative of the whole West; or
that he was beside this the only Vicar of Christ, the source and origin of
the Episcopate, from whom his brethren received their jurisdiction, which
is the Papal idea of the middle ages. For on the truth of this latter view
depends the charge, that the Church of England is in schism.
What follows may perhaps assist our solution of the question. At this very
Council of 630 Bishops, the largest ever held in ancient times, and where
the credit of the Roman Pontiff was so great, a very celebrated Canon was
enacted concerning the rank of the Bishop of Constantinople. The Pope's
legates attempted, by absenting themselves, to prevent its being enacted,
but that only led to its being confirmed the next day, in spite of their
opposition. The circumstances were as follows, and they seem to deserve our
most stedfast consideration, from their bearing upon the great subject we
are considering, the Papal Supremacy.
"On the same day, being the last of October, the fifteenth session was
held, at which neither the magistrates nor legates were present: for after
the formula of faith had been agreed to, and the private business brought
before the Council had been despatched, the Clergy of Constantinople asked
the legates to join them in discussing an affair concerning their Church.
This they refused, saying, that they had received no instructions about it.
They made the same proposal to the magistrates, and these referred the
matter to the Council. When the magistrates and legates therefore had
retired, the rest of the Council made a Canon respecting the prerogatives
of the Church of Constantinople."[94] To make the scope of this clear we
must observe, that the See of Constantinople had been now for at least
seventy years the chief See of the East: at the second Ecumenical Council,
held in 381, at Constantinople, it is declared in the third canon, that
"the Bishop of Constantinople shall have the primacy of honour after the
Bishop of Rome, because that Constantinople is New Rome." It seems that in
the interval that Bishop had not only taken precedence of Alexandria and
Antioch, and reduced under him the Exarchs of Pontus, Thrace, and Asia, but
that his authority was very great throughout all the East. Theodoret
says,[95] that St. Chrysostom governed twenty-eight provinces. Accordingly,
in its famous 28th Canon, the Council of Chalcedon only confirmed an
authority to the Bishop of Constantinople which he had long enjoyed and
often exceeded. It ran thus: "We, following in all things the decisions of
the holy Fathers, and acknowledging the Canon of the 150 most religious
Bishops which has just been read, do also determine and decree the same
things respecting the privileges of the most holy city of Constantinople,
New Rome. For the Fathers properly gave the primacy to the throne of the
elder Rome, because that was the imperial city. And the 150 most religious
Bishops, being moved with the same intention, gave equal privileges to the
most holy throne of New Rome, judging with reason, that the city which was
honoured with the sovereignty and senate, and which enjoyed equal
privileges with the elder royal Rome, should also be magnified like her in
Ecclesiastical matters, being the second after her. And (we also decree)
that the Metropolitans only of the Pontic, and Asian, and Thracian
Dioceses, and, moreover, the Bishops of the aforesaid Dioceses who are
amongst the Barbarians, shall be ordained by the above-mentioned most holy
throne of the most holy Church of Constantinople; each Metropolitan of the
aforesaid Dioceses ordaining the Bishops of the Province, as has been
declared by the divine Canons; but the Metropolitans themselves of the said
Dioceses shall, as has been said, be ordained by the Bishop of
Constantinople, the proper elections being made according to custom, and
reported to him."
"The Legates,[96] being informed of what had passed, demanded that the
Council should assemble again, and the magistrates be present. On the
morrow, therefore, being Thursday, the 1st November, the twelfth
sitting[97] was held. The magistrates were there with the Legates, and the
Bishops of Illyria, and all the rest. After they had taken their seats,
Paschasinus spoke, having asked permission of the magistrates, and said,
that he was astonished that so many things had been done the day before in
their absence, which were contrary to the Canons and the peace of the
Church, for which the Emperor was labouring with so much application and
zeal. He demanded the reading of what had passed the day before. And
Aetius, (Archdeacon of Constantinople,) having said that it was the Legates
themselves who had refused to be present at the deliberation, presented the
Canon which had been drawn up with the signatures of the Bishops. After the
signatures had been read, Lucentius said the Bishops had been surprised,
and compelled to sign. This is what St. Leo repeated often in the letter
which he wrote concerning this twenty-eighth Canon, accusing Anatolius of
having extorted the signatures of the Bishops, or of having surprised them
by his artifices. Nevertheless, upon the reproach of Lucentius, all the
Bishops cried out that no one had been forced. They protested again
afterwards, both all in common, and the principal by themselves, that they
had signed it of their full consent. Anatolius also maintains to St. Leo,
that the Bishops took this resolution of their own accord.
"The Legates continued to oppose the Canon, and showed that they had an
express order of the Pope to do so. They alleged that the Canon was
contrary to the Council of Nicea, of which they read the sixth Canon, with
the celebrated heading--'The Roman Church has always had the primacy,'
which is also found added in the ancient Roman code. The same Canon was
afterwards read as it is in the original Greek, and the Canon of the second
Ecumenical Council, to which the Legates answered nothing.
"The magistrates having next begged the Bishops who had not signed the day
before, to give their opinion, Eusebius, of Ancyra, represented with much
gentleness and modesty, that it was better for the Church that ordinations
should be made upon the spot by the Council of the province. Thalassius
then spoke a single word, but I know not his meaning."
Thereupon "the magistrates[98] said,--'It appears, from the depositions,
first of all, that the primacy and precedency of honour ([Greek: ta
proteia, kai ten exaireton timen]) should be preserved according to the
Canons for the Archbishop of Old Rome, but that the Archbishop of
Constantinople ought to enjoy the same privileges, ([Greek: ton auton
presbeion tes times],) and that he has a right to ordain the Metropolitans
of the Dioceses of Asia, Pontus, and Thrace, in the manner following. In
each metropolis, the clergy, the proprietors of lands, and the gentry, with
all the Bishops of the province, or the greater part of them, shall issue a
decree for the election of one whom they shall deem worthy of being made a
Bishop of the metropolis. They shall all make a report of it to the
Archbishop of Constantinople, and it shall be at his option either to
enjoin the Bishop elect to come thither for ordination, or to allow him to
be ordained in the province. As to the Bishops of particular cities, they
shall be ordained by all, or the greater part, of the comprovincial
Bishops, under the authority of the Metropolitan, according to the Canons,
the Archbishop of Constantinople taking no part in such ordination. These
are our views, let the Council state theirs.' The Bishops shouted, 'This is
a just proposal: we all say the same: we all assent to it, we pray you
dismiss us:' with other similar acclamations. Lucentius, the Legate,
said,--'The Apostolic See ought not to be degraded in our presence; we,
therefore, desire that yesterday's proceedings, which violate the Canons,
may be rescinded; otherwise let our opposition be inserted in the Acts,
that we may know what we are to report to the Pope, and that he may declare
his opinion of this contempt of his See, and subversion of the Canons.' The
magistrates said,--'The whole Council approves of what we said.' Such was
the last Session of the Council of Chalcedon."
The remarks of Tillemont on this Canon are significant, and worth
transcribing.[99] "It seems," he says, "to recognise no particular
authority in the Church of Rome, save what the Fathers had granted it, as
the seat of the empire. And it attributes in plain words as much to
Constantinople as to Rome, with the exception of the first place.
_Nevertheless I do not observe that the Popes took up a thing so injurious
to their dignity, and of so dangerous a consequence to the whole Church._
For what Lupus quotes of St. Leo's 78th (104th) letter, refers rather to
Alexandria and to Antioch, than to Rome. St. Leo is contented to destroy
the foundation on which they built the elevation of Constantinople,
maintaining that a thing so entirely ecclesiastical as the Episcopate ought
not to be regulated by the temporal dignity of cities, which, nevertheless,
has been almost always followed in the establishment of the metropolis,
according to the Council of Nicea.
"St. Leo also complains that the Council of Chalcedon broke the decrees of
the Council of Nicea, the practice of antiquity, and the rights of
Metropolitans. Certainly it was an odious innovation to see a Bishop made
the chief, not of one department, but of three; for which no example could
be found save in the authority which the Popes took over Illyricum, where,
however, they did not claim the power to ordain any Bishop."
Now I suppose any Roman Catholic would observe that this Canon is entirely
opposed to the present Papal theory: he would say that St. Leo and the West
for that very reason refused to receive it. The opposition, beyond all
question, is such, that it is quite impossible to reconcile them. Let any
one, then, read through the 104th letter of St. Leo to the Emperor
Mauricius, the 105th to the Empress Pulcheria, and the 106th to Anatolius
himself, and he will see that St. Leo bases his opposition to it throughout
on its being a violation of the Nicene Canons: there is not a word in all
the three letters about any violation of the rights of St. Peter. May we
not quote, alas! St. Leo's words, in these letters, to St. Leo's successor.
"He[100] loses his own, who lusts after what is not his due.... For the
privileges of the Churches, instituted by the Canons of the holy Fathers,
and fixed by the decrees of the venerable Nicene Synod, cannot be plucked
up by any wickedness, or changed by any innovation. In the faithful
execution of which work, by the help of Christ, I am bound to show
persevering service; since the dispensation has been entrusted to me, and
it tends to my guilt, if the rules of the Fathers' sanctions, which were
made in the Nicene Council for the government of the whole Church, by the
teaching of God's Spirit, be violated, which God forbid, by my connivance;
and if the desire of one brother be of more weight with me than the common
good of the whole house of the Lord." This to the Emperor. To the Empress,
thus:--"Since no one is allowed to attempt[101] anything against the
statutes of the Fathers' Canons, which many years ago were based on
spiritual decrees in the city of Nicea; so that if any one desires to
decree anything against them, he will rather lessen himself than injure
them. _And if these are kept uninjured, as it behoves, by all Pontiffs,
there will be tranquil peace and firm concord through all the Churches.
There will be no dissensions concerning the degree of honours; no contests
about ordinations; no doubts about privileges; no conflicts about the
usurpation of another's right; but under the equal law of charity, both
men's minds and duties will be kept in the due order_; and he will be truly
great, who shall be alien from all ambition, according to the Lord's words,
'Whosoever will be great among you, let him be your minister, &c.'" But to
Anatolius, thus:--"Those[102] holy and venerable Fathers, who in the Nicene
city established laws of ecclesiastical Canons, _which are to last to the
end of the world_, when the sacrilegious Arius with his impiety was
condemned, live both with us and in the whole world by their constitutions;
and if anything anywhere is presumed upon contrary to what they appointed,
it is without delay annulled, &c."
But _what_ the violation was he likewise states: it is not any wrong done
to his own see personally. He says to the Empress: "But[103] what doth the
prelate of the Church of Constantinople desire more than he hath obtained?
Or what will satisfy him, if the magnificence and glory of so great a city
satisfy him not? It is too proud and immoderate to go beyond one's own
limits, and, trampling on antiquity, to wish to seize on another's right.
And, in order to increase the dignity of one, to impugn the primacy of so
many Metropolitans; and to carry a new war of disturbance into quiet
provinces, settled long ago by the moderation of the holy Nicene Council,"
&c.
To Anatolius himself he says: "I grieve--that you attempt to infringe the
most sacred constitutions of the Nicene Canons; as if this were a
favourable opportunity presented to you, when the See of Alexandria may
lose the privilege of the second rank, and the Church of Antioch its
possession of the third dignity; so that when these places have been
brought under your jurisdiction, all Metropolitan Bishops may be deprived
of their proper honour."[104] "I oppose you, that with wiser purpose you
may refrain from throwing into confusion the whole Church. Let not the
rights of provincial Primacies be torn away, nor Metropolitan Bishops be
deprived of their privileges in force from old time. Let no part of that
dignity perish to the See of Alexandria, which it was thought worthy to
obtain through the holy Evangelist Mark, the disciple of blessed Peter;
nor, though Dioscorus falls through the obstinacy of his own impiety, let
the splendour of so great a Church be obscured by another's disgrace. Let
also the Church of Antioch, in which first, at the preaching of the blessed
Apostle Peter, the name of Christian arose, remain in the order of its
hereditary degree, and being placed in the third rank never sink below
itself."
So then it was not St. Peter's Primacy, nor his own proper authority in the
Church, which St. Leo conceived to be attacked by this Canon; but he
refused to be a party to "treading under foot the constitution of the
Fathers"--to disturbing "the state of the universal Church, protected of
old by a most wholesome and upright administration."[105] So the Emperor
Marcian, Anatolius, Julian of Cos, beseech Leo to grant this, without so
much as imagining that they are injuring _his_ rank by asking it. I see not
how it is possible to avoid the conclusion, that the power of the First
See, even as its most zealous occupant viewed it, was quite different from
that power which was set up in the middle ages. This is only one of a vast
number of proofs which distinguish the Primacy from the present Supremacy.
And it is the more valuable, because St. Leo certainly carries his notion
of his own rights as universal Primate further than any Father of his time.
I shall have occasion to make a like remark presently in the matter of St.
Gregory's protest.
But, indeed, such a Canon as this being passed in the most numerous
Ecumenical Synod, in spite of the opposition of the Pope's Legates, speaks
for itself. I am well aware that St. Leo refused to receive it, that, "by
the authority of the blessed Peter, he annulled it by a general
declaration, as contrary to the holy Canons of Nicea."[106] Accordingly it
was not received in the West; but it nevertheless always prevailed in the
East, and the Popes ultimately conceded the point it enacted. And[107] from
the hour it was enacted to this, it has remained the law of the Eastern
Church; and the Patriarchal power, which in the Western Church has
developed into the Papal, has remained attached to the throne of
Constantinople in the other great division of Christ's kingdom.
The ninth Canon of Chalcedon also says:--"If a Clergyman has any matter
against his own Bishop or another, let him plead his cause before the
Council of the province. But if either a Bishop or Clergyman have a
controversy against the Metropolitan of the same province, let him have
recourse either to the Exarch of the Diocese, or to the throne of the
imperial city of Constantinople, and plead his cause before it." I remark
this, because it is a far greater power of hearing appeals granted to the
Bishop of Constantinople, than was granted to the Bishop of Rome a hundred
years before at the Council of Sardica.
Now, let us be fair and even-handed. If the great influence and authority
exercised at the Council of Chalcedon by St. Leo is to be acknowledged as
witnessing the Roman Primacy, let us also grant, that unless the Acts and
the Canons of the first four Ecumenical Councils are to be swept away as
waste paper before the omnipotence of Papal prerogative, then the ancient
decrees of Nicea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, offer an
insurmountable barrier to the present claims of Rome. But concerning the
Canons of Nicea, St. Leo, at least, says:--"I hold all ecclesiastical rules
to be dissolved, if any part of that sacrosanct constitution of the Fathers
be violated."[108] St. Gregory repeats:--"I receive the four Councils of
the holy universal Church as the four books of the Holy Gospel."[109] Mr.
Newman says, "that the definition passed at Chalcedon is the Apostolic
Truth once delivered to the Saints, is most firmly to be received from
faith in that overruling Providence, which is by special promise extended
over the Acts of the Church."[110] Does it not equally follow that the
Church government recognised as immemorial, and enforced at Nicea,
Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, _and the doctrine which is involved
therein_, are likewise to be maintained, and that none who appeal to them
with truth, as practised by themselves, whatever else they may fall into,
can be guilty of schism?