Paul; he enlarges, as we might expect, on their labours and martyrdom; on
the wonderful change of life which grace produced in them, the one thrice
denying, and then thrice loving; the other, a blasphemer and persecutor,
and then in labours more abundant than all. He speaks of their being joined
in their death, the first apostle and the last, in the service and witness
of Him, who is the First and the Last; of their bodies, with those of other
martyrs, lying at Rome. But not one allusion is there in all these to the
Roman Pontiff; not a word as to his being the heir of a power not committed
to the other Apostles. On the contrary, on the very occasion of St. Peter's
festival, he does say, "What was commended to Peter,--what was enjoined to
Peter, not Peter alone, but also the other Apostles heard, held, preserved,
and most of all the partner of his death and of his day, the Apostle Paul.
They heard that, and transmitted it for our hearing: we feed you, we are
fed together with you." "Therefore hath the Lord commended his sheep to us,
because he commended them to Peter."[51] Thus Peter's commission is viewed
not as excluding, but including that of all the rest; not as distinguished
from, but typical of, theirs. Yet at this very time Roman Catholics would
have us believe that the successor of Peter communicated to all Bishops
their power to feed the Lord's flock; and that such a wonderful power and
commission is passed _sub silentio_ by the Fathers.
The very same principles which the Great Voice of the Western Church
proclaims in Africa, St. Vincent of Lerins repeats from Gaul. Take the
summary of his famous Commonitorium by Alban Butler. "He layeth down this
rule, or fundamental principle, in which he found, by a diligent inquiry,
all Catholic pastors and the ancient Fathers to agree, that such doctrine
is truly catholic as hath been believed in all places, at all times, and by
all the faithful. By this test of universality, antiquity, and consent, he
saith all controverted points in belief must be tried. He sheweth, that
whilst Novatian, Photinus, Sabellius, Donatus, Arius, Eunomius, Jovinian,
Pelagius, Coelestius, and Nestorius expound the Divine oracles different
ways, to avoid the perplexity of errors we must interpret the Holy
Scriptures by the tradition of the Catholic Church, as the clue to conduct
us in the truth. For this tradition, derived from the Apostles, manifesteth
the true meaning of the Holy Scripture, and all novelty in faith is a
certain mark of heresy; and in religion nothing is more to be dreaded than
itching ears after new teachers. He saith, 'They who have made bold with
one article of faith, will proceed on to others; and what will be the
consequence of this reforming of religion, but only that these refiners
will never have done, till they have reformed it quite away?' He elegantly
expatiates on the Divine charge given to the Church, to maintain inviolable
the sacred depositum of faith. He takes notice that heretics quote the
Sacred Writings at every word, and that in the works of Paulus Samosatenus,
Priscillian, Eunomius, Jovinian, and other like pests of Christendom,
almost every page is painted and laid on thick with Scripture texts, which
Tertullian also remarks. But in this, saith St. Vincent, heretics are like
those poisoners or quacks, who put off their destructive potions under
inscriptions of good drugs, and under the title of infallible cures. They
imitate the father of lies, who quoted Scripture against the Son of God,
when he tempted Him. The Saint adds, that if a doubt arise in interpreting
the meaning of the Scriptures in any point of faith, we must summon in the
holy Fathers, who have lived and died in the faith and communion of the
Catholic Church, and by this test we shall prove the false doctrine to be
novel. For that only must we look upon as indubitably certain and
unalterable, which all, or the major part of these Fathers have delivered,
like the harmonious consent of a general council. But if any one among
them, be he ever so holy, ever so learned, holds any thing besides, or in
opposition to the rest, that is to be placed in the rank of singular and
private opinions, and never to be looked upon as the public, general,
authoritative doctrine of the Church. After a point has been decided in a
general council, the definition is irrefragable. These general principles,
by which all heresies are easily confounded, St. Vincent explains with
equal elegance and perspicuity." "The same rules are laid down by
Tertullian in his book of Prescriptions, by St. Irenaeus, and other
Fathers."--_Lives of the Saints_, May. 24.
But not a word is there here of the authority of the See of Rome deciding
of itself what is, and what is not, error; or of its Communion of itself
being a touchstone of what is, and what is not, the Catholic Church. These
are necessary parts of the Papal Supremacy; instead of which St. Vincent
holds universal consent.
Now let us hear Bossuet speaking of St. Vincent's rule. "These things then
are understood not by this or by that Doctor, but by all Catholics with one
voice, that the authority of the Church Catholic agreeing is most certain,
irrefragable, and perspicuous. Christians must rest on that agreement, as a
most firm and divine foundation; from whom nothing else is required but
that in the Apostles' Creed, that believing in the Holy Spirit they also
believe the holy Catholic Church; and claim for her the most certain
authority and judgment of the Holy Spirit, by which they are led captive to
obedience. Which entirely proves that this indefectible power both lies and
is believed to lie in consent itself; and this clear and manifest voice
dwells altogether in the agreement of the Churches; in which we see
clearly, on the testimony of the same Vincent of Lerins, that not a part of
the Church, but universality itself, is heard: For we follow," saith he,
"the whole in this way, if we confess that to be the one true faith which
the whole Church throughout the world confesses." And a little after, "What
doth the Catholic Christian, if any part hath cut itself off from the
communion of the universal faith? What surely, but prefer the soundness of
the whole body to that pestilent and corrupted member?[52]
"Thence floweth unto General Councils that certain and invincible authority
which we recognise in them. For it is on no other principle that Unity and
Consent have force in Councils, or in the assembled Church, than because
they have equal force in the Church spread through the whole world. For the
Council itself hath force, because it represents the whole Church; nor is
the Church assembled in order that Unity and Consent may have force, but it
is therefore assembled, that the Unity which in itself has force in the
Church, everywhere spread abroad, may be more clearly demonstrated in the
same Church assembled, by Bishops, the Doctors of the Churches, as being
the proper witnesses thereunto.
"Hence, therefore, is perceived a double method of recognising Catholic
truth; the first, from the consent of the Church everywhere spread abroad;
the second, from the consent of the Church united in Ecumenical or General
Councils; both which methods I must set forth in detail, to show more
clearly that this infallible and irresistible authority resides in the
whole body of the Church."
He then proceeds to show that the type or form of all Ecumenical Councils
was taken from the first Council held at Jerusalem by the Apostles. He
notes these particulars: First, there was a great dissension, the cause of
it: then, that the chief Church, in which Peter sat, was then at Jerusalem;
whence it became a maxim, that Councils should not be regularly held
without Peter and his Successors and the First Church in which he sits.
Thirdly, it was as universal as could be. Fourthly, all were assembled
together. Fifthly, the question was stated, next deliberated on, lastly
decided by common sentence; which all became rules for future Councils.
Sixthly, the discussion is thus stated in the Acts, "when there had been
much disputing." Seventhly, the deliberation is opened by Peter, whence it
became a custom that the President of the Council should first give
sentence. Eighthly, Paul and Barnabas give their testimony, in confirmation
of Peter's sentence; and James expressly begins with Peter's words--"Simon
hath declared," whence the custom that the rest give their voice at the
instance of the President. "They do not, however, so proceed as if they
were altogether bound by the authority of the first sentence, but
themselves give judgment; and James says, 'I give sentence.' Then he
proposes what additions seemed good to the principal question, and gives
sentence also concerning them." Tenthly, "The decree was then drawn up in
the common name, and adding the authority of the Holy Spirit, 'It seemed
good unto us being assembled with one accord,' and 'It seemed good to the
Holy Ghost and to us;' there then lies the force, 'to the Holy Ghost and to
us:' not, what seemed good to Peter precisely, but, to us; and led by the
Spirit, not Peter alone, but the unity itself of the holy Council. Whence,
too, Christ said that concerning the Spirit whom he was about to send: 'But
when He, the Spirit of truth, is come, He shall teach you all truth:' you,
saith He, the Pastors of the Churches, and the Masters of the rest. Hence,
the Spirit is always added to the Church and the holy congregation. 'I
believe in the Holy Ghost, the holy Church, the Catholic Church:' and with
reason therefore, and carefully was the maxim which we have mentioned laid
down of old by our Doctors: 'The strength of Councils resides not in the
Roman Pontiff alone, but chiefly in the Holy Spirit and in the Catholic
Church.'
"Eleventhly: when the matter had been judged by common sentence, nothing
was afterwards reconsidered, nor any new dissension left to any one; but
the decree was carried to the Churches, and the people are taught to keep
the decrees which were decreed, in the Greek 'judged,' by the Apostles and
Elders which were at Jerusalem.
"This we Catholics urge with common consent against heretics who decline
the commands and authority of Councils: which would have no force, unless
together with the authority we also prove the form, and place the force
itself of the decree, not in Peter alone, but in Unity, and in the Consent
of the Apostles and the Pastors of the Church."[53]
In another place he says, 'In ecclesiastical acts we do indeed find that
the Catholic Church is affirmed by Chief Pontiffs and Councils to be
represented by Ecumenical Synods, which contain all its virtue and power,
which we are wont to mean by the word "represent." But this we do not read
of the Roman Pontiff, as affirmed either by the Pontiffs themselves, or by
Ecumenical Councils, or any where in Ecclesiastical Acts.[54]
I have been unable to find any testimony of St. Chrysostom to the
transmission of St. Peter's primacy over the whole Church to the Bishop of
Rome. He has, however, a passage about Rome which is worth transcribing;
for sometimes, as we have just seen, as much is proved by what is _not_
said, as by what _is_ said. Speaking then of St. Paul, he writes:--"Rather
if we listen to him here, we shall surely see him there; if not standing
near him, yet we shall see him surely shining near to the King's throne,
where the Cherubim ascribe glory, where the Seraphim spread their wings.
There with Peter shall we behold Paul--him that is the leader and director
of the choir of the saints,--and shall enjoy his true love. For if, being
here, he so loved men, that having the choice "to depart and be with
Christ," he chose to be here, much more there will he show warmer
affection. Rome likewise for this do I love, although having reason
otherwise to praise her, both for her size, and her antiquity, and her
beauty, and her multitude, and her power, and her wealth, and her victories
in war. But passing by all these things, for this I count her blessed;
because, when alive, he (Paul) wrote to them, and loved them so much, and
went and conversed with them, and there finished his life. Wherefore the
city is on that account more remarkable than for all other things together,
and like a great and strong body, it has two shining eyes, the bodies of
these saints. Not so bright is the heaven when the sun sends forth his
beams, as is the city of the Romans sending forth everywhere over the world
these two lights. Thence shall Paul, thence shall Peter, be caught up.
Think, and tremble, what a sight shall Rome behold, when Paul suddenly
riseth from that resting-place with Peter, and is carried up to meet the
Lord. What a rose doth Rome offer to Christ! with what two garlands is that
city crowned! with what golden fetters is she girdled; what fountains does
she possess! Therefore do I admire that city; not for the multitude of its
gold, nor for its columns, nor for its other splendours, but for these the
pillars of the Church."[55] Had St. Chrysostom felt like a Roman Catholic
could he have stopped there? Loving Rome for possessing the blessed and
priceless bodies of the two Apostles, could he have failed to mention the
sovereignty of the universal Church, which together with his body Peter had
left enshrined at Rome? Would it not have seemed to him by far the greatest
marvel at Rome, as it has to a late eloquent partisan, that Providence has
placed "in the middle of the world, to be there the chief of a religion
without its like, and of a society spread everywhere, a man without
defence, an old man who will be the more threatened, the more the increase
of the Church in the world shall augment the jealousy of princes, and the
hatred of his enemies."[56] "This vicar of God, this supreme pontiff of the
Catholic Church, this Father of kings and of nations, this successor of the
fisherman Peter, he lives, he raises among men his brow, charged with a
triple crown, and the sacred weight of eighteen centuries; the ambassadors
of nations are at his court: he sends forth his ministers to every
creature, and even to places which have not yet a name. When from the
windows of his palace he gazes abroad, his sight discovers the most
illustrious horizon in the world, the earth trodden by the Romans, the city
they had built with the spoils of the universe, the centre of things under
their two principal forms, matter and spirit: where all nations have
passed; all glories have come: all cultivated imaginations have at least
made a pilgrimage from far: Rome, the tomb of Martyrs and Apostles, the
home of all recollections. And when the Pontiff stretches forth his arms to
bless it, together with the world which is inseparable from it, he can bear
a witness to himself which no sovereign shall ever bear, that he has
neither built nor conquered, nor received his city, but that he is its
inmost and enduring life, that he is in it like the blood in the heart of
man, and that right can go no further than this, a continuous generation
which would make the parricide a suicide." Such feelings as these are what
any Churchman must habitually entertain, who looks on the Roman Pontiff as
at once the governing power and the life of the Church. Could, then, St.
Chrysostom have beheld in Rome the Church's heart, whence her life-blood
courses over the whole body, and have seen no reason to love her for that?
or have stated that she was more remarkable for possessing even the bodies
of the blessed Apostles than for all other things together? What Roman
Catholic would so speak now? The power of the Roman Pontiff in the Latin
Communion is actually such, that Lacordaire's words respecting the city of
Rome apply to the whole Church; to destroy that power would be to destroy
the Church herself; the parricide would be a suicide. But how can this
dogma be imposed upon us as necessary to salvation, if St. Augustin, St.
Chrysostom, and the Church of their day knew it not? or let it be shown us,
how any men who did know it, could either have written as they write, or
have been silent as they are silent.
We may sum up St. Augustin's view of the relation of the Roman Pontiff to
his brother Bishops in his own beautiful words to Pope Boniface: "To sit on
our watch-towers and guard the flock belongs in common to all of us who
have episcopal functions, although the hill on which you stand is more
conspicuous than the rest."[57] My object in these remarks throughout has
been to show, that a denial of either of these truths is a violation of the
Church's divine constitution. The Papacy has greatly obscured the essential
equality of Bishops; its opponents have avenged themselves by explaining
away the unquestionable Primacy of St. Peter, and its important action on
the whole Church.
What this Primacy was, and how it was exercised at a most important crisis
of the Church, I will now endeavour to show. Five years after the decision
of the African Bishops about appeals, the third Ecumenical Council
assembled at Ephesus,--and here, as in other cases, I prefer that another
should speak, and he the most illustrious Prelate of France in modern
times.[58] "In the third general Council of Ephesus, and in those which
follow, our whole argument will appear in clearer light, its Acts being in
our hands; and there existing very many judgments of Roman Pontiffs _on
matters of faith_, set forth with the whole authority of their see, which
were afterwards re-considered in general Councils, and only approved after
examination, than which nothing can be more opposed to the opinion of
infallibility. And as to the Council of Ephesus, the thing is clear. The
innovation of Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople, is known; how, by
denying to the Virgin Mary the title of 'Mother of God,' he divided into
two the person of Christ. Pope St. Coelestine, watchful, according to his
office, over the affairs of the Church, had charged the blessed Cyril,
Bishop of Alexandria, to send him a certain report of the doctrine of
Nestorius, already in bad repute. Cyril declares this in his letter to
Nestorius; and so he writes to Coelestine all the doctrines of Nestorius,
and sets forth his own: he sends him two letters from himself to Nestorius,
who likewise, by his own letters and explanations, endeavoured to draw
Coelestine to his side. Thus the holy Pontiff, having been most fully
informed by letters from both sides, is thus inquired of by Cyril. 'We have
not confidently abstained from communion with him (Nestorius) before
informing you of this; condescend, therefore, to unfold your judgment, that
we may clearly know whether we ought to communicate with him who cherishes
such erroneous doctrine.'" And he adds, that his judgment should be written
to the other Bishops also, "that all with one mind may hold firm in one
sentence." Here is the Apostolic See manifestly consulted by so great a
man, presiding over the second, or at least the third, Patriarchal See, and
its judgment awaited; and nothing remained but that Coelestine, being duly
consulted, should perform his Apostolic office. But how he did this, the
acts themselves will speak out.
"And first, he approves of Cyril's letters and doctrine; for he writes to
him thus: 'We perceive that you hold and maintain all that we hold and
maintain:' and to Nestorius, 'We have approved, and do approve, the faith
of the Prelate of the Church of Alexandria:' and he threatens him with
extremities, "If you preach not that which Cyril preaches.' Nothing could
be said more marked. Nor does he only approve Cyril's doctrine, but
disapproves, too, the perverse dogma of Nestorius: 'We have seen,' he says,
'your letters containing open blasphemy;' and that distinctly, because he
was unwilling to call the Blessed Virgin 'Mother of God:' and he decrees
that he should be deprived of the episcopate and communion, unless, within
ten days from the date of the announcing of the sentence, he openly rejects
this faithless innovation, which endeavours to separate what Scripture
joineth together, that is, the Person of Christ. Here is the doctrine of
Nestorius expressly disapproved, and a sentence of the Roman Pontiff on a
matter of faith most clearly pronounced under threat of deposition and
excommunication: then, that nothing be wanting, the holy Pope commits his
authority to Cyril to carry into execution that sentence, 'associating,' he
saith to Cyril, 'the authority of our See, and using our person, place, and
power:' so to Nestorius himself; so to the Clergy of Constantinople; so to
John of Antioch, then the Bishop of the third or fourth Patriarchal See; so
to Juvenal, Bishop of the Holy City, whom the Council of Nice had ordered
to be especially honoured: so he writes to the other Bishops also, that the
sentence given may be duly and in order made known to all. Cyril proceeds
to execute his office, and performs all that he had been commanded. He
promulgates and executes the decrees of Coelestine; declares to Nestorius,
that after the _ten_ days prescribed and set forth by Coelestine, he would
have no portion, intercourse, or place with the Priesthood. Nothing
evidently is wanting to the Apostolical authority being most fully
exercised; but whether the sentence put forward with such authority, after
a great dissension had arisen and mention been made of an Ecumenical
Council, was held to be final, the succeeding acts will demonstrate.
"We have often said--we shall often say--that it is the constitution of the
Church only in extraordinary cases and dissensions to recur, of necessity,
to an Ecumenical Council. But in the usual order even the most important
questions on the faith, when they arise, are terminated by the consent of
the Church being added to the decree of the Roman Pontiff. This is clearly
manifest from the cause of Nestorius. We confess plainly that the sentence
of Coelestine would have been sufficient, as Cyril hoped, to repress the
new heresy, had not great commotions arisen, and the matter seemed of such
a nature as to be referred to an Ecumenical Council. But Nestorius, Bishop
of the royal city, possessed such influence, had deceived men's minds with
such an appearance of piety, had gained so many Bishops, and enjoyed such
favour with the younger Theodosius and the great men, that he could easily
throw everything into commotion; and thus there was need of an Ecumenical
Council, the question being most important, and the person of the highest
dignity; because many Bishops, amongst these almost all of the East, that
is, of the province of Antioch, and the Patriarch John himself, were ill
disposed to Cyril, and seemed to favour Nestorius; because men's feelings
were divided, and the whole empire of the East seemed to fluctuate between
Cyril and Nestorius. Such was the need of an Ecumenical Council.
"To this must be added the prayers of the pious and orthodox; here were
most pious monks, who had suffered much from Nestorius for the orthodox
faith, and the expression, 'Mother of God,' supplicating the Emperor 'for a
sacred and Ecumenical Council to assemble, by the presence of which he
should unite the most holy Church, bring back the people to one, and
restore to their place the Priests who preached the pure faith, before that
impious doctrine (of Nestorius) crept wider.' And again, 'We have asked you
to call together an Ecumenical Council, which can most fully consolidate
and restore the tottering.' Here, after the judgment of the Roman Pontiff,
a firm and complete settling of the tottering state of things is sought for
by the pious in an Ecumenical Council.
"The Emperor, moved by these and other reasons, wrote to Cyril,--'It is our
will that the holy doctrine be discussed and examined in a sacred Synod,
and that be ratified which appeareth agreeable to the right faith, whether
the wrong party be pardoned by the Fathers or no.'
"Here we see three things: first, after the judgment of St. Coelestine,
another is still required, that of the Council; secondly, that these two
things would rest with the Fathers, to judge of doctrine and of persons;
thirdly, that the judgment of the Council would be decisive and final."
"He adds, 'those who everywhere preside over the priesthood, and through
whom we ourselves are and shall be professing the truth, must be judges of
this matter; on whose faith we rest.' See in whose judgment is the final
and irreversible authority.