THE HEARING APPARATUS AND HEARING IN MUSIC.
So important are the ingoing sensory messages (impulses) that
originate in the ear, as a guide not only in the appreciation of
musical sounds but in those movements on which all musical execution,
all vocal effects, whether of song or speech, depend, that we think
the reader will welcome a chapter on the ear, even though it be no
part of the vocal apparatus proper.
The essential mechanism used by Nature to give us the sensation of
sound consists of (1) a complicated form of nerve-ending; (2) an
auditory nerve leading from, and a continuation, in a certain sense,
of, the latter; (3) nerve tracts and hearing centres in the brain. The
whole constitutes a very complicated mechanism, but the principles on
which it is constructed may be reduced to a few. Mechanical or
physical principles, as well as physiological ones, are involved.
The entire apparatus has for its purpose the conversion of the
vibrations of the air into the vibrations of a fluid, which thus
stimulates the end-organ, and brings about those changes in the nerve
which result in corresponding changes in the brain, that are
associated, in some way we cannot explain, to that state of
consciousness we term hearing. Complicated as is the auditory
apparatus, it can be readily enough comprehended, if the reader
accompany the perusal of the text by an examination of the figures
introduced.
[Illustration: FIG. 60. (Beaunis). In this illustration parts are
exposed to view by the removal of others. The whole of the inner ear
lies within bone, which in this figure is cut away. The drum-head
(membrana tympani); the Eustachian tube, extending from the back of
the throat, and opening into the middle ear; the semicircular canals
(which are not concerned with hearing, but with the maintenance of
equilibrium); the cochlea, (snail-shell), which contains the various
parts most essential to hearing, as the "hair-cells," the terminals of
the auditory nerve, the latter nerve itself, and several other
parts--are well shown. Should the Eustachian tube be closed owing to
swelling of its lining mucous membrane, a certain amount of temporary
deafness may result, because, the air within the middle ear (drum)
being absorbed, and fresh air not being admitted, the outer air
presses against the drum-head uncounteracted, and renders the
conducting mechanism too rigid.]
Anatomists speak of (1) an outer or external ear, (2) a middle ear,
drum, or tympanum, and (3) an inner ear, or labyrinth.
[Illustration: FIG. 61 (Beaunis). Diagrammatic representation of the
auditory apparatus. The external, middle, and internal ear are
separated by dotted lines. A, the external; B, the middle; C, the
internal ear; 1, auricle; 2, external auditory meatus; 3, tympanum
(middle ear), with its chain of bones, 7, 8, 9. Into it opens 5,
Eustachian tube, leading from back of throat; 4, membrana tympani or
drum-head, closing the middle ear off from the external ear. The most
important part of the inner ear is 13, the cochlear canal, in which
the "hair-cells" are found, around which latter the final branches of
the auditory nerve end. Above it is the scala vestibuli and below it
the scala tympani, passages filled with fluid. The openings to these
canals are closed with membrane. Attached to the membrane of the oval
opening is the stapes (stirrup). It is thus seen that vibrations
communicated to the chain of bones from the tympanic membrane are
passed on to the fluid filling the passages (scalæ) of the cochlea,
and thus affect the hair-cells, and so the nerve of hearing, and
through it the brain. The parts indicated by 12 and 16 are important
in the maintenance of equilibrium, but are not concerned in hearing.]
The purpose of the _outer ear_ is to collect the air vibrations and
convey them to the middle ear, which passes them on to the inner ear,
where they produce the vibrations in the fluid therein contained and
which affect the end-organ and nerve-endings, and thus initiate the
essential physiological processes in the nerve of hearing. It follows
that we have an instance of the conversion of one kind of vibrations,
those of the air, into another kind, those of fluid, which latter
furnish a sufficiently delicate stimulus or excitation of the fine
hair-like extensions (_processes_) of the cells known as
_hair-cells_, about which the nerves in their final smallest branches
wrap themselves.
[Illustration: FIG. 62 (Beaunis). Two of the bones of the ear (the
malleus or hammer and the incus or anvil) enlarged. These small
ear-bones have joints like larger ones. The line of conveyance of
vibrations is indicated by B A.]
When we ourselves hear sounds when under water, we are affected
directly by the vibrations of that water; in this case we, in our
whole body, represent the hair-cells which are stimulated by the fluid
(_endolymph_) which surrounds them.
[Illustration: FIG. 63 (Beaunis). The complete chain of bones. The
arrows indicate in a general way the direction of the line of
transmission of vibrations from the tympanic membrane on to the fluid
within the passages of the inner ear.]
The external ear, well developed in many of the lower animals, being
often highly movable, is practically immovable in man, and is wholly
wanting in some animals, as the frog. The circular plate one sees
behind the eye of the frog is the drum-head of the middle ear.
From the _drum-head_, or _tympanic membrane_, the vibrations, which
are now those of a solid, are communicated by a series of very small
bones, most beautifully linked together by perfect joints, to another
membrane, which closes a small hole in the outer wall of the inner
ear.
The _middle ear_, it will be seen, is a drum with its stretched
membrane like any other drum, and it too has a communication with the
exterior air through a tube, the _Eustachian tube_, which leads from
the drum into the back part of the throat. When one has a cold, the
mucous membrane which lines this tube may become swollen or even
catarrhal, and be so closed that no air can enter from the throat; the
air already within the drum being absorbed, the outer air presses
unduly against the drum-head, with the result that the whole
conducting apparatus is put more or less out of condition, and a
certain degree of deafness naturally results. The tension of the
drum-head is regulated by a muscle attached to the bone which is
connected with the inner part of this membrane.
It is now easy to understand how any unfavorable condition of the
throat may affect the ear, or that of the ear influence the throat.
In the hearing mechanism of man, the _inner ear_, or _labyrinth_, well
so named because of its complexity, is really situated in the inner
hardest portion of the "temporal" bone. It consists of a membrane and
a bony portion, the former containing the essential mechanism of
hearing, the latter being chiefly protective to it. The membranous
portion consists of a series of canals communicating with some
similarly membranous sacs, the whole being surrounded by and filled
with fluid. These latter communicate with an extension termed the
_cochlea_, which contains a central canal in which that collection of
cells is found which constitutes the _end-organ_, among them the
hair-cells, about which the nerve ends.
This end-organ in the cochlea may be compared very fitly to the
telephone which receives the message, and that portion of the brain
where the auditory tract ends, to the telephone at the distant end of
the path, the listener there representing consciousness. The auditory
path within the brain is long and complicated, there being, in fact,
many way-stations through which the message passes before it reaches
the final one.
The auditory nerve proceeds first to the lowest or hindermost portion
of the brain, known as the _bulb_, or _medulla oblongata_; thence a
continuation of the nerve tract passes forward to a central region,
the _posterior corpora quadrigemina_, then, by a new relay of
nerve-fibres, to the highest and most important part of the brain,
that most closely associated with consciousness, the _cortex of the
temporal lobe_, where there is situated the most important of all the
centres of hearing.
It will be apparent, on consideration, that "hearing" is a very
elaborate result, the outcome of many physiological processes
(initiated by physical ones), the initial and final being better
understood than the intermediate ones.
One asks, with natural curiosity and interest, "Is the auditory
apparatus of the highly endowed musician different from and superior
to that of the individual with little talent for music?"
It is not easy to give a short and definite answer to this question.
No special examinations of the essential parts of the ears of eminent
musicians have been made, so far as we are aware, and as yet few of
the brains of this class of men. It is, however, practically certain
that there is a brain development peculiar to the born musician, and
that this, whatever else it may be, involves a special excellence of
the auditory path within the brain, rather than any unusual
development of the essential parts of the ear. The individual who is a
musical prodigy has, without question, _a more perfect connection_
established between his auditory apparatus, in the widest sense of the
word, and those muscular mechanisms employed in the execution of
music, whether vocal or instrumental, than is the case with the
average man. Usually, with this goes a wide series of brain
associations or connections, we may presume, between the auditory
tracts and other regions, for without this it is difficult to explain
temperament and artistic perception. That they are not necessarily
associated, however, is clear from the fact that some have a high
degree of executive ability and little real artistic development.
It must never be forgotten, however, that whatever else music may be,
it is essentially and primarily a sensuous experience. The one who
enjoys music must feel its sensuous charm, and the artist who
furnishes that which is enjoyed addresses himself primarily to our
auditory mechanism. Executing music is hearing music, and enjoying
music is hearing music, though both may involve much more than this,
and herein individuals must differ greatly, owing to education, past
experience, etc.; but all who have the power to really appreciate
music must be capable of the sensuous enjoyment of tones. In this all
everywhere find something in common; often that which we enjoy is of
the most varied nature.
One thing is certain: those connections between the hearing and the
motor processes we term singing or playing should be made early in
life, if they are to reach that degree of facility and general
excellence essential to success. We think there is good reason to
begin voice-production early, as well as the practice of an
instrument, though we do not maintain that the argument is as strong
in the one case as in the other.
That the "ear for music" may be well developed, in the sense that one
may know perfectly what is correct in time and tune, without the power
to execute well, there can be no doubt, as witness the case of many
composers, but the reverse does not hold. There can be no doubt that
_the nervous impulses that pass from the ear to the brain are of all
sensory messages the most important guides for the outgoing ones that
determine the necessary movements_.
The author would advise every serious student of music to believe in
the unlimited capacity of his own ear for improvement. The lack of
"ear" of many people is due largely, if not solely, to inattention.
Indeed, an excess of temperament may be a positive hindrance to
musical development, both as regards appreciation and execution, for
it may be accompanied by inattentive listening and consequent
inadequate hearing. On the other hand, no one should, because he has a
good faculty for time and tune and the memorizing of airs, conclude
that he is an artist. The one faculty may exist altogether apart from
the capacity for the highest art. It is a matter of history that
several vocalists now before the public, and who rank in the highest
class of musical artists, displayed at one period of their career a
lack of perception as to pitch or rhythm that was, to say the least,
very discouraging, and which, but for their force of character, would
have kept them from ever being eminent.
If one have neither ear, temperament, nor artistic perception, he
should not waste his energies on musical study--at least, not extended
efforts; but if he have the two last, and but a moderate ear, he will
do well to try to improve the lower for the sake of the higher
qualities.
In children the difficulty often is due wholly to inattention.
Those who would cultivate the speaking voice are frequently
discouraged from lack of "ear," and when urged to follow such
exercises as have been recommended in this work, complain that they
have not the "ear" to do so. To such the author would say, "Persevere;
believe in your ear; learn to listen--_i.e._, to attend to sounds
having musical qualities."
Besides, it must not be forgotten that in addition to the
"ear"--_i.e._, the ability to appreciate relative pitch, tune, and
rhythm--there is also the entirely distinct faculty that appreciates
the _quality_ of sounds. The latter is really more important for the
speaker, who can succeed with a very moderate development of the
faculty for time and tune, but to whom the power to appreciate the
_quality_ of sounds is essential.
No doubt the first and fundamental qualities in the make-up of a
musician are the capacities to appreciate pitch and rhythm, but no
result worthy the term "artistic" can be produced in which attention
is not given to the quality of sounds, hence the technical and
artistic should be developed together. The lack of attention on the
part of a certain class of vocal teachers to the quality of the tones
produced is one of the special defects in the instruction of the day.
In the early weeks of vocal training, when the student should intone
only before his teacher, the former need not be left without musical
culture, and it is for each teacher to give the pupil that training,
at this time, which will forestall disgust and impatience at the
apparent slowness of his progress. At this time much can be done to
cultivate the ear in all its various powers.
And the author would like to put in a plea for the development of the
_appreciation of music_. Whatever difference of opinion there may be
as to choral singing, singing in schools, etc., there can be no
question that time spent in developing the appreciation of musical art
is well spent, and makes for the development and provides for the
innocent and elevating sources of enjoyment of a people. If some of
the time spent in bad piano-playing were devoted to the development of
the power to appreciate and delight in really good music, including
the sweet sounds of speech and song, the world would thereby be
greatly the gainer.
The author would impress on all students of music, and of the voice as
used in both singing and speaking, the paramount importance of
learning early to listen most attentively to others when executing
music; and, above all, to listen with the greatest care to themselves,
and never to accept any musical tone that does not fully satisfy the
ear. When one considers how much harshness is passed as singing or
speaking, by the student, even by those who pose as public singers and
speakers, one must often wonder where they keep their ears. As a
matter of fact, the ideal listeners are rare, and the critical ear,
like a sentinel on guard, is among students, really seldom to be met
with, if one extend the term "listening" to mean giving attention
equally and in the most critical way, not only to pitch and rhythm,
but also to the quality of sounds, the effects of pauses, shading,
etc., all of which are perceived through the ear.
If such listening requires, as it does, the closest attention, it must
give rise to fatigue, so that it is clear that the lengthy practices
some undertake are against the plainest laws of physiology and
psychology, even if the hearing processes alone be considered; but as
we have before shown, there are other reasons why such long-continued
exercises as some attempt are in every way unwise; in fact, in the
author's opinion, they are in the musical world a great evil under the
sun.
SUMMARY.
Hearing is finally a psychological or mental condition, a state of
consciousness, but is always associated with certain physiological
processes, which are initiated by a physical stimulus in the form of
waves in a fluid surrounding the hair-cells of the auditory end-organ;
which waves may again be traced to the movements of the bones of the
middle ear, caused by the swinging to and fro of the drum-head, owing
to vibrations of the air produced by a sounding body.
The ear is anatomically divisible into external, middle (tympanum or
drum), and internal (labyrinth). The outer ear collects the
vibrations, the middle ear conducts them, and the internal converts
them into a special physiological condition of the hair-cells and the
auditory nerve. This condition is communicated to the other links in
the anatomical hearing chain, until the highest part of the brain, or
cortex, is reached. Hearing, from the physiological point of view, is
the outcome of a series of processes having their development in a
corresponding series of centres, or collections of nerve-cells.
The perceptions associated with the ear, in the mind of the musician,
are those of the pitch, rhythm (and time), and quality of tones. The
loudness of a tone is, of course, recognized by the ear also, but this
is hardly a musical quality proper. In reality, like all that belongs
to hearing, these perceptions are the result of a series of
physiological processes, in which the ear takes an important but not
the sole or even the chief part, which is to be referred to the brain.
It is practically important to recognize that these various qualities
are distinct perceptions, and that the "ear" for relative pitch may
exist well developed and the color, clang, or quality of a tone be
imperfectly recognized, and the reverse.
The most comprehensive ear-training involves attention to each of the
above characters of tones, and then uniting them in a musically
perfect result. Lack of "ear" is often simply want of attention to the
characters of sounds.
The auditory messages are the most important of all the nervous
impulses that reach the brain, for the musician, whether appreciation
or execution be considered. They are the chief guides for the outgoing
nervous impulses to the muscles.
The good executant must, above all, be a good listener.