REVIEW AND REVISION.
All the most important truths of any subject may be stated in a brief
space. The Author proposes to make this final chapter one of a
restatement of the essentials of the subject in the light of our
present-day knowledge, and with a distinct relation to practice.
The object of the speaker or singer is to produce certain sounds which
shall as easily as possible convey to the listener his own state of
mind. It follows that he must have a clear idea of these sounds, that
he must hear them mentally prior to their utterance; in other words,
the psychological must precede the physiological. Voice production for
the purpose of speaking and singing implies a coöperation of the
psychic and the physiological, a co-ordination of processes that are
psychic, and physical, somatic or physiological.
It is well to regard the subject from as many points of view as
possible, and to consider the various ways in which the same truth may
be stated.
Stress must be laid on the idea of co-ordination, for processes may be
independently satisfactory yet fail to lead to the desired result if
they are not connected, harmonised or co-ordinated. The latter is the
better term because it suggests a certain order of progress. As a
matter of fact, first the psychic, then the physiological. The idea
may be clear, yet from a physical defect, as in stammering, the result
does not follow, though this physiological imperfection in movement
may itself be the result of a psychic condition and generally is so. A
clearer case is that of paralysis of the vocal organs. The ideas to be
expressed may be perfectly clear in the mind yet impossible of
expression. The defect is at the distal end of the combination--_i.e._,
in the physical, somatic or bodily part of the process to express the
same idea by the use of different terms. The consideration of
conditions of defect or pathological states may make normal
psychological and physiological ones clearer, as has been shown by the
above illustrations. The practical importance of the co-ordination of
processes is very great. It is not possible for one born deaf to speak
because the necessary mental or psychic conditions for co-ordination
do not exist--_i.e._, there is no sound in the mind to be
expressed--not because there is any serious anatomical defect. In like
manner the student of singing will produce no better tone than he has
in mind no matter how much he practices vocalization. It follows,
therefore, that the psychic state of the student should be kept in
advance of his actual powers of execution. This he will most
successfully do by listening to the best artists either directly or if
this be impossible by hearing their gramophone records--all this in
addition to the best the teacher can do for him by the correction of
faults, giving him illustrations of better tone by his own efforts,
etc. If the student has the opportunity of hearing himself by means of
a phonographic record, he should not fail to do so. No one ever hears
himself as others hear him.
As the mind and the brain are always associated in thought and
feeling; in other words, in psychic processes, and these latter find
expression chiefly through movements, in one sense a study of
vocalization may be considered a study of movements. These are always
brought about by the use of several muscles which act together for a
definite end--_i.e._, they are co-ordinated. As such movements
generally involve many muscles and to be effective must be exact and
under perfect control, much practice is necessary, though "much"
should have reference rather to the clearness of the mind in reference
to what is to be attained and the means of accomplishing it, rather
than to the amount of time spent over the actual performance. We may
confidently assert that technique or the physical side of putting the
ideas into execution, which is simply making certain movements, is
successful largely in proportion to the perfection of the psychic
processes involved. A clear head should precede the moving hand, or
functioning vocal organs. The student should think technique before
and after its actual execution. This is even yet, in spite of a great
advance in recent years, the weakest part of the student's method of
work. All that we know of science as well as the results of all
rightly directed practice emphasizes the importance of this central
truth.
Assuming that the psychic condition is satisfactory for the production
of a definite tone--_i.e._, that it is heard mentally, what follows
before it is actually produced, before it becomes a tone from the
physicist's point of view? What is the chain of physical, somatic,
bodily or anatomical (to use several words that express similar but
slightly different aspects of the same main idea) connections
involved, and what is the nature of the physiological processes; in
other words, what are the parts of the body involved and how do they
act? This will be clearer if we first consider the mechanism concerned
and its functions in a general way.
The instrument which is played upon, which finally gives rise to the
tone, may be spoken of as that connected series of cavities for which
we have no single term but which are generally named the resonance
chambers when regarded from the physicist's point of view. To the
musician they are the instrument, to the physiologist and anatomist a
set of chambers communicating with each other. Plainly all the rest
of the vocal mechanism exists for them, and too much stress cannot be
laid on this fact. However excellent the state of training of the part
below them this is of no avail except in so far as it can affect these
resonance cavities.
How is this instrument played upon and how are these cavities made
actually into resounding chambers? In the answer to this, in the
recognition of the relationship of the three distinct parts of the
vocal apparatus lies the one great fundamental conception of the
manner in which tone is produced. To understand this clearly is to
comprehend in its main outlines the whole subject of voice production
in a scientific way.
Before a tone is heard vibrations of the atmospheric air must reach
the ear. These are set up by the vibration of the air within the
resonance chambers, and this again is effected by the mechanism below
them--_i.e._, by the movements of the vocal bands of the larynx which
are due to the blast of air emanating from the lungs, this itself
being brought into being by the movements of the chest, using the term
in the widest sense, thus including the diaphragm, etc.
Breathing has for its object so far as phonation is concerned no other
purpose than to so affect the vocal bands, that the resonance chambers
really do resound. The question is how is this breathing best
accomplished so that the instrument shall be most efficiently played
upon? We cannot alter the anatomical structure of the instrument
appreciably, but we can improve the functioning of the several parts
of the whole apparatus. Breathing can be improved as regards power and
control. More can be done with less expenditure of energy than
originally if there be judicious training. How shall we train? As the
outgoing stream of air alone affects the vocal bands, it is clear that
we must aim to so apply and regulate this outflow that the desired
result shall follow from the least possible expenditure of energy. How
the air is got in is important only in relation to its expenditure.
But the easier the supply is furnished the better. This law of the
conservation of energy is one of the greatest importance, for all
beings have but a limited supply of energy and our problem must ever
be how best to husband this as a wise man should study how best to
spend his limited income. One must not only consider what is called
for in ordinary conversational speaking, or in singing in a small
room, but also when the greatest possible efforts are demanded. In all
cases when movements are concerned, indeed whenever activity of any
kind psychic or physiological is involved the _law of habit_ should be
borne in mind--_i.e._, one should so think and do that a habit may be
established, for a habit implies, when a good one, that there is
economy of both mental and bodily energy.
The aim of all training is to establish good habits--ways of doing
things which will leave the subject with more capital to invest so to
speak, as he wastes less. It follows that the same methods should
always be used in trying to attain the same end. There are few
subjects of equal importance so little considered by students of music
in a conscious intelligent way. A clear conviction as to the
foundation for close adherence to certain methods of doing things is
an invaluable mental asset for any student.
The whole subject of breathing has been so fully considered in
previous chapters--indeed more or less in all parts of this work--that
it is not necessary to go into much detail now. The investigations of
physiologists in the internal have only emphasised the author's
teaching on this subject. The present position of the subject may be
stated thus: (1) In inspiration the whole chest is enlarged, this
involving the descent of the diaphragm. (2) The amount of mobility is
much greater in the lower half of the chest. (3) This lower half of
the chest and the diaphragm act together, constituting a special
mechanism of great importance. (4) The abdominal muscles discharge a
coöperative function. It follows that the advice of a present day
famous tenor to "breathe low" is sound. Nevertheless, it must not be
forgotten that inspiration begins above and that the upper chest has
its functions also. It is not merely a region of support for the
lower mechanism, important as this function is. The terms "abdominal"
and "diaphragmatic" respiration have led to misunderstanding. Neither
the abdominal muscles nor the diaphragm ever act alone in normal
respiration, though they are important coöperative factors.
Breathing exercises should be based on broad views of the subject, and
no part of the respiratory mechanism should be neglected.
Small an organ as is the larynx it is through it the energy of the
expiratory act is transmitted effectively or the reverse to the
all-important resonance chambers. This should be so done that there is
no waste; in other words, that there be perfect co-ordination between
the breathing and the laryngeal mechanism. The vocal bands must be so
related in function to the expiratory mechanism that the outgoing
blast of air shall be as effective as possible. There must be no waste
of power--_i.e._, of the expiratory blast through escape of air that
accomplishes no purpose. The blast must be so applied to the vocal
bands, or, in other words, they must be so adapted to the blast that
there is no waste of energy. If the bands approximate a little too
late there is waste of breath power. The bands must further so beat
the air of the resonance chambers as to get the greatest possible
result with the least possible expenditure of energy. As all these
co-ordinations imply the action of many muscles in a related way, it
is plain that intelligent and prolonged training is necessary; and if
our scientific knowledge had no other result than to establish such a
conviction on a sure basis it would be well worth while; but it is a
light unto the feet of the student and teacher at every step, only it
must be a clear light, not one seen through a mental haze. If there be
failure the fault must not be set down to science but to ourselves.
It is ever to be borne in mind that when anything is done in the right
way not only is there no pain, unpleasant feeling or evil
after-effects, but when real skill has been attained through training,
the result is accomplished with a sense of ease and all the
accompanying feelings are agreeable. The singer need not know that he
has a throat by any disagreeable reminder. At the same time a function
may be correctly discharged but continued too long, so that weariness
or positive fatigue with some evil consequences may follow. Fatigue
always implies more or less poisoning of the system.
Of the resonance chambers, the mouth cavity, the pharyngeal cavity and
the naso-pharynx, which may both be regarded as a part of the mouth
cavity, and the nasal chambers, the latter may be considered the least
variable in shape; nevertheless they can, by means of the soft
palate, be to a large extent shut off from the other parts of this
series of chambers.
The means by which the size and shape of the resonance chambers can be
varied are chiefly the soft palate and the tongue, the latter being of
the greatest importance. The changes in the shape of the mouth cavity
necessary for the formation of vowels are due chiefly to the movements
of the tongue, and the tongue is more largely concerned in the
utterance of consonants than any other moveable part of the upper
voice mechanism.
For practical ends it is important to realize that one speaks with the
tongue; and if one believed that everything depended on this organ,
other parts--including the outer mouth or lips merely to be kept out
of the way--the result would on the whole likely be gain.
In the formation of vowels the result may be good when the lips take
but the slightest active part, and the student is advised to practice
vowel formation without the use of the lips. He is likely to use them
enough in any case provided he ensures the formation of pure vowel
sounds, and people seem to have an extraordinary facility for
over-doing the use of lip movements, for getting the teeth in the way
and thus spoiling tone, that was begun well, before it has escaped
from the mouth. It may be observed that those who get their living on
the streets by the use of the voice, and who use the voice much and
often speak rapidly, and in spite of this are heard well, so construct
their words that the lips are not seen to move to any appreciable
extent except as the lower jaw moves. The lips seem to be always
apart. It is not the amount of movement that is important but the kind
of movement, especially its rapidity.
Muscular efforts for the production of consonants should be neat,
decisive, sharp, rather than held ones, which tend to spoil the word
as a whole. As a rule, one is safe in holding the vowel as long as
possible and in making the time dwelt on the consonant as short as
possible--_i.e._, consistent with distinct and musical utterance.
The same applies to singing with even greater force. In speaking
especially short pauses not printed in the text may be made to great
advantage, and this is often better than dwelling on consonants. The
mouth of the speaker and still more that of the singer should not
attract the attention of the listener, so the less movement of the
lips of a kind readily open to observation, the better. Besides such
movements being unnecessary are a waste of muscular and nervous
energy.
Singers are not warranted in departing to any appreciable extent from
the pronunciation of words laid down as standard for speakers--_e.g._,
"shall" should not be sung as "sholl," and in such a word as "motion,"
the final syllable should not be made equally important with the
first one. Singers should observe the laws of a good elocution; in
other words, such treatment of the language of the song as an approved
reader would employ. The author would go so far as to say that no
singer should appear in public till he can utter every syllable as he
sings so that it is readily recognised by the listener. At present
such is rarely the case even with the best vocalists. All prospective
vocalists should study utterance by the speaking voice first and
continue it when the study of singing has been begun. The words of
every song, etc., should be mastered in all respects before they are
sung.
As the degree of success in singing or speaking depends so far as
technique is concerned on a series of co-ordinations the condition of
both the psychic and bodily mechanism as determined by training and
the general health of the individual is of great importance; and it is
not to be forgotten that the mind as well as the body is to be
considered in all questions of hygiene.
INDEX.
A
Abdominal muscles, 66
Acoustics, 97
Adam's apple, 80
Adductors, 82
Air, 48
complemental, 70
quantity of, in lungs, 70
residual, 70
supplemental, 70
tidal, 70
Amateurs, 274
American speech, 146
Americans, pitch of, 224
Antagonists, 53
Anatomy, 35
Art, 17, 272
Artist, isolation of, 254
Artistic, 246
perception, 245
temperament, 31
Arytenoid cartilages, 77
Aspirates, 228
Attack, 30, 125, 127, 208
best tests of a good, 129
good, 127, 232
Auditory messages, 250
Auto-laryngoscopy, 109, 110, 152, 161
B
"Backward" production, 213
Bel Canto, 211
Break, 162
Breath, 60, 72
control of, 20, 21
exercise for, 133, 134
in phonation, 130
manner of using, 172, 208
stream, 22, 125, 194
Breathing, 44-73, 118, 124
abdominal, 118
clavicular, 118, 119
deep, 63
diaphragmatic, 118, 119
exercises, 131
mechanism, control of, 120
method of, 64, 177
nose, 131
C
Cartilage of Santorini, 77
Wrisberg, 77
Cells, 36
Chest, 50, 62, 71
cavity of, 71
complete control of, 62
position of, in singing, 123
in speaking, 123
Children, public appearance of, 116
register of, 234
Choral singing, 247
Choristers, 256
Circulatory system, 37
Clergyman's sore-throat, 88
Cold, a, 77, 92
prevention of, 93
Color, 214
Composers, 116
Consonant, a, 195, 196
Consonants, 223, 225, 226, 230-235
mouth positions of, 226-228
Corsets, evil effects of, 72
Coup de glotte, 124-127, 139
Cramming, 46
Cricoid cartilage, 77, 81
thyroid, 83, 85
membrane, 81
Curwen, 156
D
Dialects, 225, 235
Diameters, 50
Diaphragm, 52, 53, 66, 71
E
Ear, 182, 236, 245, 248
connection with mouth cavity, 203
drum-head of, 240
external, purpose of, 240
for music, 244
lack of, 245, 249
inner, 237, 241
middle, 237, 241
musical, 31
outer, 237
purpose of, 238
Ease, 123, 233
English, 198
speech, 146
Epiglottis, 79
Eustachian tube, 241
Execution, 179, 256
Exercises, 131-135, 139
practical, 73
Expiration, 49
Expiratory blast, 60, 68, 88, 103, 177
current, 136, 208
Explosives, 226
Expression, 254
F
Falsetto, 154
high, 170, 178
in males, 160, 179
"Feeling-tone", 212
Food, 263
"Forward" production, 213
Fundamental principles, 179-194
application of, 195-206
tone, 231
G
Garcia, Manuel, 105, 138, 159
German language, 198
speech, 146
Germans, pitch of, 224
Glide, 258
Glottis, 47, 78, 82, 88, 126, 159
in barytone voices, 157
bass voices, 157
contralto voices, 158
mezzo-soprano voices, 158
tenor voices, 157
ligamentous, 157
H
Head, position of, 205
Hearing, 101, 236-250
difference in animals, 101
highest limit of, 102
lower limit of, 102
Helmholtz, 167
Hygiene, 33, 72, 92, 93, 251-275
Hyoid bone, 81, 95
I
Illustration of principles, 27, 28
Impulses, 236
Inhibitions, 184
Inspiration, 48, 51, 71
Intonation, 195, 196, 230
correct position for good, 131
Italian language, 198
K
Knowledge, principle of, 34
L
Larynx, 60, 74-96, 136, 148, 258
anatomy of, 21
as a musical instrument, 102
change in size of, 111
control over, 112
difference in size, 110
growth of, 138
in action, 109
in singing and speaking, 198
muscles of, 81, 95
of the male 138
photography of, 161
physiology of, 21
ventricle of, 80
vibrations of, 96
whole, 94
Laryngoscope, 91, 103, 136
Ligamentous glottis, 157
Lips, 202
Lungs, 49, 63
Lymph, 37
M
Mackenzie, Sir Morell, 156, 167, 168
Mara, Madame, range of, 111
Marcato production, 209
Marchesi, Madame, teaching of, 159
Men, register of, 234
Messages, Auditory, 250
Methods, correct, 22, 23
faulty, 32
Middle production, 214
Midriff, see diaphragm
Mind, 210
Mirror, use of, 235
Mouth, as a resonance chamber, 221
resonator, 148
cavity, 149
respiration, 131
toilet of, 262
Movements, 192
Muscles, 36, 82
abdominal, 66
Muscular action, 71
mechanism, 42
movements, 179
Music, 243
appreciation of, 247
intellectuality in, 256
intelligence in, 108
interpretation of, 21
Musical artist, 198
ear, 31
prodigy, 243
faculty develops early, 115
faults, 258
sounds, practical range of, 102
tones, 231
Musician, fundamental qualities of, 246
N
Nasal chambers, 144, 149, 214
Nasality, 231
Nerve-cells, 38
Nervous centres, 39
impulses, 244, 250
system, 38
Nervousness, 274
Neuro-muscular mechanisms, 17, 42, 181
processes, 183
system, 43
New language, learning of, 224
Noise, 218
O
Open mouth, 203, 204, 217
Ordinary speech, 230
Overtones, 231, 235
P
Palate, cleft, 149
hard, 149, 213
soft, 145, 214, 216, 231
Phonation, 192, 193
breath in, 130
example of, 193
Physics, principles of involved, 135
Physiological considerations, 34-43
teachings, 26, 31
Piano production, 259
Pillars of the fauces, 145
Pitch, 101, 136, 150, 214
favorite, 273
Portamento production, 258
Practical considerations, 88
Practice, 132, 185-192
best time to, 186, 187
by wrong method, 191
for sustained tone, 132
methods of, 194
Puberty, at, 112, 138
in boys, 114, 115
in girls, 113
Public singing, age to begin, 115
speaking, 212
Pumping, 259
Q
Quality, 101, 136, 214
R
R and s, interval between, 225
Reed, long, 157
short, 157
Reflex action, 40
Reflexes, associated, 183
protective character of, 58, 59
sets of, 184
Register, 233
change in, 169, 177
chest, 160
definition of, 176
in female voices, 160
of basses and barytones, 170
of tenors, 170
Registers, 151-178
Behnke on, 155, 156, 167
Garcia on, 155
Mackenzie on, 156, 167, 168
Madame Seiler on, 153, 165, 170
Mandl on, 158
Resonance chambers, 102, 136, 140-150, 175, 182, 198, 213, 223, 224,
228, 234
in sounding bodies, 140
of musical instruments, 140, 141
Resonants, 228
Resonator, 148
Respiration, 46, 48, 68, 69
forced, 119
hygiene of, 55
mouth, 131
Respiratory centre, 57, 58, 172
efficiency, 124
organs, 47
system, 37
tract, 26
S
Science, 17
Scripture, Prof., 150
Seiler, Madame, 153, 165, 170
Selections in public, 271
Sensations, 172, 174, 175, 178
Septum nasi, 149
Singer, purpose of, 99
range of, 269
Singing, choral, 256
class, 257
fortissimo, 121
good, 259
in schools, 247
Song, elements of, 218-229
Soprano, highest tones of, 137
light, 232
Sound, 60, 97-103, 135, 225
quality of, 102, 246
Tyndall on, 97
volume of, 101, 102, 136
Sounding body, 99
Speaker, purpose of, 99
Speaking, good, 259
Speech, elements of, 218-229
organs of, 233
purity of, 135
Sphincter action, 86
Staccato production, 209
Stammering, 268
Stop-closure, 158
Straining, 86, 175
Straw bass, 88
Stuttering, 268
Style, 254
Swell, 207, 212
T
Technique, 23, 179, 183, 185, 186, 254, 255
Teeth, 202
Temperament, 245
Tenors, 232
Throat mirror, 107
sore, 265
Thyro-arytenoideus, 84, 85
hyoid membrane, 81
Thyroid cartilage, 76, 81
Timbre, 136
Tone, 132, 135, 136
carrying power of, 126
color of, 214
ground, 231
head, 160
piano, 233
pitch of, 126
production, 132, 207-217
quality of, 128, 142, 150, 231
the sustained, 208
volume of, 126
Tones, 189
head, 177
highest, 137
lower, 137
quality of, 146
timbre of, 136
upper, 86
Tongue, 131, 145, 149, 214
control of, 202
influence of, 201
Tonsils, 145, 149
Trachea, 81
Tremolo, 128, 258, 259
Tuning fork, 99
U
Uvula, 145
V
Vibrations, 61, 98, 100, 236
Vibratives, 228
Vibrato, 258
Vital capacity, 71
Vocal athlete, 182
Vocal bands, 87, 103, 126
action of, 137
false, 78
true, 77, 78, 80, 94
vibrations of, 136
cords, false, 95
Madame Seiler on, 154
true, 95
methods, 32
physiology, 17-32
training, early weeks of, 246
Vocalises, 207
Vocalist, ideal, 198
Vocalization, 19, 31
Voice, 44, 254
breaking of, 114
brightening the, 216
carrying power of, 232
darkening the, 216
even, 84
harsh, 232
head, in females, 166
in ill health, 114
loud, 272
placed, 215
position in use of, 206
production, 22, 244
small in volume, 272
user, 17, 33, 46
exercises for, 135
well placed, 175
Voices, classification of, 260, 261
injured, 26
Vowel, a, 195
purity of, 199
sounds, 196, 197, 216
Vowels, adaptation of, to ideas, 222
and consonants, 230, 235
dark, 235
formation of, 218-221
low-pitched, 235
mouth positions of, 218
perfect sound of, 221
pitch of, 221, 225, 230
quality of, 221
W
Wagner, 257
Whispering, 225, 226
Women, register of, 234